HE HORTICULTURIST 



OR, 



AN ATTEMPT TO TEACH THE SCIENCE AND PEACTICE OF 



STfie Culture antr JKanagemmt 



THE KITCHEN, FRUIT, AND F0ECIN6 GAEDEN 



THOSE WHO HAVE HAD NO PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE OR PRACTICE IN THESE 
DEPARTMENTS OF GARDENING, 



J. C. LOUDON, F.LS., H.S., &c., 

h 

AUTHOR OF "the VILLA GARDENER," "THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COTTAGE, FARM, AND 
VILLA ARCHITECTURE," ETC. ETC, 



ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. 



LONDON: 

W. S. ORR & CO., AMEN CORNER, AND 147, STRAND. 



MDCCCXLIX, 



LONDON: 

bbadbuhy and evans, pbinters, whitefbiabs. 




L 



PREFACE. 



The present work is the same as that published by 
Mr. Loudon^ shortly before his death, under the name of 
The Suburban Horticulturist; the title having been changed 
under the impression that it was too limited for the scope of the 
work. He considered it, as he states in his original Preface, 
" as by far the best Treatise on the culture of the Fruit and 
Kitchen Garden" which had ever ^^been produced by his 
pen." He adds that he had "bestowed more than common 
care in compiling it;" and that in so doing he had "had the 
inestimable advantage of being assisted by Mr. Thompson, the 
superintendent of the fruit and culinary departments in the 
Horticultural Society's Garden," by whom the fruits and 
culinary vegetables have either been selected, or approved of. 

Mr. Loudon also had the assistance of Mr. Ogle, gardener 
to the Earl of Abergavenny, at Bridge Castle, who prepared 
the Calendarial and General Indices; of the late Mr. Lymburn; 
and of several other practical gardeners. The important note 
at p. 706, on the subject of charcoal, and the use of rough, 
turfy, rooty soil, and on small stones in potting plants, was 
furnished by Mr, Barnes, gardener to Lady E/olle, at Bicton 
Gardens, for the Gardener's Magazine. 



ii 



PREFACE. 



The companion volume^ formerly published by Messrs. 
Longman and Co. as " The Suburban Gardener/^ is now being 
reprinted, uniform with the present work, and much improved, 
under the title of The Villa Gardener.^' This work 
embraces the whole subject of Villa and Suburban Gardens 
and pleasure grounds ; garden structures (particularly of orna- 
mental greenhouses, a number of designs for which have been 
made expressly for this edition) ; laying out flower gardens, 
and floriculture in general; and the two volumes will be found 
to contain together a complete system of garden culture and 
arrangement. 

In the present edition only such corrections and additions 
have been made as were absolutely necessary to bring the work 
up to the state of gardening knowledge at the present day. 



Bayswater, 

May 1, 1849. 



J. W. L. 



CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Names of the Fruits and Culinary Vegetables cultivated in 

British Gardens, in different languages, &c. . . xxiv 

List of Engravings ..... xxviii 

Introduction . . . . . . . 1 

PART I. 

Facts relative to Plants, the Soil, Manures, the Atmosphere, 

&c., ON WHICH Horticulture is founded . . .2 

CHAPTER I. 

Plants considered with reference to their Culture in Gardens 2 

Sect. I. — The Analogy betiveen Plants and Animals, considered with 

reference to Horticulture . . . . .2 

Sect. II. — Classification of Plants, with a View to Horticulture . 8 
22. E'xogens. 23. E'ndogens. 24. A'crogens. 28. Thalamiflorae. 
2y. Ranunculacese. 30. Crucfferse. 31. Malvaceae. 32. Geraniacese. 
33. Magnoliacese, &c. 34. Calycifloree. 35. Leguminosse. 36. Rosaceee. 
37. Umbellacese. 38. Compdsitse. 39. Ericacese. 40. Rhamnacese, 
&c. 40. Corollifl6r8e. 41. Scrophulariacese. 42. Labiacese. 43. 
Epacridacese, &c. 44. Monochlamydese. 45. Amentkceee. 46. Coni- 
ferse. 47. Plantaginese, &c. 48. E'ndogens. 49. Orchidacese. 50. 
Scitaminacese. 51. Iridacese. 52. Amaryllidkcese. 53. Liliacese. 54. 
Palmacese. 55. Graminacese. 56. Alismaceee, &c. 57. A'crogens. 
58. Filices. 59. Musci. 60. Lichenes. 61. A'lgse. 62. Fungi. 63. 
Equisetacese. 66. Evergreens. 67. Subevergreens. 68. Persistent- 
leaved plants. 69. Deciduous-leaved plants. 70. Ligneous plants. 
71. Suffruticose plants. 72. Trees. 73. Shrubs. 

Sect. Ill, — Nomenclature of Plants with a view to Horticulture . 19 
Sect. IV. — Structure of Plants with a view to Horticulture . . 20 

80. Elementary organs. 81. Compound organs. 82. The root. 83. 
The stem. 85. The bark. 86. The medullary rays or plates. 89. 
Nodi. 90. Buds. 91. Leaves. 92. Hairs. 93. Flower-buds. 94. 
Inflorescence. 95. The floral envelope. 96. The sexes of plants. 
97. The ovulum. 98. The fruit. 100. The seed. 

Sect. V. — Functions of Plants with reference to Horticulture . 24 
102. Germination. 103. Growth. 105. The stem. 109. Wood. 
111. The bark. 113. Leaves. 115. Buds. 126. The Flowers. 129. 
The sexes. 130. The fruit. 

Sect. VI. — The Geographical Distribution of Plants, and their sta- 
tions and habitations, with reference to their Culture in Gardens 87 

135. Temperature. 140. Physical circumstances. 142. Stations. 
143. Light. 144. Water. 145. Soil. 146. Soils formed by particular 
rocks. 147. Atmosphere. 148. Stations. 150. The habitations of 
plants. 



vi 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER II. 

PAGE 

Soils considered with reference to Horticulture . . .45 
Sect. 1.— Origin and Kinds of Soils . . . .46 

153. Sandy soil. 155. Clayey soil. 156. Lime. 157. Magnesia. 
158. Iron, 159. Alluvial soils. 160. Peat. 161. Organic matter. 
162. Loose naked sands or gravels. 163. Calcareous soils or gravels. 
164. Loams. 165. Loams are the best soils. 166. Texture. 167. 
Subsoils. 168. The surface of soils. 169. The plants which grow on 
a soil. 

Sect. II. — The Improvement of Soils, with a view to Horticulture . 51 
171. Draining. 172. Altering the texture and composition of soil. 
173. Changing the inclination of the surface of soils. 174. Burning of 
soils. 175. Pulverising soils. 177. Rotation of crops. 

CHAPTER III. 

Manures considered with reference to Horticulture . . 56 

Sect. I. — Organic Manures . . . . .56 

181. Fresh and tender vegetables. 182. Spent tanner's bark. 183. 
Peat soil. 184. Principal vegetable manurec. 185, Animal manures. 
186. Excrementitious manures. 189, Bones. 190. Vegeto-animai 
manures. 

Sect. II. — Inorganic Manures . . . .60 

194. Lime. 195. Mild-lime. 197. Carbonate of lime, or chalk. 
198. Marl. 199. Gypsum. 200. Sea shells. 201. The rationale of 
the action of lime. 202. The most important uses of lime. 203. Lime 
compost. 204. Saltpetre. 205. Common salt. 

Sect. III. — Mixed Manures . . . . .64 

207. Coal ashes. 208. Vegetable ashes. 209. Soot. 210. Street 
manure. 21 1. Composts. 212. Mixed manure in a liquid state. 213. 
Application of manures. 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Atmosphere considered with reference to Horticulture . 67 

Sect. I. — Heat, considered with reference to Horticulture . . 67 
219. Conduction of heat. 220. Radiation. 223. Dew, or hoar-frost. 
224. Dew is never formed upon metals. 225. The formation of dew. 
226. The effects of radiation. 227. Refrigeration. 228. Protecting 
plants. 229. The secondary effect which radiation has upon the climate. 

230. The influence of hills upon the nightly temperature of the valleys. 

231. Exalting the powers of the climate. 232. Houses for growing the 
plants of warm climates. 234. Increasing the heat of the atmosphere 
and the soil, 235. Frost. 236. Straw mats, bast mats, cloth, wool, or 
wood. 237. Wall trees. 238. Tender shrubs and trees. 239. A 
stream or river. 240. Watering. 241. Conclusions. 

Sect. II. — Atmospheric Moisture, considered with reference to Horti- 

cultu7'e ......... 76 

242. Existence of water in air. 243. Hygrometers. 244. Their utility. 
245. Evaporation. 249. Vapour. 250. Rain. 251. Moisture of the 
free atmosphere. 252. Artificial climates unnaturally dry. 253. Drain 
of moisture. 255, Dryness of the atmosphere of hothouses, 256. 
Coolers of wet porous earthenware. 257, Plants in living rooms. 



CONTENTS. 



Vli 



Sect. II. — Atmospheric Moisture, considered with reference to Horti- 
culture — continued. page 

258. Absorbent function. 259. A strict attention to the atmosphere. 
260. Tropical plants. 261. The heat of the glass of a hothouse at 
night. 262. The skilful balancing of the temperature and moisture. 

Sect. III. — The Agitation of the Atmosphere considered with refer- 
ence to Horticulture ....... 83 

263. Motion. 264. Perspiration. 265. Shelter. 266. Agitation 
of the air in plant structures. 267. To heat the air before it is admitted 
among the plants. 268. Effect on the human feelings. 269. The im- 
pression of an atmosphere saturated with moisture. 270. Mr. Penn's 
method of warming and ventilating. 271. Heating by pipes in the 
ordinary manner. 272. Greenhouses. 273. Pits and cucumber-frames. 
274. Change of air and ventilation. 275. The climate, during the 
growing season. 276. Ventilators. 277. General principle. 

Sect. IV. — Light, considered with reference to Horticulture . . 89 

279. Light follows the same laws as heat. 280. Radiation of light. 
281. Transmitted. 282. Refracted. 283. Disperses. 284. Perpen- 
dicular light. 285. The efficiency of light. 286. A due proportion 
between light and heat. 287. Absence of light. 



CHAPTER V. 

Worms, Snails, Slugs, Reptiles, Birds, &c., considered with 

reference to horticulture . . . . .93 

Sect. I. — The Earth-worm, considered with reference to Horticulture 94 

290. Lumbricus terrestris. 293. Natural uses. 294. Injury. 

Sect. II. — Snails and Slugs, considered with reference to Horticulture 96 

297. Helix asp^rsa, and H. nemoralis. 298. Slugs. 299. Snails 
and slugs. 300. Snails and slugs are hermaphrodite and oviparous. 
301. Natural uses of the snail. 302. Retires. 303. To destroy snails. 
304. To destroy slugs. 

Sect. III. — Insects, considered with reference to Horticulture . . 99 
SuBSECT. I — Of the Nature of Insects, and their Classification . . 99 
306. Insects. 307. Winged insects. 308. Insects without wings. 
309. Crabs and spiders. 310. Arrangement here given. 

SuBSECT. II. — Transformation of Insects 101 

311. Eggs. 312. Larvee. 313. Nymphse or pupse. 314. Perfect 
insect. 

SuBSECT. 111.— Food of Insects . 102 

315. Nourishment. 316. Roots, stem, and branches. 317. Fo- 
liage. 318. Flowers. 319. Number. 320. Food. 322. Transforma- 
tion. 323. Gluttonous. 324. No nourishment. 325. Eat 

SuBSECT. IV. — Distribution and Habits of Insects . , . . 1 04 
326. Distribution. 327. Water. 328. Land insects. 329. Other 
animals. 



SuBSECT. V. — Uses of Insects 105 

332. Uses. 333. Medicine. 334. Insects destroyed by other in- 
sects. 335. Consume dead animal substances. 
SuBSECT. YI.—^Means contrived by Nature to limit the Multiplication 

of insects . ,105 

336. Continued rain. 337. Late frosts. 338. Inundations. 339. 
Enemies. 340. Insectivorous Mammalia. 341. Birds. 342. Wood- 



Viii C'OJNTEISTS. 

Sect. III. — Insects, considered with reference to Horticulture — 

continued. page 
pecker race. 343. Sparrow tribe. 344. Cuckoo. 345. Crows. 346. 
Insectivorous birds, sometimes granivorous. 347. Amphibious ani- 
mals. 348. Equilibrium. 349. Beetles. 350. Ichneumdnidse. 351. 
Ants, and field or tree bugs. 

SuBSECT. VII. — Means devised by Art for arresting the Progress of 
Insects in Gardens, or of destroying them there . . . .108 

352, Insects may be destroyed in all their different stages. 353. De- 
terring the perfect insect. 354. Preventing the perfect insect from 
laying its eggs. 355. Catching the perfect insect. 356. Destroy- 
ing the perfect insect. 357. Luring away the perfect insect. 358. Col- 
lecting the eggs of insects. 359. Preventing eggs from being hatched. 
360. Collecting or destroying larvse. 361. Collecting the pup£e, or 
chrysalids. 

Sect. IV. — Amphibious Animals, considered with rpference to Hor- 
ticulture .......... 114 

Sect. V. — Birds, considered with reference to Horticulture . .115 

364. Raptores (seizers). Insessores (perchers). 367. Rasores 
(scratchers). 368. Grallatores (waders). 369. Natatores (swimmers). 
3 70. The different modes of deterring birds. 371. The destruction of birds. 

Sect. VI. — The smaller Quadrupeds, considered with reference to 
Horticulture . . . . . . . . .120 

.372. Ferse (wild beasts). 373. Glires (dormice), 374. Ungulata 
(hoofed animals). 

CHAPTER VI. 
Diseases and Accidents of Plants, considered with refer- 
ence TO Horticulture ....... 123 

375. Canker. 376. To prevent canker. 377. Cure. 378. Gum. 
379. Mildew. 380. Honey-dew. 381. Blight. 382. Flux of juices, 
383. Accidents. 384. Other plant diseases. 



PART II. 

Implements, Structures, and Operations of Horticulture . 127 
CHAPTER I. 

Implebients of Horticulture . . . . . . . 127 

385. Tools, instruments, utensils, machines, and other articles. 
Sect. I. — General Observations on the construction and uses of the 
Implements used in Horticulture . . . . . .128 

387. The mechanical principles on which they act. 388. Construc- 
tion of implements. 389. Repairs. 

Sect. II. — Tools used in Horticulture . . . . . . 129 

390. The common lever. 391. Perforators. 392. The dibber. 
393. Picks. 394. Draw-hoes. 395. Scrapers. 396. Thrust-hoes. 
397. Spades. 398. Turf-spades. 399. Turf-racers. 400. The trowel 
and the spud. 401. Transplanters. 402. Forks. 403. Rakes. 404. 
Besoms. 405. Beetles and rammers. 406. The mallet. 407. The 
garden hammer. 408. The garden pincers. 



CO JN TENTS. 



ix 



Sect. III. — Instruments used in Horticulture ... 137 
409. Garden knives. 410. Bill-knives, or hedge-bills. 411. Prun- 
ing-saws. 412. Pruning-chisels. 413. Shears. 414. The axe. 415. 
Verge shears. 416. Grass shears. 417. The short grass scythe. 418. 
Other instruments. 419. Chests of tool's, and instruments. 

Sect. IV. — Utensils used in Horticulture . . . . . 142 
420. Earthenware pots for plants. 421. Porosity. 422. Earthen- 
ware saucers for pots. 423. Rectangular boxes. 424. Wooden tubs. 
425. Watering-pots. 426. Money's inverted rose watering-pot. 427. 
Sieves and screens. 428. Carrying utensils. 429. Baskets. 430. 
Basket-making. 431. Carrying-baskets. 432. Measuring-baskets. 433. 
Baskets for growing plants. 434. Portable glass utensils. 435. Sub- 
stitute for bell glasses. 436. Powdering boxes. 437. Other utensils. 

Sect. V. — Machines used in Horticulture . . , . 1 53 
438. Wheelbarrows for gardens- 439. Rollers. 440. The watering 
engines. 441. Garden bellows. 442. The mowing-machine. 443. 
Other machines. 

Sect. VI. — Miscellaneous articles used in Horticulture . . . 158 

444. Articles for protection. 445. Mats of straw or reeds. 446. 
Wooden shutters. 447. Asphalte covers. 448. Oiled paper frames. 
449. Oiled paper caps. 450. Wicker-work hurdles. 451. Props for 
plants. 452. The durability of wooden props. 453. Garden tallies 
and labels. 454. Nails, lists, and ties. 455. The garden line. 456. 
Ladders. 457. A levelling instrument. 458. Thermometers. 459. 
A hydrometer. 460. Other articles. 



CHAPTER II. 

. Structures AND Edifices OF Horticulture .... 171 

Sect. I. — Portable^ Temporary^ and Movable Structures . . . 171 

461. Wicker-work structures. 462. Portable substitutes for hand- 
glasses. 463. Canvas coverings. 464. Canvas shades to hothouses. 
465. The common hotbed frame. 

Sect. ll.^Fixed Structures used in Horticulture . . . 176 
SuBSECT. 1. — Walls, Espalier rails, and Trellis work . . . . 176 
466. Walls. 467. Direction and material. 468. The materials of 
walls. 469. The height of garden walls. 470. The foundations. 471. 
The copings of walls. 472. On the construction of walls. 473. Trel- 
lised walls. 474. Colouring the surface of walls black. 475. Flued 
waUs, 476. Conservatory walls. 477. A substitute for a wall of brick. 
478. Espalier rails. 479. Trellises and lattice-work. 

SuBSECT. II. — Fixed Structures for growing Plants with Glass roofs . 187 
480. Plant houses. 481. Situation. 482. The form. 483. Cur- 
vilineal roofs. 484. Ridge and furrow roofs. 485. Materials. 486. 
The law of the reflection of light from glass. 487. Iron roofs. 488. 
Heat. 489. Fermenting substances. 490. Fermenting materials and 
fire heat combined. 491. Heating from vaults, or from stacks of flues. 
492. Flues. 493. The best materials for building flues. 494. The 
furnace. 495. On substitutes for smoke flues. 496. Steam. 497. 
Hot water. 498. The modes of heating by hot water. 499. A reser- 
voir of heat. 500. The pipes. 501. The situation in which the pipes 
are placed. 502. The boiler. 503. The furnace. 504. Rogers's co- 
nical boiler and hot-water appai-atus. 505. Rain-water. 506. To pre- 
vent the water in the apparatus from freezing. 507. Open gutters. 
508. Retaining heat by coverings. 509. Atmospheric moisture. 510. 
Steaming. 511. Ventilation. 512. The agitation. 513. Light. 513. 
Water. 514. The difterent kinds of fixed structures for plants. 515. 



X 



CONTENTS. 



Sect. II. — Fixed structures used in Horticulture — continued, page 
Pits. 516. The greenhouse. 517. The orangery. 518. The conser- 
vatory. 519. Botanic stoves. 520. The pine stove. 521. Forcing- 
houses. 522. A plant structure for all or any of the above purposes. 

SuBSECT. III. — Edifices used in Horticulture 224 

523. Gardener's house. 524. Journeyman gardener's lodge. 525, 
The fi*uit-room. 526. Seed-room. 527. Root-cellar, and other con- 
veniences. 528. Tool-house. 529. Open sheds. 



CHAPTER III. 

Operations of Horticulture ....... 227 

Sect. I. — Ho7'ticultural Labours . . . . . . . 227 

SuBSECT. I. — Horticultural Labours on the Soil .... 227 

531. Object of labours on the soil. 532. Marking with the garden 
line. 533. Digging. 534. Trenching. 535. Trenching ground that is 
to be cropped with culinary vegetables. 536. Operation of trenching, 
537. Forking soil. 538. Hoeing. 539. Raking. 540. RoUing. 
541. Screening or lifting. 542. Other labours on the soil. 

SuBSECT. II. — Garden Labours with Plants 235 

544. Sawing, 545. Cutting. 546. Clipping. 547. Clipping hedges. 
548. Mowing. 549. Weeding. 550. Other labours with plants. 

Sect. II. — Operations of Culture ...... 239 

SuBSECT. I. — Propagation ........ 239 

§ 1. On Propagation by Seed . . ..... 240 

552, The seed. 553. Process of germination. 554. The period neces- 
sary to complete the process of germination. 555. The quantity of 
moisture most favourable to germination. 556. The water requi- 
site to cause old seeds to germinate. 557. The depth to which a seed 
is buried in the soil. 558. The degree of heat most favourable for the 
germination of seeds. 559. The degree of heat which the seeds of plants 
will endure. 560. The degree of cold which seeds will endure. 561. 
Atmospheric air. 562. The influence of light. 563. Accelerating the 
germination of seeds. 564. Various experiments have been made 
to accelerate germination. 565. Electricity and alkalies as stimu- 
lants to vegetation. 566. The length of time during which seeds 
retain their vitality. 567. The length of time that seeds will lie in 
the ground without growing. 568. The season for sowing seeds. 
569. The mechanical process of sowing. 570. Sowing seeds in pow- 
dered charcoal. 571. Sowing seeds in snow. 572. The discoveries 
daily making in chemical science. 

§ 2. — On Propagation by Cuttings 249 

573. A cutting. 574. Selecting plants from which the cuttings are 
to be taken. 575. Selecting the shoot. 576. Shoots which have formed 
blossom-buds. 577. As general rules. 578. The time of taking oflF 
cuttings. 579. Preparation of the cutting. 580. The number of 
leaves which are left on the cutting. 581. Taking off a cutting. 
582. Treatment of cuttings from the time they are made till they are 
planted. 583. Cuttings of succulent or fleshy plants 584. The soil 
in which cuttings are planted. 585. The depth. 586. Planting 
cuttings. 587. The distance at which cuttings are planted. 588. 
After-treatment of cuttings. 589. The most proper form of bell-glass 
for covering cuttings. 590. Watering cuttings. 591. The temperature 
most suitable for cuttings. 592. Cuttings of hardy deciduous trees 
and shrubs. 593. Cuttings of hardy evergreens. 594. Cuttings of 
all the Coniferse and Taxacese. 595. Cuttings of hardy or half-hardy 
herbaceous plants. 596. Piping. 597. Cuttings of soft-wooded green- 
house plants. 598. Cuttings of hard -wooded greenhouse plants. 599. 



CONTENTS. 



xi 



Sect. II. — Operations of Culture — continued. page 
Cuttings of heath-like plants. 600. Cuttings of succulent plants. 
601. Cuttings of the underground stems and roots. 602. Striking cut- 
tings in water or moist moss. 603, Striking plants in powdered char- 
coal. 604. Propagation by joints and nodules. 605. A nodule. 606. 
Propagating by joints of the vine. 607. Propagation by bulbs and 
entire tubers and tubercles. 608. Propagating by bulb-bearing leaves. 

§ 3. — Propagation by Leaves ........ 266 

609. The principle on which the propagation of plants by leaves is 
founded. 610. The conditions generally required for rooting leaves. 
611. Rooting portions of leaves. 612. The plants usually raised by 
leaves in British gardens. 613. Propagation by the leaves of bulbs. 
614. Rooting leaves and parts of leaves in powdered charcoal. 615, 
Leaves with the buds in the axils root freely, 616. Immature fruits have 
even been made to produce plants. 617. The essence of all the differ- 
ent modes of forming plants from cuttings. 618. To induce stems or 
shoots to produce leaves or growths from which cuttings may be formed. 

§ 4. — Propagation by Layers . . . . . . . .272 

619. The theory of layering. 620. The operation of layering. 621. 
The state of the plant most favourable for layering. 622. Hardy trees 
and shrubs. 623. Shrubs with very long shoots. 624. Layering by 
insertion of the growing point. 625. Plum and paradise stocks. 626. 
Roses. 627. Hardy herbaceous plants. 628. Shrubby plants in pots 
kept under glass. 629. The soil in which plants are layered. 630. 
Hooked pegs. 631. Th* time which layers require to produce roots. 

§ 5. — Propagation by Suckers, Slips, Offsets, Runners, and Simple 

Division 277 

632. A sucker. 633. Stem suckers or slips. 634. Offsets. 635. 
Runners or stolones. 636. Simple division, 

§ 6. — Propagation by grafting, inarching, and budding . . . 280 

637. The term graft. 638. The origin of grafting. 639. The 
phenomena of grafting. 640. The condition. 641. Anatomical 
analogy. 642. Physiological analogy. 643. The modifications effected 
by the graft. 644. The influence of the scion on the stock. 645. The 
uses of grafting. 646. The different kinds of grafting, 647. The ma- 
terials used in grafting. 648. Grafting-clay. 649. Grafting-wax. 

§ 7. — Grafting by detached Scions ....... 287 

651. Splice-grafting. 652. Splice-grafting the peach. 653. Cleft- 
grafting. 654. Cleft- grafting the vine. 655. Saddle-grafting. 656. 
Side-grafting. 657. Wedge-grafting. 658. Grafting the mistletoe. 
659. Root-grafting. 660. Herbaceous grafting. 661. Grafting the 
pine and fir tribe. 662, Grafting the tree-peony. 663, Grafting on 
fleshy roots. 664. Herbaceous wedge-grafting. 665. Herbaceous 
grafting for shoots with opposite leaves. 666. Herbaceous grafting 
annual or perennial plants. 667. Grafting herbaceous shoots of succu- 
lents. 668. Grafting the melon. 669. The greffe etouffee. 

§ 8. — Grafting by approach or inarching ...... 297 

671. Side inarching. 672, Terminal inarching. 673, Inarching 
with partially-nourished scions. 

§ 9. — Budding or grafting by detached buds 300 

675. The uses of budding. 676. Performing the operation. 677. 
Prepared wax for budding. 678. Plastic wax. 679. Shield-budding 
in the end of summer. 680. Shield- budding in June. 681. Shield- 
budding in spring. 682. Shield-budding without a bud or eye. 683. 
Budding with a circular shield. 684. Budding with a shield stamped 
out by a punch. 685. Budding with the shield reversed. 686. Bud- 
ding with the eye turned downwards. 687. Shield-budding for resinous 
trees. 688. Budding with the shield covered. 689> Budding with a 



xii 



CONTENTS. 



Sect. II. — Operations of Culture — continued. p^^jb, 

square shield. 690. Shield-budding with a terminal bud. 691. Flute- 
budding, or tube-budding. 692. Flute-budding in spring. 693. Ter- 
minal flute -budding. 694. Flute-budding with strips of bark, 695. 
Annular budding. 696. The after-care of grafts by budding. 

SUBSECT. II. — Rearing 308 

§ 1. — Transplanting and Planting 309 

698. To transplant. 699. The uses of transplanting. 700. The 
theory of transplanting. 701. Seedlings. 702. Deciduous trees and 
shrubs, and perennial herbaceous plants. 703.'Whether deciduous trees 
and shrubs ought to be transplanted in autumn or spring. 704. Different 
modes of transplanting large trees and shrubs. 705. Transplanting with 
large balls of earth. 706. Transplanting by shortening the roots, so 
as to induce them to throw out fibres. 707. Sir Henry Steuart's prac- 
tice in transplanting large trees. 708. Pulling down the tree and rais- 
ing it out of the pit. 709. Transporting and replanting the tree. 
710. Transplanting by shortening the roots, without permitting them 
to throw out fibres at their extremities. 711 . Transplanting by thin- 
ning and pruning the roots and branches. 712. The removal of large 
trees and shrubs. 713, Transplanting by heading-in, that is, cutting 
in the branches. 714. The staking or supporting of newly-trans- 
planted trees, and the protection of their stems from cattle. 715. The 
machinery for moving large trees. 716. Transplanting evergreens. 
717. The best season for transplanting evergreens. 718. The drying 
of the roots of evergreens. 719. Planting evergreens. 720. Trans- 
planting evergreens with balls. 721. The machines and implements 
for transplanting large shrubs with balls. 722. Packing evergreens. 
723. Methods of planting small plants. 724. Planting with the dibber. 
725. Planting with the trowel. 726. Planting in drills. 727. Laying 
in by the heels. 728. Trench-planting. 729. Slit-planting. 730. Hole- 
planting. 731. Planting in pits. 732. Hole-planting, and fixing with 
water. 733. Planting in puddle. 734. Planting out plants which have 
been grown in pots. 735. Watering, mulching, and staking newly- 
planted plants. 736. Taking up previously to planting. 737. As a 
summary of general rules for planting. 

§ 2. — Potting and Repotting or Shifting .... 329 

738. To pot a plant. 739. The main object of growing plants in pots. 
740. The disadvantages of growing plants in pots. 741. Potting. 742. 
The same soil which is suitable for the open garden is not always suitable 
for using in pots. 743. Bottom drainage. 744. The mode of sowing or 
planting in a pot. 745. Transplanting from the free soil into a pot or 
box. 746. Care of newly potted or shifted plants. 747. Shifting or re- 
potting. 748. Seasons and times for potting and shifting. 749. The most 
difficult plants to manage in pots. 750. Growing hardy plants in pots. 

§ Z.— Pruning . . . . . . . 335 

752. The specific principles on which pruning is founded, and 
its general effects. 753. Forest-trees. 754. Ornamental trees. 
755. Ornamental shrubs. 756. Fruit-trees and shrubs. 757. 
Herbaceous plants. 758. Close pruning. 759. Shortening-in. 760. 
Fore-shortening. 761. Spurring-in. 762. Heading-in. 763. Lopping. 
764. Close lopping. 765. Snag-lopping. 766. Lopping-in. 767. 
Cutting down. 768. Stopping and pinching out. 769. Disbarking. 
770. Ringing. 771. Disbudding. 772. Disleafing. 773. Slitting and 
splitting. 774. Bruising and tearing. 775. Clipping. 776. Root- 
pruning. 777. Girdling and felling. 778. The girdling machine. 
779. The seasons for pruning. 

§ 4:.— Thinning . . . . . . 349 

781. Seedling crops in gardens. 782. Thinning plantations. 783. 
Thinning ornamental plantations. 

Training . . . . . . .351 



CONTENTS. 



xiii 



Sect. II. — Ope>'ations of Culture — Training — continued. page 
784. To train. 785. The principles. 786. Manual operations of 
training. 787. Training herbaceous plants. 788. Herbaceous and 
shrubby plants in pots. 789. Training hardy flowering shrubs in the 
open ground. 790. Evergreen shrubs. 791. Training fruit-trees. 
792. The different modes of training bushes and trees in the open 
garden. 793. The different modes of training fruit-trees against walls 
or espaliers. 794. Dwarfs in the open garden. 795. Spiral cylinders. 
796, Standards in the open garden. 797. The spurring-in system. 
798. Conical standards. 799. Hayward's quenouille- training. 800. 
Fan-training. 801. Fan-training in the common English manner. 
802. Fan-training according to Seymour's mode. 803. Fan-training 
in the wavy or curvilinear manner. 804. Wavy fan-training with two 
stems. 805. "Wavy fan-training with a single stem. 806. Horizontal 
training. 807. Fan-training and horizontal training combined. 808. 
Perpendicular training. 809. Instruments and materials. 810. Com- 
parative view of the different modes of training. 811. A standard tree. 

§ 6 Weeding . ...... 378 

813. A weed. 814. Annual weeds. 815. Perennial weeds. 816. 
Weeds in gravel-walks. 817. Weeds in lawns or on grass-walks. 
818. Weeds in shrubberies and plantations. 819. Weeds in woods and 
park scenery. 820. Weeding ponds, rivers, and artificial waters. 
§ 1 .— Watering . . . . . . .382 

821. Water. 822. The soecific purposes for which water is used in 
horticulture. 823. The ordinary sources from which water is obtained 
in gardens. 824. The distribution of water. 825. The ordinary mode 
of giving water to plants. 826. When it is proper to water, and 
how much water to give. 827. Whether plants should be watered over 
the leaves, or only over the soil in which they grow. 828. Watering 
plants in pots. 829. Aquatic and marsh plants. 830. Watering with 
liquid manure. 831. To economise the water given to plants. 
§ 8. — Stirring the soil and manuring . . . . 388 

§ ^.—Blanching . . . . . . . 389 

§ 10. — Protection from atmospherical injuries . . . 389 

835. The object of shading. 836. Sheltering from wind. 837. The 
principles of protecting from cold. 838. Protecting from rain. 
§ 11. — Accelerating vegetation ..... 391 

839. Acceleration. 840. Artificial heat. 841. Hotbeds. 842. Pre- 
paration of materials for hotbeds. 843. M'Phail's hotbed or pit. 
844. The formation of common hotbeds. 845. Ashes, tan, and leaves. 
846. The nightly covering to hotbeds and pits. 847. Management of 
hotbeds and pits heated by dung. 

§ 12. — Retarding vegetation 395 

§ 13. — Resting vegetation 396 

849. In the natural state of vegetation. 850. Nightly temperature. 

851. What the night temperature of a hotbed or hothouse ought to be. 

852. Double glass roofs. 853. The annual resting of plants. 854. The 
natural period of rest in hardy plants. 855. The advantages of putting 
trees that are to be forced into a state of rest. 

§ 14. — Operations of gathering, preserving, keepi7ig, and packing . 401 
856. Gathering. 857. Preserving. 858. Keeping fruits. 859. Packing 

and transporting plants and seeds. 860. Packing fruits and flowers. 

§ 15. — Selecting and improving plants in culture .... 403 
862. Cultivation. 863. Selection. 864. Selecting from accidental 

variations. 865. Cross-breeding. 866. Precautions against promiscuous 

fecundation. 867. Fixing and rendering permanent the variety produced. 

868. The production of double flowers. 869. Duration of varieties. 

§ 16. — Operations of order and keeping . . . . . . 409 

871. Order. 872. Keeping. 873. Rules. 



XIV 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PAGK 

Operations of Horticultural Design and Taste . . .411 

875. Taking plans. 876. Carrying plans into execution. 877. Re- 
ducing a surface to a level, or to a uniform slope. 

CHAPTER V. 

Operations of General Management . . . . . . 412 

879. General management of a garden. 880. On undertaking the 
charge of a garden. 881. The books to be kept by a gardener. 882. 
The ordering of seeds and plants. 883. The management of men and 
the distribution of work. 884. The wages of a gardener. 



PART III. 

The Culture of the Kitchen, Fruit, and Forcing Garden . 416 

CHAPTER I. 

Laying out and Planting the Kitchen and Fruit Garden . 416 
Sect. I. — Laying out the Kitchen Garden . . . . . 416 
885. The situation and general management of the kitchen garden. 
886. Trenching and levelling. 

Sect. II. — The Distribution of Fruit-trees in a Kitchen Garden . 420 
SuBSECT. I. — Wall-fruit Trees ........ 422 

888. Select list of fruit-trees adapted for walls of different aspects. 890. 
The distance. 891. For low walls. 892, Training. 893. Planting. 
SuBSECT. II. — Fruit-trees for Espaliers and Dwarfs .... 424 

894. Espaliers. 895. Dwarfs or standards trained in the conical 
manner. 896. Espalier-rails. 897. A wooden espalier rail. 898. Es- 
palier rails of cast iron. 899. Espalier rails of wrought iron. 900. 
Dwarfs. 901. Select list. 902. The plants. 903. Standard fruit-trees. 

SuBSECT. III. — Fruit Shrubs 429 

904. Gooseberries and currants. 905. Select list. 906. Plants. 
SuBSECT. IV. — Selection of Fruit-trees adapted for an Orchard . . 430 
907. A plantation or orchard. 908. The plants. 909. Select list. 
910. Training. 911. Culture of the soil. 

CHAPTER II. 

Cropping and General Management of a Kitchen Garden . 434 
Sect. I. — Cropping ......... 434 

913. The herbaceous vegetables grown in kitchen gardens. 914. Gene- 
ral proportions of crops. 916. The quantity of seed. 

Sect. II. — Rotation of Crops ....... 435 

918. Successional cropping. 919. The object to be obtained by a 
system of cropping. 920. Successional cropping. 921. The simulta- 
neous mode of cropping. 922. Modes of cropping. 923. Successional 
and simultaneous cropping combined. 924. Order of rotation. 925. 
Secondary crops. 926. Times of sowing and planting. 

Sect. III. — Planting^ Soicing^ Cultivating^ and Managing . . 439 

928. Management of the fruit-tree borders. 929. Management of 
the culinary crops. 930. Gathering, storing, and keeping of fruit. 
931. Management of the fruit-room. 



CONTENTS. 



XV 



CHAPTER III. 



The Forcing Department ....... 442 

Sect. I. — Culture of the Pine-apple^ and Management of the Pinery 443 

SuBSECT. I. — Natural data on which the Culture of the Pine-apple is 

founded 443 

932. The conclusions to be drawn from these data. 933. Soil. 934. 
Water. 

SuBSECT. IL — Culture of the Pine-apple in British Gardens . . 444 



935. Construction of the pit. 936. Kinds grown. 937. Water- 
ing and sprinkling. 938. Worms. 939. Heat, air, and moisture. 941. 
Jamaica pines. 942. Starting pine plants into fruit. 943. Air. 
944. Propagation. 945. Bottom-heat. 946. As the season declines, the 
temperature is lowered. 947. Culture of the queen pine, so as to have 
the fruit ripe in February and March. 948. Sizes of the pots in which 
the plants are grown. 949. Culture of queen pines for early fruit. 
950. Growing the pine-apple in beds of soil. 951. Fruiting suckers 
on the stools. 952. To grow the pine-apple to an extraordinary size. 
953. Insects. 

Sect. II. — Culture of the Grape Vine under Glass and on Walls . 452 

SuBSECT. I. — Natural data on which the Culture of the Grape Vine is 

founded 452 

954. The grape vine. 955. With respect to atmospheric moisture. 
956. Soil. 957. Form of house. 

Sttbsect. II. — Propagation, Pruning, and Training the Vine . .454 
958. Propagation. 959. Pruning. 960. Training. 961. Essential 
points. 962. The long, or the renewal system of pruning. 963. The 
spurring-in method of pruning. 964. The fan-system of vine-training. 
965. The Thomery system. 

SuBSECT. III. — Culture of the Grape Vine under Glass . . . . 457 
966. Vine border. 967. Planting. 968. To raise the plants. 969. 
When planted in the vinery. 970. The sorts. 971. A diary of the 
course of culture applied to the grape vines at Oakhill. 972. Growing 
two or three crops of grapes in one house. 973. Growing three crops 
of grapes in one house together with pines. 974. Another mode of 
growing three crops of grapes in one house. 975. Keeping grapes. 

SuBSECT. IV. — Growing the Grape on open walls, and on cottages . 464 
976. Fruit-bearing powers of the vine. 977. Aspect. 978. Soil. 
979. Manure. 980. Walls. 981. Propagation. 982. Pruning. 983. 
Training. 984. Mr. Hoare's mode of training. 985. Training the 
vine on the walls of cottages. 986. The appearance of a portion of the 
front of a house covered with vines in Mr. Hoare's manner. 987. The 
walls and roof of a cottage of the most irregular architecture. 988. 
Kinds of g^rapes most suitable for the open wall or for cottages. 

SuBSECT. V. — Insects, Diseases, ^c, of the Grape Vine .... 472 
Sect. III. — Culture of the Peach and Nectarine under Glass . . 472 
SuBSECT. I. — Natural data on which the Culture of the Peach is founded. 472 

989. The peach. 990. Natural and experimental data. 
SuBSECT. II. — Culture of the Peach under Glass in British Gardens . 474 
991. Construction of the peach-house. 992. Peaches and nectarines 
best adapted for forcing. 993. Plants and mode of training. 994. 
Pruning. 995. The summer pruning, 996. The fruit is thinned before 
and after the stoning season. 997. The peach border. 998. General 
treatment. 999. Insects and diseases. 1000. Peaches may be forced 
in pots. 



xvi 



CONTENTS. 



Sect. III. — Culture of the Peach and Nectarine under Glass- 
continued. PAGE 

SuBSECT. Ill The details of a routine course of forcing the Peach 

for two years 477 

1001. Soil. 1002. Border. 1003. Planting. 1004. Forcing in the 
first season. 1005. Watering and fumigating. 1006. Summer 
pruning. 1007. Routine treatment during the first season. 1008. 
Winter treatment. 1009. Forcing in the second season. 1010. 
Applying a preventive composition. 1011. Forcing in February. 
1012. March. 1013. Thinning the shoots and fruit. 1014. Stoning. 
1015. Watering. 1016. Ripening. 1017. Duration of the crop. 

Sect. IV. — Culture of the Cherry under Glass .... 480 
SuBSECT. I. — Natural Data for the Culture of the Cherry . . . 480 
SuBSECT. II. — The practice of Cherry Forcing in British Gardens . . 480 
1019. The cherry-house. 1020. Kinds of cherries for forcing, pot- 
ting the plants, &c. 1021. Time of commencing to force. 1022. 
Progress. 1023. Insects. 1024. Thinning and stoning, &c. 1025. 
Treatment of the plants in pots after they are taken out of the house. 
1026. To have a constant succession of cherries. 1027. Forcing cher- 
ries by a temporary structure. 1028. German practice. 

Sect. V. — Culture of the Fig under Glass . .... 485 
SuBSECT. I. — Natural data on which the Culture of the Fig is founded . 485 
SuBSECT. II. — The forcing of the Fig as practised in British Gardens . 485 
1031. The construction of the fig-house. 1032. The varieties best 
adapted for forcing. 1033. The time of beginning to force. 1034. 
The forcing of fig-trees in pots. 1035. Winter treatment. 

Sect. VI. — On forcing the Plum, Apricot, Gooseberry, and other 



Fruit-trees, and Fruit-shrubs ...... 487 

^EGT.VU.— Culture of the Melon . . . . . . 487 

SuBSECT. I Natural and experimental data on which the Culture of the 

Melon is founded 487 



SuBSECT. II. — Culture of the Melon as practised in British Gardens . 490 
1038. The sorts. 1039. Very early melons. 1040. Seedlings. 1041. 
Cuttings. 1042. Planting out. 1043. General treatment. 1044. 
Persian melons. 1045. Culture of the melon in the open air. 1046. 
Insects and diseases. 1047. The red spider and the damp. 

Sect. VIII. — -Culture of the Cucumber ..... 494 
SuBSECT. I. — Data on which the Culture of the Cucumber is founded . . 494 
SuBSECT. II. — Culture of the Cucumber in a Dung -bed . . . 496 
1051. The formation of a dung-bed. 1052. The seed-bed, 1053. 
Soil. 1054. Seeds and treatment of the young plants. 1055. Raising 
plants from cuttings. 1056. Fruiting-bed. 1057. Ridging out the 
plants. 1058. A temporary lining. 1059. Air. 1060. Earthing-up. 
1061. Linings of cucumber beds and their management. 1062. 
Water. 1063. Stopping. 1064. Moulding up. 1065. The covering 
at night. 1066. Setting or impregnating the fruit. 1067. To procure 
seed. 1068. Inlaying, or earthing in, the vines of the cucumber. 
1069. When extraordinary fine fruit is desired, 

SuBSECT. III. — Culture of the Cticumber in pits heated by dung linings^ 

flues, or hot water 503 

1070. Of pits heated wholly or in part by dung linings. 1071. Pits 
to be heated by flues or hot water. 1072. A pit to be heated by a flue. 



CONTENTS. 



XVU 



Sect. VIII. — Culture of the Cucumber — continued. ^^"^ 
1073. A pit to be heated by hot water, and by a flue from the fire which 
heats the boiler, 1074, Corbett's cucumber pit, 1075, Green's 
cucumber pit, 1076, The advantages gained by this pit, 1078, The 
culture of the cucumber in pots. 1079. Construction of the cucumber 
house. 1080. Treatment of the plants. 
SuBSECT, IV, — Culture and trealment of the Cucumber for Prize Ex- 
hibitions 510 

SuBSECT. V. — Cultivation of the Cucumber in the open air . . . 510 
1082. Cucumbers grown in the open air are commonly protected by 
hand or bell glasses. 1083. Increasing the atmospheric heat of the 
soil. 1084. Cucumbers against a south wall. 1085. Growing 
cucumbei-s on balconies, or in court-yards. 1086". Watering cucumbers 
in the open garden. 1087. Cucumber and melon culture compared. 

Sect. IX. — Culture of the Banana . . . . . . ol2 

Sect. X. — Forcing the Strawbei'vy . . . . . . 514 

1090. Data on which the forcing of the strawberry is founded. 1091. 
Routine practice in forcing Keen's seedling, and the old scarlet or 
Virginian strawberries. 1092. How grown and protected before forcing. 
1093. After forcing. 1094. The Alpine strawberry. 

Sect. XI. — Forcing the Asparagus^ Sea Kale^ Rhubarb^ Chicory^ 

and other fleshy roots . . . . . . .516 

Sect. XII. — Forcing the common Potato^ the sweet Potato.^ and 

other tubers . . . . . . . . .519 

1100. The common potato. 1101. A substitute for new potatoes. 
1102. The sweet potato. 1103. O'xalis Deppei. 

Sect. XIII. — Fo^'cing Kidney Beans and Peas . . . . 520 

Sect. XIV. — Forcing Salads, Pot-herbs, Sweet-herbs, and other 

culinai^y Plants ........ 521 

1106. Lettuce, chicory, radish, cress, mustard, rape, parsley, chervil, 
carrot, turnip, onion, and similar plants. 1107. Small salading. 
1108. Radish. 1109. To produce full-grown cabbage-lettuces through- 
out the winter. 1110. Perennial pot and sweet herbs. 



Sect. XV. — Forcing the Mushroom . . . . . . 523 

SuBSECT. I. — Data on which the Culture and Forcing of the Mushroom 

is founded ........... 523 

SuBSECT. II. — Forcing the Mushroom in British Gardens . . . 524 
1112. The ordinary form of a mushroom-house. 1113. The spawn. 
1114. To grow the mushroom. 1115. Growing the mushroom in a 
cellar. 1116. Management of the bed. 1117. Mushroom spawn. 



1118. Gathering mushrooms. 1119. The duration of a crop of 
mushrooms. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Catalogue of Fruits . . . . . , . . 526 
1120. The fruits usually cultivated in British gardens. 1121. Ar- 
ranged botanically. 1122. Geographically and horticulturally. 1123. 
Suitable for climates analogous to that of Britain. 1124. For climates 
analogous to that of the South of France. 1125. For climates sub- 
tropical, or tropical. 

Sect. I. — Hardy or Orchard Fruits 528 

SuBSECT. I. — The Apple 528 

1128. The uses of the apple. 1129. Properties of a good apple. 

b 



xviii 



CONTENTS. 



Sect. I. — Hardy or Orchard Fruits — The Apple — continued. p-^oe 
1130. Varieties. 1131 Early dessert apples. 1132. Dessert apples 
to succeed early kinds. 1133. Early kitchen apples. 1134. Kitchen 
apples for winter and spring use. 1135. Cider apples. 1136. Dessert 
apples which may be used as kitchen apples. 1137. Kitchen apples 
which may be used as dessert apples. -1 138. Apples for cottage gardens, 
where the soil and situation are favourable, and which may be used either 
for the table or the kitchen. 1139. Apples for training against the 
walls or on the roofs of cottages, or on the walls of cottage gardens. 

1 140. Apples for cottage gardens in situations liable to spring frosts. 

1141. Apples for a cottage garden in an unfavourable climate, 1142. 
Apples adapted for walls of different aspects. 1143. Apples adapted 
for espaliers, dwarfs, or conical standards. 1144. Apples suitable for 
an orchard. 1145. Apples remarkable for the form of the tree, or the 
beauty of the blossoms or fruit. 1146. General principles of selecting 
varieties of the apple. 1147. Propagation. 1148. Soil and situation. 
1149. Mode of bearing, pruning, and training. 1150. Spurring-in 
pruning. 1151. Pruning with reference to the entire tree. 1 1 52. Ga- 
thering and keeping, 1153. Diseases, insects, casualties, &c. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Pear 545 

1155. Uses. ] 156. Properties of a good pear. 1157. The varieties. 
1158. Dessert pears arranged in the order of their ripening and keep- 
ing. 1159. Kitchen pears arranged in the oi'der of their ripening and 
keeping. 1160. Perry pears arranged in the order of their merits. 
1161. A list of pears adapted for walls of different aspects. 1162. A 
list of pears for espaliers, dwarfs, or standards, trained conically or 
spurred-in. 1163. A list of pears adapted for an orchard, or being 
grown as standards. 1164. A selection of Pears where the space is 
very limited, or for cottage gardens. 1165. Pear-trees of forms adapted 
for landscape scenery. 1166. The propagation, nursery, culture, and 
choice of plants. 1167. Soil, situation, and final planting. 1168. The 
mode of bearing, pruning, and training. 1 169. Gathering and keeping, . 
1170. The diseases, insects, and casualties. 

SuBSECT. in. — The Quince 551 

1172. Varieties. 1173. Propagation, soil, and other points of cul- 
ture and management. 

SuBSECT. TV.^The Medlar . 552 

1175. Varieties. 1176. Propagation, soil, and other points of cul- 
ture and management. 

SuBSECT. V. — The True Service 552 

1177. The true service. 1178. Pyrus t6rminalis. 1179. Pyrus A'ria 
var. erotica. 

SuBSECT. Yl.— The Cherry 553 

1181. Use. 1183. Varieties. 1183. Dessert cherries, arranged in 
the order of their ripening. 1184. Cherries for preserving. 1185. 
Cherries adapted for being trained against walls of different aspects. 
1186. Cherries adapted for espaliers or dwarfs. 1187. Cherries adapted 
for being grown as standards. 1188. Cherries for a cottage garden. 
1189. Cherries for the north of Scotland. 1190. Propagation, nursery 
culture, and choice of plants. 1191. Soil, situation, and final planting, 
1192. Mode of bearing, pruning, and training. 1193. Gathering and 
keeping. 1194. Diseases, insects, casualties, &c. 1195. A Dutch 
cherry garden. 

SuBSECT, Yll.— The Plum . . . , . . . . 558 

1197. Use. 1198. Varieties. 1199. Dessert plums arranged in the 
order of their ripening. 1200. Kitchen plums arranged in the order of 
their ripening. 1201. A selection of plums for walls of different aspects, 
espaliers and dwarfs, and for an orchard. 1202. Dessert and kitchen 
plums for a garden of limited extent. 1203. A selection of dessert 



CONTENTS. 



xix 



Sect. I. — Hardy or Orchard Fruits — The Plum — continued. ^^■f^'^- 
plums for a very small garden. 1204. Dessert and kitchen plums for 
a cottage garden. 1205. Propagation, nursery culture, and choice of 
plants. 1206. Soil, situation, and final planting. 1207. Mode of 
bearing, pruning, and training. 1208. Gathering, keeping, packing, &c. 
1209. Insects, diseases, casualties, &c. 1210. The plum may be forced. 

SuBSECT. VIIT — The Gooseberry 560 

1212. Use. 1213. Varieties. 1214. A selection of gooseberries for 
a suburban garden. 1215. The largest prize gooseberries. 1216. 
Gooseberries for a cottage garden. 1217. Large Lancashire goose- 
berries adapted for a cottage garden. 1218. Propagation, nursery cul- 
ture, and choice of plants. 1219. Soil, situation, and final planting. 
1220, Mode of bearing, pruning, and training, 1221, The growers of 
gooseberries for prizes, 1222. Gathering and keeping. 1223. Insects, 
diseases, and casualties. 1224, Forcing. 

SuBSECT. IX. — The Red and White Currant 566 

1226. Use. 1227. Varieties. 1228. The propagation and future 
treatment. 

SuBSECT, X. — The Black Currant 567 

SuBSECT. XI. — The Raspberry 567 

1231. Varieties. 1232. Propagation, soil, and other points of cul- 
ture. 1233. Gathering. 1234. Forcing. 1235. The cloudberry. 
1236. The Nootka raspberry. 

SuBSECT. XII, — The Strawberry 570 

1238, Use. 1239. Varieties. 1240. Selection of strawberries from 
the above classes in the order of their ripening. 1241. A selection for 
a small garden. 1242, A selection for a cottage garden. 1243. A 
selection for a confined, shady situation. 1244. Propagation, soil, &c. 
1245, Culture. 1246. Culture in rows. 1247. Culture in beds. 
1248. Mulching and watering. 1249. Culture of particular kinds, 
1250. Retarding a crop, 1251. Accelerating a crop in the open garden. 
1252. Gathering. 1253. Forcing. 

SuBSECT. XIII The Cranberry 576 

SuBSECT. XIV, — The Mulberry 577 

SuBSECT. XV.— The Walnut . . . . . . . .578 

1257. The Walnut. 1258. Pacane-nut hickory, and the shell-bark 
hickory. 

SuBSECT. XVI The Sweet Chestnut 578 

SuBSECT. XYll.— The Filbert 579 

SuBSECT. XVIII. — The Berberry, Elderberry, Cornelian Cherry, Buf- 
falo-berry, and Winter Cherry 580 

1261. The berberry, 1262. The Magellan sweet berberry. 1263. The 
Nepal berberry. 1264. The alder-tree. 1265, The cornelian cherry; 
1266. The buffalo berry. 1267. The winter cherry 

Sect. II. — Half-hardy or Wall-fruits . . . . .582 

SuBSECT. I — The Grape 582 

1270. A selection of grapes for early forcing. 1271. The selection of 
grapes grown at Hungerton Hall. 1272. A selection of grapes of va- 
rious flavoui-s and colours. 1273. Grapes for a late crop in a vinery. 
1274. Grapes for a house in which pines are grown. 1275, Grapes 
with small leaves, and hardy ; adapted for the rafters of a greenhouse. 
1276. Grapes with small leaves, less hardy than the preceding selec- 
tion, and fit for the rafters of a plant or stove. 1277. Grapes with 
small bunches and berries, adapted for being grown in pots or boxes. 
1278. Grapes for a cottage garden where the climate is not very favour- 

62 



XX 



CONTENTS. 



Sect. II. — Half-hardy or Wall-fruits — The Grape — continued. ^aqb 
able. 1279. Grapes suitable for the open wall, or for cottages. 1280. 
Propagation. 1281. Culture, pruning, training, &c. 1282. Pruning. 
1283. Thinning. 1284. Setting the blossom. 1285. Growing grapes 
in pots. 1286. General treatment of the vine. 1287. Growing grapes 
for wine-making. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Peach and Nectarine ...... 586 

1289. Use. 1290. Properties of a good peach or nectarine. 1291. 
Varieties. 1292. Select peaches arranged in the order of their ripening. 
1293. Select nectarines arranged in the order of their ripening. 1294. 
Peaches and nectarines for a wall to come in, in succession. 1295. 
Peaches for a cold late situation. 1296. A selection of peaches for 
forcing. 1297. Propagation and nursery culture. 1298. So'il, situa- 
tion, &c. 1299. Mode of bearing, pruning, &c. 1300. Mr. Callow's 
mode of training. 1301. Shortening the young wood of the peach. 
1302. In summer-pruning the peach. 1303. Thinning the fruit. 1304. 
Treatment of the peach border. 1305. Over-luxuriant peach trees. 
1306. Old decaying peach trees. 1307. Protecting peach trees during 
winter and spring. 1308. Growing the peach on a flued wall. 1309. 
The acceleration of the ripening of a crop of peaches. 1310. Gathering. 
1311. Diseases, insects, &c. 1312. The essential points of peach cul- 
ture. 1313. Forcing the peach and nectarine. 

SuBSECT. 111.— The Almond . 595 

SuBSECT. IV. — The Apricot 596 

1316. Varieties. 1317. Apricots for walls of different aspects. 

1318. Apricots for the walls of a cottage. 1319. Propagation, nursery 

culture, &c. 1320. Final planting, pruning, &c. 

SuBSECT. Y.—The Fig ... 598 

1 322. Selections of the best figs for forcing, and for walls of different 
aspects. 1323. Propagation, culture, &c. 

SuBSECT. VI. — The Pomegranate 599 

Sub SECT. VII. — The Peruvian Cherry 600 

Sect. III. — Tropical or Sub-tropical Fruits .... 600 

SuBSECT. I. — The Pine-Apple 600 

1328. Pines cultivated chiefly for their high flavour. 1329. Pines 
cultivated chiefly for their large size. 1330. Culture. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Banana 601 

SuBSECT. III.— The Melon 602 

1334. Melons with red flesh. 1335. Melons with green flesh. 1336. 
Persian melons. 1337. Winter melons. 1338. Water melons. 

SuBSECT. lY.— The Cucumber 603 

SuBSECT. V. — The Pumpkin and Gourd , 604 

SuBSECT. VI. — The Tomato, the Egg-plant, and the Capsicum . . 606 

SuBSECT. VII. — The Orange Family 608 

1347. The common orange. 1348. Bigarade, Seville, or bitter orange. 

1349. Thebergamot orange. 1350. The lime. 1351. The shaddock. 

1352. The sweet lemon. 1353. The true lemon. 1354. The citron. 

1355. Propagation and culture. 

SuBSECT. VIII — The Guana, Lo-quat, Granadilla, and other fruit.<! 

little known in British Gardens 611 

1356. The guava. 1357. The lo-quat. 1358. The granadilla. 1359. 
The Indian fig. 1360. The pawpaw. 1361 . The olive. 1362. Other 
exotic fruits. 

Sdbsect. IX. — Remarks applicable to Fruit-trees, and Fruit-bearing 

Plants generally 613 



CONTENTS. 



xxi 



CHAPTER V. 

PAOJS 

CaTwALogue of Culinary Vegetables ..... 616 
1364. The culinary vegetables usually cultivated in British gardens. 
1365. Classed Horticulturally and Economically. 1366. Propagation 
and seed-sowing. 1367. The selection of varieties. 1368. Whether 
a crop which is raised from seed ought to be sown where it is finally to 
remain, or sown in a seed-bed and transplanted. 1369. Soils. 1370. 
Proportion of each crop. 

Sect. I. — Brassicaceous Esculents^ or the Cabbage Tribe . . 622 
1372. The white cabbage. 1373. The couve tronchuda. 1374. 
Cabbage coleworts. 1375. The red cabbage. 1376. The savoy. 1377. 
Brussels sprouts. 1378. Borecole. 1379. Cauliflower. 1380. Broc- 
coli. 1381. The turnip cabbage. 1382. The Chinese cabbage. 1383. 
General culture and management of the cabbage tribe. 1384. Substi- 
tutes for the cabbage tribe. 

Sect. II. — Leguminaceous Esculents ..... 680 

SuBSECT. I. — The Pea 630 

1386 Varieties. 1387. Culture. 1388. The earliest crops. 1389. 
Portable walls for early crops of peas, &c. 1390. The summer and 
autumn crops. 1391. Diseases, vermin, &c. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Bean 634 

SuBSECT. III. — The Kidney-bean 635 

1396. Varieties. 1397. Culture of the dwarf sorts. 1398. Culture 

of the twining sorts. 1399. Gathering. 1400. The lima bean, 1401. 

The common lentil. 1402. The white lupin. 1403. Substitutes. 

Sect. III. — Radicaceous Esculents . . . . . 638 

SuBSECT. I. — The Potato 638 

1406. Varieties. 1407. Culture. 1408. For an early crop. 1409. 
The Lancashire practice. 1410. Gathering. 1411. Messrs. Chap- 
man's new spring potatoes. 1412. For a main or late crop. 1413. 
Young potatoes during winter. 1414. Selecting and preparing the 
sets. 1415. Greening potatoes for sets. 1416. Taking up and pre- 
serving a crop. 1417. Diseases, insects, &c. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Jerusalem Artichoke 646 

SuBSECT. III. — The Turnip 647 

1420. Varieties. 1421, Culture. 1422. In gathering. 1423. Pre- 
serving turnips through the winter. 1424. To save seed. 1425. Dis- 
eases, insects, &c. 1426. Forcing the turnip. 

SuBSECT. IV. — The Carrot 649 

1428. Varieties. 1429. Culture. 1430. Gathering and keeping. 
1431. Diseases and insects. 1432. Seed saving. 

SuBSECT. V. — The Parsnep . . 651 

SvBS-ECT. Yl.— The Red Beet 651 

SiTBSECT. VII. — The Skirret, Scorzonera, Salsify, and (Enothera . 652 
1436. The skirret. 1437. The scorzonera. 1438. The salsify. 1439. 
The Spanish salsify. 1440. The tree-primrose. 

SuBSECT. VIII. — The Hamburgh Parsley . . . . . 653 

SuBSECT. IX.— The Radish 653 

1443. Varieties. 1444. Soil. 

SuBSECT. X. — Oxalis Deppei, O. crenata, and Tropceolum tuberosum . 654 



xxii 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Sect. IV. — Spinaceous Esculents ...... 666 

SuBSECT. I. — The common Spinach 656 

SuBSECT. II. — Orach or French Spinach . . . . . . 657 

SuBSECT. III. — Neiv Zealand Spinach 657 

SuBSECT. IV. — Perennial Spinach ....... 657 

SuBSECT. V. — The Spinach Beet, and the Chard Beet . . . 658 

SuBSECT. VI. — Patience Spinach 658 

SvB&TLCT.Yll.— The Sorrel 658 

Sect. V. — Alliaceous Esculents ...... 651 

SuBSECT. 1. — The Onion 65C 

1462. Varieties and species. 1463. Propagation and culture. 1464. 
An autumn and winter crop of onions. 1465. A transplanted crop. 
1466. The potato onion. 14(57. The bulb-bearing onion. 1468. Treat- 
ment common to all the kinds. 1469. Diseases, insects, &c. 1470. The 
onion fly. 1471. Gathering the crop. 1472. To save seed. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Leek 66" 

8vbs:ect. III.— The Shallot . . 6( 

SuBSECT. IV. — The Garlic 6f 

SvBSKCT. Y.~ The Chive 6ii 

SuBSECT. VI. — The Rocambole 664 

VI. — Asparagaceous Esculents ..... 665 

SuBSECT. I. — The Asparagus ........ 665 

1481. Soil, and sowing or planting the asparagus. 1482. Routine 
cultm-e. 1483. Gatherings 1484. Culture after gathering. 1485. 
The duration of an asparagus plantation. 1486. To save seed. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Sea-Kale 668 

1488. Propagation and culture. 1489. Gathering. 1490. The cul- 
ture after gathering. 1491. Diseases and insects. 1492. The dura- 
tion of a plantation of sea-kale. 1493. To save seed. 1494. Forcing. 

SuBSECT. III. — The Artichoke 670 

SuBSECT. IV. — The Cardoon 671 

1498. Cookery of the cardoon. 1499. Varieties, propagation, &c. 

SuBSECT. V The Rampion . 6 7' 

SuBSECT. VI. — Substitutes for Asparagaceous Ksculenis . . . £ 

Sect. VII. — Acetariaceous Esculents . . . . .6 
SuBSECT. I. — Tlie Lettuce 

1504. Varieties. 1505. Propagation and culture. 1506. Lettuces 
as small salad. 1507. To save seed. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Endive . . . . . . . .6 

SuBSECT. Ill — The Succory . . 6* 

1512. An excellent substitute for the succory. 

SuBSECT. IV.— The Celery 67^ 

1514. Varieties. 1515. Propagation and culture. 1516. Ti'ans- 
planting into trenches. 1517. Blanching. 1518. Late spring celery. 
1519. Taking the crop. 1520. Celeriac. 1521. Diseases, insects, &c. 
1522. To save seed. 1523. The alisanders. 1524. The Naples parsley. 

SuBSECT. V. The Lamb's Lettuce, Burnet, the Garden Cress, Winter 

Cress, American Cress, and Water Cress . . .681 

SuBSECT. VI. — Small Salads 682 

SuBSECT. VII. — Substitutes for Acetariaceous Esculents , . . 693 



CONTENTS. XXUl 

r-AOE 

Sect. VIII. — Adornaceous Esculents ..... G83 

SuBSECT. I. — The Parsley 684 

SuBSECT. II. — The Chervil, the Coriander, the Anise f Dill, Fennel, 

Tarragon, and Purslane ........ 684 

SuBSECT. III. — The Indian Cress, Borage, and Marigold . . . 686 

SvBSiECT. TV.— The Horse Radisli and Substitutes .... 686 

Sect. IX. — Condimentaceous Esculents ..... 687 

SuBSECT. I.— The Rhubarb .687 

1551. Propagation and culture. 1552. Substitutes. 
SuBSECT. II. — The Angelica, Elecampane, Samphire, Caper, ^c. . 688 



1559. Excellent substitutes. 1560. The ginger. 1561. The flowers 
of Magnolia grandiflbra. 

Sect. X. — Aromaceous Esculents ...... 690 

1563. The common thyme. 1564. The lemon thyme. 1565. The 
sage. 1566. The clary. 1567. The common mint. 1568. The pen- 
nyroyal mint. 1569. The pot marjoram. 1570. The sweet marjoram. 
1571. The winter marjoram. 1572. The winter savory. 1573. The 
summer savory. 1574. The sweet basil. 1575. The bush basil. 1576. 
The tansy. 

Sect. X.I.—Fungaceous Esculents ..... 691 

1577. The garden mushroom. 1578. The truffle. 1579. The morel. 
1580. Substitutes. 

Sect. XII.^ — Odoraceous Herbs ...... 693 

1582. The lavender. 1583. The rosemary. 1584. The peppermint. 

Sect. XIII. — Medicaceous Herbs . . . . . . 693 

1586. The medicinal rhubarb. 1587. The chamomile. 1588. The 

wormwood. 1589. The rue. 1590. The horehound. 1591. The 

hyssop. 1592, The balm. 1593. The blessed thistle. 1594. The 
liquorice. 1595. The blue melilot. 

Sect. XIV. — Toooicaceous Herbs ...... 694 

1597. The tobacco. 1598. Propagation and culture. 1599. After 
management. 1600. Curing. 1601. The white hellebore. 1602. The 
foxglove. 1603. The henbane. 1604. Walnut leaves. 



Supplementary Notes ....... 697 

A Monthly Calendar of Operations . . ... 715 
January, 715. February, 715. March, 716. April, 716. May, 
717. June, 717. July, 718. August, 718. September, 719. Octo- 
ber, 719. November, 719. December, 720. 

General Index . . . . . . . 721 

Errata . . .731 



xxiv 



NAMES OF THE FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 



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Europe, &c. . 
Britain . . . 
Europe . 

China . . 
Europe . 

England . . . 
China . 


Asia . . . . 
Tartary . 

Britain . . . 
Spain and Portugal 
Italy 

France and Italy . 


Batatas Inglezas . 

Girasol . . . 
Nabo . 

Cliirivia . . . 
Zamahoria 
Betarraga . , . 
Chirivia-tordesca . 

Escorzonera . 

Barba Cabruna 


Espinaca 

Armuelle . . . 
Acelga . 
Acedera 


rTartufi biO 

J anchi, or 1 
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L Terra J 

Girasole . 

Navone . . 

Carota . . 

Pastinaca 

Barba bietola . 

Sisaro . . 

jScorza nera. 

Sassifica . . 
Rafano . 


Spinaoe . 1 
Atrepice . 

Anserino . J 

Bietola . 

Romice . a 

Acetosa 


Aardappel . . . 

Aardappel 
Raap . ... 
Gerle wortel . 
Pinksternakel 
Beetwortel orkaroot 
Suikerwortel 
Schorsoiieel or 
Schorsoneerwortel 
Boksbaard . . 
Radijs . 


Spinazie 

Melde . . . 

Gansevoet 

Beet .... 

Spinazie geduld 

Zuring . . 




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Britain 

Denmark . . , 
Britain 

Britain . . . 
Europe and Africa 
England and Africa 
England 

China . . 
England . . . 
Britain 

Britain . . . 

Britain . . , 
Britain 

Britain 
Britain 

Sardinia , . , 

Europe 

Europe 

Egypt . . . 
Spain . . . 
Europe . 

Siberia . . . 
South America 
Peru . . . 
Britain . 

France and Spain . 
England 


Spanish. 


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Lechuga 

Endibia . . . 
Achicoria 
Appio hortense 

Pimpinela 
Mastuerzo 
f Hierba de San- \ 
\ ta Barbara J 

Berro . . . 

Mostazo 
Naba silvestre 

Perejil . . . 
Perifolio 

Coriandro . . . 

Anis 

Hinojo . 

Eneldo . . , 
Serpentaria . 
Verdolaga . . 
Capuchina 
Borraxa . . . 
Calendula 

Rabano picante . 


Italian. 


Cipolla . . 
Porro 

Scalogni . , 
Aglio 

Cipoletta . . 
Scorodopraso 

f Asparago ori 
I Sparagio J 

Crambe marina 

Caciofo 

Cardon . . 
Raneronzo 


Lattuga . . 
Endivia 
Cicoria . . 
Appio 
Macerone 
Valerianella . 
Pimpinella 
Crescione . . 
f Erbadi San-i 
\ taBarbareaJ 

f Crescione \ 
\ di Sorgenti J 
Senapa . . 

Napo salvatico- 

Petroselino 
Cerfoglio . . 
Coriandro 
Anice 

Aneto . . 

Finocchio 

Dragoncello . 

Porcellana 

Fior Cappucino 

Borragine 

Fiorrancio 

Ramolaccio 


Dutch. 


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Knoflock 

Bieslook or Snyprei 
Wileknoftook 

CULENTS. 
Aspergie 

Zeekool . . . 
Artisjok 

Spaansche artisjok 


NTS— SALADS. 
Latuw . 
Andijvie 
Suikerei 
Selderij 

Pimpernel 
Tuinkers 

Winterkers . . 

Waterkers . . 
Rapskool . . , 

3-GARNISHINGS. 
Pieterselie 
Kervel . . . 
Koriander 
Anijs . . . 
Dille .... 
Dille . 

Dragon . . . 
Porselein 

S| aansche kers . . 
Boraasje . 

Goudsbloem . . 
Rammenas . 


German. 


Zwiebel 

f Gemeiner Lauchi 
I or Porro Zwiebel J 


Knoblauch . 
Schnittlauch . . 

Rocambollem 

ARAGACEOUS ESi 
Spargel 

Meerkohl . . . 
Artischoeke . 
Kardonen , . 
Rapunzel 


IACEOUS ESCULE 
Gartensalat . . 
Endivie 

Gemeine Cichorie . 
Sellerie . . . 
Smyrnerkraut 
Ackersalat 
Pimpernelle . . 
( Gemeine Garten ) 
I Kresse . f 
Winter Kresse 
5 Amerikanische > 
I Kresse . / 
Briinnen Kresse . 
Senf . . .: 

Repskohl 

:OUS ESCULENT5 
Petersilie . . . 
Gartenkerbel 
Koriander 
Anis . . , . 
Dill 

Fenchel . . . 
Dragun . 

Portulak . . . 
Kapuzinerblume . 
'orr^gen 

-angelblume . . 
Mecr "ttig . 


French. .<i 


loignon . . . . 
Porreau . . . . 

Ecbalotte 

Ail 

Civette or Ciboulette 

Ail d'Espagne . J 
ASP 

Asperge . . . . 
Chou marin 

Artichaut . . . • 
Cardon . . . . 
Raiponce . . . . 


ACETARi 
Laitue .... 
Chicor6e des Jardins . . 
Chicoree Sauvage . 
Celeri . . . . 
Maceron 

Mache . . . . 
Petite Pimprenelle 

Cresson Alenois 

Cresson de Terre . . 

Cresson d'Amerique 

Cresson de Fontaine . . 
Moutarde . . A 

Navette . . . . 

ADORNACI 

Persil 

Cerfeuil . 

Coriandre 

Anis, or Boucage 

L'Anet . . 

L'Anet . 

L'Estragon . . . , 
Pourpier ... 
Capucine . . ■ 
Bourrache . . ] 
Souci des Jardins . i 
( Cranson, or le grand \\ 
\ Raifort ); 


Scientific. 


A'llium Cfepa L. . . . 
A'llium Pdrrum L. . 

A'llium ascaldnicum L. 


A'llium sativum L. . . , 
A'llium Schoendprasum L. 

A'llium Scoroddprasum X. 

Asparagus officinalis L. . . 

Cr4mbe maritima L. 
Cynara Scdlymus L. • . 
Cynara Cardtinculus L. 
Campanula Rap6nculus L. 


Lactiica sativa L. . . 
Cichdrium Endivia L. . . 
Cichdrium I'ntybus L. . 
A'pium graveolens L. . . 
Smyrnium Olusatrumi. 
Valerianella olitdria Dec. . . 
Pot^rium Sanguisorba L, 

Lepidium sativum L. . . 

Barbarea vulgaris H.K. 

Barbarea prse'cox Dec. . 

Nasturtium officinMe H.K. . 
Sin^pis Alba L. 
( Brassica Napus var. olel- \ 
\ ferus Dec. . . / 

A'pium Petroselinum L. . . 
Chaerophyllum sativum Pers. 
Cloriandrum sativum L. . . 
Tragium sativum Spr. . 
Anethum graveolens L. . . 
Aii&thum Foeniculum L. 
Artemisia Dractinculus L, 
Portulaca oler^icea L. . . . 
Tropse'olum majus L. . 
Borjigo officinalis L. . . . 
Calendula officinalis L. . 

CochleSkiia Aimovacea L, . • 


English. 


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Rocambole . 

Asparagus 

Sea-kale . . 
Artichoke . 
Cardoon . . 
Ram Dion . . 


Lettuce . . | 
Endive 

Succory . . 
Celery 

Alisanders . . 
Lamb's Lettuce . 
Burnet 

Garden Cress 

Winter Cress 

American Cress . 

Watercress . . 
Mustard . 

Rape . . . 
Parsley 

Chervil . . . 
Coriander . 
Anise . . . 
Dill . . . 
Fennel 

Tarragon . , 
Purslane 

Indian Cress . . 
Borage 

IMarigold . . 
Horse-ra. 



CULTIVATED IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



XXVll 



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LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 



racers 



Tools. 

FIG. 

12. The common lever 

13. Kneed lever and crow-bar 

14. 15. Perforators 

16. Dibbers 

17. Potato-dibber . 

18. Cast-iron sheaths for dibbers 

19. Picks .... 

20. Draw-hoes 
162. The Leicestershire, or shifting 

blade, draw-hoe 

21. Spanish hoes 

23. Thrust hoes 

381. Sickle hoe 

382. Drill hoe 

22. Lawn scraper . 

24. Spades 

25. Turf spades 

32. Transplanting spades 

26. 27. Verge-cutters or turf- 

28. Garden spud 

29. Trowels 

30. Daisy weeder 

31. Saul's transplanter 

33. Dung and tan forks 

34. Digging forks 

36. Garden rakes . 

35. Daisy and grass rakes 

383. Drill-rake 

37. Beetles and rammers 

38. Wooden mallet and 

hammer 
3.9. Garden pincers 
324. Weeding pincers 
335. Orchardist's crook 



Instruments. 

40. Garden Knives 
95. Grafting-knife, made to serve 
also for a budding-knife 



garden 



PAGE 

130 
130 
30 
31 
31 
31 
131 
131 

232 
132 
132 
660 
660 
132 
133 
134 
135 
134 
134 
135 
135 
135 
135 
135 
136 
136 
660 
136 

137 
137 
381 
441 



137 



286 



FIG. PAGt 

236. Godsall's budding-knife im- 
proved . . . . 302 

203. Splitting-knife and opening pick, 

for using in cleft-grafting . 290 

41. Asparagus knife. . . . 138 

•42. The scimitar bill-knife . . 138 

43. Dress bill-knife . . . 138 

48. Garden-axe . . .140 
50. Garden-scythes . . . 140 

44. Garden-saws . . .139 
202. Bow-saw for cutting off branches 

of trees . . . . 290 

45. Pruning chisels . . .139 

46. Shears for clipping hedges and 

box-edgings . . .139 

49. Verge and grass shears . . 140 

47. Pruning shears . . .139 
243. Punch used for punching out 

shield-buds . . .306 



Utensils . 

6. A fly glass . . . .111 
10. Inverted flower-pot for catch- 
ing mice .... 121 
5. Cap for covering the holes in 

the bottoms of pots . . 96 
65. Pot carrier . . . . 148 

51. Sizes of flowerpots . . 142 

52. Propagating pot . . . 143 

53. 54. Pots with raised bottoms to 

prevent the entrance of worms 143 

55. Pot with channelled bottom, 

to facilitate the escape of water 1 43 

56. Ornamental flowerpot, with the 

base serving as a receptacle 
for drainage water . . 143 
2.59. A double pot . ... 331 

57. Pot with pierced rims and bands 

for introducing wire- work . 143 
333-342. Sectionsof pots for pines 448,449 



LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 



xxix 



KlG. PAGE 

58. Blanching pot . . . 143 

59. Isolating saucer . . . 144 

60. Annular -water saucer . . 144 

61. Plant box . . . . 145 

62. Sucker, kneed-spouted, and 

over-head watering-pots . 146 

63. Money's inverted-rose watering 

pot 147 

64. "Wire screen for soil, old tan, 

or gravel . . . .147 
66 — 74. Baskets, and illustrations 
of the mode of making 



them 


149, 


151 


75. Punnet baskets . 




152 


323. Trainer's basket . 




376 


76. Bell glasses 




152 


78. Substitutes for bell glasse 


> 


152 


77. Cast-iron hand glass 




152 


79 Mode of preparing hand g 


asses 




to serve as fly traps 


111, 


112 



Machi-nes. 



153 
154 
154 



155 
155 
156 

156 
157 
156 
323 



79. Garden wheelbarrow 

80. Read's garden syringe 

81. Read's pneumatic hand-engine 

82. Section of Read's pneumatic 

hand-engine 

83. Read's barrow-engine . . 

84. Read's fumigating bellows 

85. Section of the canister of Read's 

fumigating bellows 
87. Powdering bellows . 

86. Iron fumigating pot 
258. Shrub and tree transplanter . 
261, 262. Side, and perspective view 

of the girdling machine 347, 348 
325, 326. "Water-barrow and distri- 
butor . . . .384 



Miscellaneous Articles. 

4, Eggs of the earthworm . . 95 

88. Wisps of straw used as pro- 

tectors .... 158 

89. Mode of making straw mats . 159 
90 — ^93. Oiled paper cap for pro- 
tecting flowers . . . 162 

94. Props for climbers . . 163 

95. Cast and wrought iron props 

for supporting climbers . 164 
96— 99. Labels and tallies . 165,166 

100. Nailing wallet . . . 167 

101. Iron reel and pin for a garden 

line . . . . .168 

102. 103. Portable ladder open and 

shut . . . .168 

104, 105. Rule joint and orchard 

ladder . . . . • 169 

106. Garden level , . .169 

107. Bridge plank for wheeling 

across box edgings . . . 1 70 



FIG. page 
108. Leather bearing straps . .170 
264. Wire frame work for climbing 

plants in pots . . . 355 
266, 267. Wire standard and rings 

for supporting climbing plants. 355 

270. Umbrella trellis for climbing 

plants .... 355 

271, Trellis overa walk . . . 357 
361. Netting for covering a cherry 

garden .... 557 

373. Hooked stick for training prize 

gooseberry bushes . . . 564 

374. Forked stick for training prize 

gooseberry bushes . .564 



1. 
11. 

66- 

130. 
131. 
133. 

134. 

155. 

161. 

163. 
253. 
254. 

255- 

328. 

359. 
270. 
372. 

378, 

380. 



Diagrams. 

Part of the trunk of a disbarked 

lime tree . . . . 31 
Mode of forming a triple fence 
for excluding cattle, sheep, 
and hares . . . .123 
-74. Illustration of the mode 

of making baskets . 149' — 151 
191 
191 



Section of an iron sash-bar 
Section of a wooden sash-bar . 
Vertical profile of part of a 

ridge and furrow roof 
Section of a dung bed, with a 

tube for supplying hot air 
Lap of glass panes puttied and 

painted . . . . 
Diagrams showing the angle 

which the blades of draw-hoes 

ought to make with the 

handle .... 
Section of the head of a garden 

rake . . . . . 
Modes of protecting trees from 

cattle .... 
Mode of securing newly planted 

trees from the effects of high 

winds . . ... 
-257. View, profile, and section 

of a tree guard . 
Details of a mode of fastening 

coverings on frames . . 
Outline of a Pearmaiu apple . 
The term oblate exemplified . 
Section through a cherry garden 

covered with netting . 
379. Section and view of a prop 

for climbing plants 
Sections of ground prepared for 

planting potatoes 



192 



196 
219 



232 



233 



318 



319 

320 

394 
531 
554 

557 

637 

642 



Moveable and Portable Garden 
Structures. 

109. Wickerwork protector for low 

shrubs , . , . 171 



XXX 



LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 



FIG. PAGE 

110. Wickerwork protectors of va- 
rious kinds . . .172 

111 — 113. Details of a hand box, as 

a substitute for a hand glass. 172 

114. Iron bracket for supporting a 

temporary wooden coping . 174 

115. Apparatus for rolling up and 

letting down canvas shades . 1 75 
322. Thatched hurdles for protect- 
ing plants in the open garden. 401 
377. Cover for peas and other early- 
crops ..... 633 

Fixed Garden Structures. 

2. Section of a hothouse heated by 

hot-water according to Mr, 
Penn's manner . . .85 

3. Section of a hothouse heated by 

hot-water in the ordinary 
manner .... 86 

116. A stone for fixing temporary 

rafters . . . .179 

117. Mode of fixing temporary rafters 179 

118. Plan of a hollow brick wall . 180 
] 19, 120. Plan and end view of a 

brick wall 7 4 inches thick . 180 
121. Longitudinal section of a flued 

wall 182 

122, 123. Plan and section of a reed 

wall .... 183, 184 

124. Trellised arcade for fruit-trees. 186 

125. Trellis for climbers . .186 

126. Plan showing the intersection 

of trellised walks . . 186 

127. Steep-roofed house for winter 

forcing of plants in pots . 189 
128 Curvilineal glass roofs . . 189 
129. Ground plan of curvilineal 

plant house . . .190 
132. Perspective view of the original 

ridge and furrow house at 

Chatsworth . . .191 

135. Perspective elevation and section 

of a pinery heated by dung 
linings .... 196 

1 36. Section of a vinery heated by 

dung 196 

1 37. Section of a furnace and double 

flue 198 

138. Section of a greenhouse, with 

reserve flue and common flue 199 

139. Section of a common brick flue, 

with a zinc cistern over it . 200 

156. Section of a span-roofed pit, 

with the roof over the path 
opaque . . . .221 

157. Ground plan of a pit to be heated 

in Mr. Corbett's manner . 222 

158. Section of a pit to be heated by 

Corbet's system, or by smoke 
flues . . . . .222 



FIG. PAGE 

317. Section of a pit on M'Phail's 

principle . . . .393 

332. Stake espalier rail . . . 425 

333. Cast-iron espalier rail . . 426 

334. Strained wire espalier rail . . 427 

336. Section of a pine-pit at Oakhill 445 

337. Section of a pit at Oakhill for 

fruiting Queen pines . . 448 

356. Section of Corbet's cucumber 

pit .... . 504 

357. Section of Green's cucumber 

pit 506 

358. Section of Ayi-es' cucumber 

house .... 508 

Hot -WATER Apparatus. 

140. A hot-water apparatus for cir- 

culation on a level . . 202 

141. Boiler and furnace for heating 

by hot water in rising and 
falling pipes . . . 202 

142. Apparatus for circulating hot 

water below and above the 
level of the boiler . . 202 

143. Syphon mode of circulating hot 

water . . . .203 

144. Hot-water pipe, and reserve 

cistern for hot water . . 203 

145. Section of a reserve cistern and 

hot-water pipes . . . 204 

146. Perkins's double boiler . . 206 

147. Roger's conical boiler . . 208 

148. Mode of setting Rogers's boiler 208 

149. Rogers's boiler set with the 

chimney added . . . 209 

150. Rogers's boiler with the heat- 

ing pipe joined to it . • 210 

151. Rogers's substitute for a stop- 

cock . . . .210 
666' Rogers's hot- water reservoir . 210 
154. Zinc cisterns for double and 

single pipes . . .216 

Digging, Trenching, and Ridging. 

159. A plot of ground properly marked 

off for digging or trenching . 229 

160. A plot of ground disadvantage- 

ously marked off for digging 

or trenching . . . 229 

160*. A section showing the differ- 
ence between proper and im- 
proper trenching . . 231 

380. Section of ridges prepared for 

planting potatoes . . 642 

Propagation by Cuttings, Layers, &c. 

164. A shoot improperly, and one 

properly cut . . . 236 
166. Prepared cutting of a Shaddock 254 



LIST OP ENGRAVINGS. 



FIG. PAGE 

167. A cutting of a Cape Heath pre- 

pared and planted . . 256 

168. A cutting of an Epacris prepared 

and planted . . . 256 

169. A cutting of Acacia alata pre- 

pared and planted . .257 

1 70. Forsyth's mode of striking cut- 

tings .... 259 

171. A cutting of Rosa semperflorens 

prepared and planted . . 259 

172. A piping of a pink prepared and 

planted .... 261 

173. A cutting of a pelargonium pre- 

pared and planted . .261 

174. A cutting of a fuchsia prepared 

and planted . . .262 

175. A cutting of a camellia prepared 

and planted . . . 262 

176. 177. Eyes of vines prepared 

and planted . . .265 
178, 179. The lower and upper half 
of the leaf of theophrasta 
rooted and sending up a shoot 268 

180. Wedges inserted above and be- 

low buds to check the flow of 

the sap ... . 270 

181. A ringed shoot, to accumulate 

sap at the base of the buds, &c. 270 

182. A shoot bent to cause the buds 

at the angles to break . . 271 

183. 184. Layering with the tongue 

made in the under and upper 

side of the shoot . . 273 

185. A stool with shoots layered . 274 

186. A petunia layered . . 275 

187. A carnation layered . . . 276 

1 88. A cutting layered . . . 276 

189. A branch ringed, and prepared 

for rooting in a case . . 276 

190. Branch layered in a tin case . 276 

191. Branches of a coniferous plant 

pegged down, to force it to 
throw up a leader . .279 

192. 193. Injured bulbs throwing up 

offsets 279 

593. Branch of a peach tree protected 

by fern .... 593 

GRAFTING ILLUSTRATED. 

194. Scion and stock illustrative of 
the principles on which they 
are united . . . . 280 

196. Splice-grafting in its different 

stages . . . .288 

197. The scion with its young shoots 

on and the heel of the stock 

cut off . . . . 289 

198. Splice-grafting with a tongue . 289 

199. Sphce-grafting with a shoulder 289 

200. Splice-grafting the peach . . 290 

201. Cleft-grafting . . .290 



XXX i 

FIG. PAGE 

204. Rind-grafting . . . . 290 
205-207. Cleft-grafting the vine, rose, 

and camellia . . .291 

208. Epiphyllum truncatum grafted 

on Pereskia aculeata . . 291 

209, 210. Saddle^grafting . . 292 

211. Grafting the lateral branches of 

fruit-trees . . . . 292 

212. Side-grafting the orange . . 293 

213. Side-grafting the vine . . 293 

214. Wedge-grafting . . . 293 

215. Herbaceous grafting the pine 

and fir tribe . . . . 294 

216. Grafting the tree peony on the 

tubers of the herbaceous peony 295 

217. Cleft-grafting the dahlia on its 

own tubers . . .295 

218. Peg-grafting the dahlia on its 

own tubers . . . . 295 
219-223. Different modes of herba- 
ceous-grafting . . .296 

Budding Illustrated. 

237. The different steps in the pro- 

cess of shield-budding . 303 

238. Shield-budding the rose in spring 305 

239. Shield-budding the camellia in 

spring .... 305 

240. Shield-grafting without a bud . 305 

241. Budding with a circular shield 305 

242. Budding by the aid of a punch 305 

244. Budding with the shield re- 

versed .... 306 

245. Budding with a pointed shield 

for resinous trees . . 306 

246. Budding with a double shield 306 

247. Budding with a square shield . 306 

248. Budding with a terminal eye . 306 

249. Flute-budding the mulberry in 

spring .... 307 

250. Terminal flute-budding in spring 

or summer . . . 307 

251. Flute-budding with strips of bark 307 

252. Annular budding . . 308 

Inarching Illustrated. 

224. A scion and stock prepared for 

inarching . . . 298 

225. The scion inarched to the stock 

and bandaged . . . 298 

226. Inarching with the scion and 

stock tongued and united but 

not bandaged . . . 298 
227, 228. A stock and scion prepared 

for saddle inarching . .299 
229. A scion and stock united by 

saddle inarching . . 299 

230—232. Stocks and scion prepared 

for inarching . . . 299 
233. A large stock and small scion 

united by inarching . . 300 



xxxii 



LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 



FiG. PAGE 

234, Inarching with the scion nou- 

rished by water . . . 300 

235. The camellia inarched with the 

scion nourished by water . 300 

Diagrams illustrative of Pruning and 
Training. 

260. Mode of causing a pear-tree to 

produce blossom buds . . 345 

263. Mode of nailing a bent shoot 

straight .... 352 

265. Mode of training the grape-vine 

in pots .... 355 

268. Mode of training climbers on a 

wall . . . .355 

269. A rose trained in the balloon 

manner .... 356 

272, Spiral training, first stage . 359 

273, Plan of spiral training . . 359 

274, Elevation of spiral training . 360 
275 — 277. Progressive stages of the 

spurring-in system . 360, 361 
278. Quenouille training . . 361 
280. Conical training • . 361 
281 — 284. Hayward's quenouille 

training .... 362 
285 — 288. Progressive stages of fan- 
training . . . 363, 364 
289 — 295. Progressive stages of Sey- 
mour's fan-training . 365 — 368 
296—298. Wavy-training , 368, 369 



FIG. PAGE 

299 — 306. Progressive stages of 

wavy-training . . 369 — 372 

307 — 311. Progressive stages of hori- 
zontal-training . . 372, 373 

312, 313. Horizontal and fan-train- 
ing combined . . . 374 

314. Horizontal and perpendicular 

training combined . .374 

315 — 318. Progressive stages of half- 
fan training . . 374, 375 

319 — 322. Progressive stages of per- 
pendicular-training . 375, 376 

343 — 347. Progressive stages of prun- 
ing the vine . . 456, 457 

348. The Thomery system of train- 
ing vines .... 458 

349 — 355. Hoare's system of train- 
ing the vine . . 469 — 472 

360 — 368. Spur-pruning the apple 

exemplified . . 538 — 542 

369. Method of training shy-bearing 

pears "... 550 

375. A trained prize gooseberry-bush 564 

Plans of Kitchen Gardens. 

330. A plan containing one acre 

within the wails, and half an 

acre in the surrounding slip . 419 

331. A plan containing one acre 

within the walls, and three- 
quarters of an acre in the slips 421 



THE 



SUBURBAN HORTICULTURIST. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Having in a twin volume* treated of Gardening as an Art of 
Design and Taste, our object in the present work is to complete the 
subject of Suburban Residences, by treating of Gardening as an Art 
of Culture. We shall consider ourselves as writing for grown up 
pupils who have previously known little of the subject ; and we shall 
embrace all that we think will be useful to the possessors of small 
gardens, whether in town or country, at home or abroad, and whether 
they belong to the retired citizen, the clergyman, the farmer, the 
mechanic, the labourer, the colonist, or the emigrant. 

The possessor of a garden may desire to know the science and the 
art of its cultivation, for several reasons. He may wish to know 
whether it is properly cultivated by his gardener ; he may wish to 
direct its culture himself ; he may desire to know its capabilities of 
improvement or of change ; he may wish to understand the principles 
on which the different operations of culture are performed, as a source 
of mental interest ; or he may wish to be able to perform the opera- 
tions himself, as a source of recreation and health. The last two are by 
far the most important purposes which this volume is intended to 
serve ; and hence we shall give, as far as we find practicable, the 
philosophy of every operation of culture, as well as practical directions 
for the manner in which it should be performed. Some topics we shall 
illustrate by Notes, in an Appendix at the end of the work, and all 
the technical terms will be found explained in the General Index. 

We shall commence with some preliminary chapters on Plants, 
Soils, Manures, and the Operations common to all the departments of 
garden cultivation ; and we shall next treat, in succession, of the kitchen 
and fruit garden, the forcing garden, the flower garden, the shrubbery, 
and the pleasure grounds, including the ornamental plantations. 

* The Suburban Architect and Landscape-Gardener. 1839. 1 vol. 8vo. 

B 



2 



PART I. 

FACTS RELATIVE TO PLANTS, THE SOIL, MANURES, THE 
ATMOSPHERE, &c., ON WHICH HORTICULTURE IS 
FOUNDED. 



CHAPTER I. 

PLANTS CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR CULTURE IN GARDENS. 

It is not our intention to enter into any scientific discussion on the 
nature of plants ; but it is necessary that we should strongly impress on the 
mind of the reader who has little idea of their culture, that they are 
living beings, and quite as sensible of good and bad treatment as animals. 
Because a part of the leaves and branches of a plant may be cut off, and the 
remainder which is attached to the root will continue to live and grow, it 
seems to be inferred that a plant will bear any kind of treatment with 
impunity. Many persons purchase a plant and plant it in their garden, as 
they would purchase a piece of furniture and place it in a room, thinking 
that the one act requires no more care than the other. Many labourers, 
and even not a few gardeners, when planting a plant, insert it in the 
soil with little more care than they would a stick or a post, crowding all 
the roots into a small hole and then pressing the earth on them with their 
feet, with apparently no other end than placing the plant upright and keeping 
it firm. A person that knows anything of the nature of a plant, and of the 
manner in which it draws its nourishment, by the means of the points of 
fibrils so tender as to be rendered useless by the slightest bruise, and furnished 
with mouths or pores so small as only to be seen by means of a powerful 
magnifier, will feel this treatment to be barbarous and injurious. Another 
person, on the contrary, who knows the grateful return that every plant 
makes to him who bestows on it the cares and labours of culture properly 
performed, will take a degree of interest in the operation of planting, and 
derive a degree of enjoyment from the future growth and development of 
the plant, of which a person ignorant of the subject can form no idea. As all 
men may be presumed to know something of the nature of animals, per- 
haps the easiest way of giving some knowledge of plants to those who have 
hitherto paid little attention to the vegetable kingdom, will be by first 
exhibiting the principal points of analogy between plants and animals, and 
next noticing the classification, nomenclature, structure, functions, geo- 
graphy, and habitations of plants. 

Sect. I. — The Analogy between Plants and Animals, considered with 
reference to Horticulture. 

1. Plants are organised beings, that, like animals, depend for their exist- 
ence on nourishment, warmth, air, and light. Their nourishment they 
derive from the soil, their warmth and air jointly from the soil and the 
atmosphere, and their light from the sun. 

2. Plants resemble animals in having an organic structure endowed with 
life, and in requiring nourishment to enable them to continue to exist. They 
absorb this nourishment through the small tubular fibres of their roots, in the 



ANALOGY BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 



3 



same way as animals do theirs through the small tubes called lacteals, which 
convey it from their stomachs to their lungs. Plants differ from animals in 
hoing fixed to one spot, in having the principles of vitality and reproduc- 
tion diffused over every part of their structure, and in thus being propagated 
by division, as well as by ova or seeds ; in being without a brain or nervous 
s^^stem, and, consequently, incapable of feeling ; and in light being as neces- 
sary to their existence as air is to that of animals. 

3. The soil in which a plant grows is, in general, as essential to it as the 
stomach is to an animal. Food, before it can be absorbed into the system, 
must be reduced into a pulpy mass, consisting partly of nutritious matter 
soluble in water, and partly of refuse. This process, in regard to ammals, is 
performed in the stomach, and is called digestion ; and when it is finished, the 
lacteals suck the chyle from the mass, and convey it to the lungs, where it is 
assimilated to the blood, and thence is distributed through the frame, while 
the refuse is passed off in the form of excrement. 

4. The food of plants is rotted, or undergoes the putrescent fermentation 
or some other species of decomposition, (a process similar to digestion,) in 
the soil ; and is there brought, by the addition of water and gases, to a 
sufficient state of fluidity to enable the spongioles of the roots to absorb 
from it the part necessary for the nourishment of the plant. The matter 
absorbed is then canied up to the leaves, where it undergoes a process 
similar to that to which the chyle is subjected in the lungs of animals, and 
becomes the true sap of the plant, which contributes to its growth as blood 
does to the growth of animals. 

5. When a plant or an animal is in a state of disease, no application to 
the leaves and branches of the one, or to the external members of the other, 
will be of much use, if the soil or the stomach be neglected. The stem 
and branches of a plant, and the external members of an animal, may be 
injured, mutilated, and even diseased ; but if the soil of the plant and the 
stomach of the animal be invigorated, and placed in a healthy state, the 
whole plant or animal will soon recover from the injuries it had received, 
so as to perform all the functions necessary to its existence. The first step, 
therefore, in cultivating or in improving plants, is to improve the soil in 
which they grow ; and in like manner the first step in improving animals is 
to improve the quality and increase the quantity of their food. 

6. In all vertebrate animals there is a part at the back of the neck, 
between the spinal marrow and the brain, where a serious injury will occasion 
immediate death. There is a corresponding point in plants, between the 
root and the stem, which is called the neck, or collar ; and at this point 
plants may be morereadilj^ injured than anywhere else. Most plants, also, 
may be killed by covering this point too deeply with soil. In all seedling 
plants, this neck or vital part is immediately beneath the point wdiere the 
seed-leaves originate ; and if the plant be cut over there when in a young 
state, the part which is left in the ground will infallibly die. In old plants, 
however, and particularly in herbaceous plants which have creeping stems, 
and also in various kinds of trees and shrubs, the roots, after the plant has 
attained a certain age, become furnished with adventitious buds and, when 
the plant or tree is cut over by the collar, these dormant buds are called 
into action, and throw up shoots, which are called suckers. No suckers, 
however, are ever throvm up by the roots of a plant cut through at the 
collar while in its seed-leaves. The branches of a tree may be all cut off 

b2 



4 



ANALOGY BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS, 



close to the trunk, and the roots also parcially removed ; but, if the collar 
remam uninjured, the plant, in suitable soil, and under favourable circum- 
stances, will throw out new roots and shoots, and in time will completely 
recover itself. On the other hand, if the collar be cut off, the stem or trunk 
is left without roots, and the roots without a stem, or the power (in general) 
to throw up one. 

7. There are some plants of the herbaceous kind (such as the horse-radish, 
for example) that do not suffer, even if theu* collar should be buried two 
feet, or even three feet ; but by far the greater number of plants (such as 
the hepatica, the common daisy, the common grasses, &c.) are killed by 
having the collar covered two or three inches ; and nothing is more injurious 
to woody plants, whether large or small. It is easy to destroy a large tree 
by heaping up earth round the base of its trunk ; and easy to prevent a small 
one from growing, by lifting it and planting it six inches or a foot deeper than 
it was before. Hence the great importance of not planting any plant deeper 
in the soil than it was before taking it up ; and hence also the reason why 
trees planted in deeply trenched ground, and especially fruit trees, often 
disappoint the planter. In planting these trees the soil immediately under 
and about them is more consolidated by treading and watering than the soil 
in the other parts of the plantation ; and hence it soon sinks below the general 
level, to maintain which level the gardener fills up the depression every year, 
till the collar of the tree becomes buried several inches beneath the surface. It 
is said that all the peach plantations throughout the United States have been 
for some years in a state of disease, without any person being able to account 
for the circumstance, or point out a remedy, till one man discovered it to be 
too deep planting. He proposed to divulge the secret to Congress for a million 
of dollars; but, while Congress was deliberating on the subject, the secret 
was made public by Mr. Bridgeman, in a pamphlet published in 1838. The 
soil in America, Mr. Bridgeman observes, is light ; and the trees, when 
planted in it, if not staked, are apt to be blo\%Ti aside, or even blown out of 
the soil, by high winds. Hence, to avoid the trouble and expense of staking, 
they are planted deeper in the soil, by which they are held firm, without the 
aid of stakes, and this is the grand cause of unfruitfulness and disease in all 
trees, more especially in the peach. This deep planting, Mr. Bridgeman 
contmues, is practised not only with fruit trees in America, but with all other 
trees and plants whatever; and they are all injured more or less by it, ac- 
cording as the soil is more or less compact. 

8. The cause why plants are so much injured by burying the collar has 
not, as far as we know, been physiologically and satisfactorily explained. 

9. The next point of analogy between plants and animals which it may be 
useful to notice is that between the lungs and the leaves. An animal can no 
more live without its lungs than without its stomach. The stomach, as we 
have seen, is necessary for turning the food into chyle, and the lungs for 
turning that chyle into blood. Now, a plant can no more live and grow 
without leaves than an animal can without lungs. The use of the lungs is 
to expose the chyle to the action of the air, which they decompose, so that 
its oxygen may unite with the chyle, and thus change it into blood. The 
leaves of plants, which act to them as lungs, not only decompose air, but 
light, in the process of elaboratmg the sap ; and hence plants can no more 
live without light than without air or food, as light is necessary to turn 
their food into sap, or, in other words, to bring it into the proper state for 



CONSIDERED WITH EEPERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 5 

affording them nourishment. Hence, in the culture of plants, the great im- 
portance of solar light. An important difference, however, between the cir- 
culation of the sap in vegetables and that of the blood in animals is, that the 
former have no heart. 

10. Plants and animals agree in requiring a certain degree of temperature 
to keep them alive ; and the warmth of this temperature differs greatly in 
the different kinds both of plants and animals. Hence, the constitutional 
temperature of any plant to be cultivated being known, that temperature 
must be maintained by art ; either by a suitable situation in the open air, 
or by its culture within a structure which admits the light, and is capable 
of havmg its atmosphere heated to any required degree. The temperature 
which any plant requires is ascertained by its geographical position in a wild 
state, making allowance for the difference produced in the habits of the plant 
by cultivation. 

11. Plants agree with animals in requiring periodical times of rest. In 
animals, these periods are, for the most part, of short intervals of not more 
than a day ; but, in plants they are commonly at long intervals, mostly of 
several months. In warm climates, the dormant period of plants commences 
with the dry season, and continues till the recurrence of the periodical rains, 
which are pecuKar to the tropical regions. In temperate countries, the dor- 
mant season in plants commences with the cold of winter, and continues till 
the recurrence of spring. When plants are in a dormant state, they com- 
monly lose their leaves, and, consequently, at that season, they are unable to 
make use of the nourishment applied to their roots ; and hence the injury 
done to them when they arc stimulated with nourishment and warmth, so 
as to occasion their growth during the period at which they ought to be at 
rest. Hence, also, arises the injury which plants receive, and especially 
bulbs, if the soil about them be kept moist by water when they are in a 
dormant state. Plants, having no feeling in the common sense in which the 
word is used, can neither experience pleasure nor pain ; but they resent 
injuries, either negative or positive, by slow growth, or by becoming diseased. 
By their being fixed to the spot where they grow, they necessarily depend for 
theu- food, heat, air, and light, on the circumstances peculiar to that spot ; 
and, hence, to increase their growth beyond what it would be if left to 
nature, additional food must be brought to them, and the warmth, airiness, 
and lightness of the situation increased. Hence, what is called vegetable 
culture, which, with plants in general, consists in stirring the soil, adding 
manure to it, regulating the supply of water by draining or irrigation, shel- 
tering from the colder winds, and exposing to the direct influence of the sun's 
rays. If we imagine any one of these points attended to, and not the others, 
the plant will not thrive. Stirring the soil, and mixing it with manure, will 
be of little use, if that soil be liable to be continually saturated with mois- 
ture, either from its retentive nature, from springs from below, or from 
continued rains from above ; or if it be continually without, or with very 
little, moisture, from its porous nature, the want of moisture in the subsoil, 
and the want of rain and dews from the atmosphere. Improving the soil, 
without improving the climate (that is, without communicating a propor- 
tionate degree of warmth and light), will increase the bulk of the plant, but 
without proportionately bringing its different parts to maturity. For ex- 
ample, we will suppose two plantations of trees planted^at the same time, 
on similar soil, and in the same climate ; that in the case of the one plantation 



6 



ANALOGY BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS, 



the soil was trenched and manured, and in the other not ; and that the trees 
were planted in equal numbers in both plantations, and at the same dis- 
tances : the trees in the prepared soil would grow rapidly ; and in the un- 
prepared soil, slowly. After a certain number of years (say twenty), we 
shall suppose both plantations cut down — when the timber produced by 
that which had gi'own slowly would be found hard, and of good quality ; 
while that produced by the plantation which had grown rapidly would be 
found soft, spongy, and, when employed in construction, comparatively of 
short duration. The reason is, that in this last case the rate of nourishment 
to the roots exceeded the natural proportion which nature requires in plants, 
between the supply of food to the roots, and of light and air to the leaves. 
Had the trees in the prepared soil been thinned out as they advanced, so 
as never to allow their branches to do more than barely touch each other, 
they would have produced more timber than the trees in the unprepared 
soil, and that timber would have been of equal firmness and duration with 
timber of slower growth. It ought, therefore, to be strongly impressed on 
the minds of amateur cultivators, that though nourishment of the root will 
produce bulk of the top, or at least length of top, yet that it is only by 
abundance of light and air, that quality can be secured at the same time. 

12. One very remarkable point of difference between animals and plants 
is that which has been before alluded to, viz., the much greater provision 
which nature has made for the propagation of the latter than of the former. 
Plants not only produce immense quantities of seeds, which are distributed 
by the winds and waters, by animals, and hy various causes ; but they ex- 
tend themselves by shoots, which run on or under the surface of the ground, 
as in the case of the strawberry, the raspberry, &c. ; and they produce buds, 
each of which, by human art, can be rendered equivalent to a seed, either 
by planting it (with a small portion of the plant from which it is taken) at 
once in the ground, or by inserting it in another plant of the same family. 
Hence, the great facility with which plants are multiplied both by nature 
and art ; with the exception of a few, in which the process of propagation by 
artificial means is comparatively difficult. 

13. Another remarkable difference, also before alluded to, between plants 
and animals, is, the absolute necessity of light to plants during the whole 
period of their existence. There are many animals of the lower description, 
such as worms, to which light, so far from being necessary, is injurious; and 
there are instances of even the more perfect animals having lived for several 
years without the presence of light, either natural or artificial. Light is not 
necessary for either the functions of the stomach, brain, or lungs, in animals ; 
but in plants, though it is equally unnecessary for the functions of the ger- 
minating seed, the root, and the collar, it is essentially so for those of the leaves ; 
and the leaves are necessary to the elaboration of the sap, and, consequently to 
the nourishment of the plant, A plant, therefore, from which the leaves are con- 
tinually stripped as soon as they are produced, soon ceases to live. Small and 
weak plants, from which the leaves are taken off as they are produced, will die 
in a single season ; and this practice, continued for two seasons, will kill, or 
nearly so, the largest tree. If, instead of stripping a plant of its leaves, the 
leaves are produced in the absence of light, and light never admitted to them, 
the effect will be precisely the same. Seeds germinated, or plants struck from 
cuttings, in the dark, will not exist a single season ; nor will trees, or tubers, 
such as potatoes, placed in an apartment from which all light is excluded. 



CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



7 



live more than two seasons. Hence, the importance of light to plants can 
scarcely be overrated ; for, while it has been proved that plants, even of the 
most perfect kind, will live for many months, or even years, in glass cases 
in which very little change of air has taken place, there is no instance of 
plants, even of the lowest kind, such as ferns and mosses, living for any 
length of time without light. Without light there can be no green in leaves, 
no colour in flowers, and neither colour nor flavour in fruits. 

14. Plants agree with animals in having a sexual system ; but they differ 
from animals in having for the most part both sexes in the same individual. 
In the improvement of plants, as in the improvement of animals, the sexual 
system is a powerful agent ; and what is called cross-breeding is employed 
with as great advantage in the vegetable as in the animal kingdom. It is 
remarkable, that the general laws and results by which the process of cross- 
breeding in both kingdoms is regulated, are the same ; the two parents must 
be two varieties of the same or nearly allied species, and their qualities may be 
diff^erent, but must not be opposite ; the preponderating influence, in point of 
character, is also with the male, and in point of bulk and hardiness with the 
female, as it is in animals. Many of the finest varieties of fruits, culinary 
vegetables, cereal grains, and grasses, have been produced by cross-breeding. 
When cross-breeding is effected between what are considered diff^erent 
species, the oflBpring is a mule, or hybrid, which, in most cases, is incapable 
of maturing seeds, and generall}^, in the course of a few yeai-s, degenerates, 
or reverts to its original parentage. The purple laburnum, which was 
raised from a seed of the common laburnum, fertilised by Cytisus purpureus, 
is an example of a true hybrid. The flowers partake of the colours of those 
of both parents ; and the plant, for two or three years, produced only flowers 
of this kind, which were never succeeded by seeds ; but in the sixth year, 
in some plants, and seventh and eighth in others, branches of Cytisus pur- 
pureus were produced on some parts of the tree, and branches of the com- 
mon yellow laburnum on others, the latter bearing seed. (See Gard. Mag., 
vol. xii. p. 225; and Arh. Brit., vol i. p. 590.) There are, however, instances 
of mules, or true hybrids, producing fertile seeds ; for example, Epiphyllum 
Mastersiie, raised between Epiphyllum specidsum and Cereus speciosissi- 
mus, frequently produces perfect seeds, from which plants have been raised 
partaking of all the characters of the parent hybrid plant. 

15. It would appear, from the case of the purple Laburnum, that a true 
hybrid or mule cannot always be propagated with certainty, even by por- 
tions of the plant, or by what is called extension ; since it never can be 
certain whether the portion taken off^ for propagation will produce the mule 
or one of the parents. As it is uncertain what are, and what are not, very 
distinct species, many of the plants originated by cross-breeding, and con- 
sidered mules, may in reality not be so ; and may, consequently, prove per- 
manent and improved varieties. Some mules, also, such as that between 
the sweetwilliam and the common pink, are much less liable to degenerate 
than others. As some of the most beautiful and useful plants in cultivation 
are cross-bred varieties or mules, particularly among Geraniums, Heaths, 
Roses, Gloxinia, &c., the subject well deserves the attention of the amateur, 
who will find it a source of useful amusement and recreation. 

16. Plants agree with animals in the offspring, when it is raised from seed, 
bearing a general resemblance to the parent ; but as, in every family, the 
children of the same parent diff"er individually in features, temper, disposition, 



8 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS, 



&c., SO, among seedling plants, from the same seed-pod, no two plants will 
be found exactly alike ; and some will occasionally differ considerably from 
all the rest. Nevertheless, it is an undoubted fact, that all seedling plants 
not only possess the character of the species from which they have sprung, 
but even, in by far the greater number of cases, some of the peculiarities of 
the individual. The seeds of any kind of cultivated apple, for example, 
will produce plants, the fruit of all of which will more or less resemble that 
of the parent ; though perhaps some one or two among a hundred may be 
considerably different. Hence, by selecting from beds of seedling plants those 
which are in any way remarkably different from the rest, new varieties are 
procured ; and, till within the last half century, (when artificial cross- 
breeding began to be practised by gardeners,) this was the only way in which 
an improved variety of any species of plant was procured. If the seeds of 
varieties did not produce plants closely resembling their parents, how could 
all the improved varieties of culinary, agricultural, and floricultural plants 
be perpetuated ? That the same law which governs herbaceous plants holds 
good in trees and shrubs cannot be doubted ; and if the seeds of a variegated 
tulip are more likely to produce plants which shall have variegated flowers 
than those of a tulip of only one colour, so we should say the berries of a 
variegated holly are more likely to produce plants with variegated leaves 
than those of a green-leaved holly. If this law did not hold good in ligneous 
as well as in herbaceous plants, how are we to account for the different 
varieties of j^Tibiscus syriacus coming true from seed ? 

17. Plants, like animals, are subject to various diseases, as well as to be 
preyed on by insects, most of which live on plants till they have completed 
their larva state. Plants are also injured by being crowded by other plants, 
either of the same or of different species. When these spring up naturally 
around the cultivated plants, they are called weeds, and the cultivated 
plant is cleared from them by weeding ; as it is in the case of being crowded 
by its own species, or by other cultivated plants, by thinning. Plants are 
also injured by epiphytes, which grow on the outer bark, such as mosses and 
lichens ; and by parasites, which root into their living stems and branches, 
such as the mistletoe, &c. 

18. The life of plants, like that of animals, is limited, but varies in regard 
to duration. Some plants vegetate, flower, ripen seed, and die, in the course 
of a few months, and these are called annuals ; while others, such as the oak 
and some other trees, are known to live upwards of a thousand years. 
In both plants and animals decay commences the moment life is extinct ; 
and in both they are ultimately resolved, first, into a pulpy or other homo- 
geneous mass, fit for manures, and ultimately into certain gases, salts, and 
earths. After death, the decay both of animals and plants may be retarded 
by the same means ; viz., drying, exclusion from the air, or saturating with 
saline or antiseptic substances. 

Sect. II. — Classification of Plants, with a View to Horticulture* 

19. The number of plants is so immense, and the diversity of their ap- 
pearance so great, that without some kind of classification or arrangement 
it would scarcely be possible either to receive or retain any distinct notions 
respecting them. In communicating some positive knowledge of plants, 
therefore, the first step is to show the mode of simplifying this knowledge 
by throwing plants into classes, and other divisions or groups. 



WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. 



9 



20. Plants have been classed according to the Linnean or Artificial System, 
and according to the Jussieuan or Natural System ; but the latter alone is 
of any use in a work like the present. By the Natural System plants are 
thrown into easily recognised groups, bearing a general resemblance, both in 
exterior appearance and in internal properties, and for the most part also 
requiring the same kind of culture. Hence we are enabled to speak of 
plants in masses, which greatly facilitates the discovery and recollection of 
their names, the acquii-ing of knowledge respecting them, and the communi- 
cation of what we know of them to others. 

21. All plants may be divided into three grand classes, founded on their 
structure. The first class is called Dicotyledoneae, from the seedlings having 
two or more seed-leaves, and also Exogenae, from the growth being produced 
from the outside of the stem. The second class is called Monocotyledoneas, 
from the seeds producing only one seed-leaf, and also Endogense, from the 
growth being added from the inside of the stems. The third class is called 
AcotyleddneaB, from the seedling plants being without proper seed-leaves ; Cel- 
lulares, from their structure consisting entirely of cellular tissue ; and Acro- 
gense, signifying increasing by additions to the extremity merely, and not by 
the formation of new matter internally or externally, throughout their whole 
length, as in endogens and exogens. We shall use only the terms Exogens, 
Endogens, and Acrogens. 

22. Exogens are flowering plants, vascular in their structure, furnished 
with woody fibre and spiral vessels ; with stems mostly having distinct layers 
of wood and bark, and- having pith ; the leaves being with branching lateral 
veins, and the seeds with two or more cotyledons. By far the greater num- 
ber of European plants belong to this class, which is readily known, even 
when a fragment of a leaf or a stem is obtained, by the reticulated venation 
of the former, and the concentric circles of the latter. 

23. Endogens are flowering plants with a vascular structure, furnished 
vdth spiral vessels, and imperfectly formed woody fibre ; they have leaves 
with longitudinal or parallel veins, but never reticulated ; and seeds with 
one cotyledon only, or, if two, they are not placed opposite and even with 
each other, as in exogens, but one of them is placed at the side of the other 
in the disposition which botanists call alternate. This class includes all the 
immense order of grasses, and also hyacinths, tulips, narcissi, crocuses, irises, 
and most bulbs ; the well-known yucca or Adam's needle, and all palms. 
From a single fragment of the stem or leaf of an endogen, the class to which 
it belongs can be recognised with as great ease as in the case of exogens. 

24. Acrogens are flowerless plants with a cellular structure, consisting 
either of cellular tissue alone, as in lichens and mosses, or with tissue and 
some few imperfect vessels, as in ferns. They grow by additions to the 
upper extremity only, as the name implies. Their seed is produced without 
apparent flowers ; it is not furnished with cotyledons, and it grows from any 
part of the surface of the plant ; on the under side of the leaf, as in most 
ferns, on the edges of the foliaceous thallus of lichens, and from the extre- 
mities on the sides of mosses. This class of plants is easily recognised by 
the general observer ; lichens, mosses, and fungi being universal, and ferns 
frequent and readily recognised by the markings on the backs of their leaves. 

25. Of these three classes of plants, the exogens are unquestionably the 
highest in the scale of organisation even to the general observer. The leaves 
of the endogens, at least of temperate climates, are almost all simple, and 
have little or no variety in their venation or margins. Those of the nume- 



10 



CLASSIFICATION OP PLANTS, 



rous species which constitute our bulbous flowers have all ribbon-like leaves, 
differing in little except in length and breadth ; and their floral envelopes, 
though splendid in point of colour, are generally more simple than those of 
exogens, being often of one piece or of one series of pieces ; and there is also 
very little variety in their fruit. Compared with acrogens, however, 
endogens are still high in the scale. 

26. To be able to refer any plant that may be met with to the class to 
which it belongs, is already a grand and useful step in the progress of bota- 
nical knowledge ; and in the practice both of botanising and of vegetable 
culture, it is of more real use than a knowledge of the whole system of 
Linnaeus. The moment one botanist or gardener tells another that a plant 
is an exogen, he forms a perfect idea of its structure, and even some 
idea of its culture ; because the leaves of exogens are more numerous 
than those of endogens, and hence, with the exception of the grasses, 
they suffer less from transplanting and mutilation. The leaves of 
endogens, on the other hand, as of all the bulbous plants, are compara- 
tively few, and therefore all of them require to be preserved unin- 
jured. If they are cut off, either in their growing state or when fully 
formed, they are not renewed the same season ; and the bulb not being 
nourished by them, will not flower the following year. Exogens, on the 
other hand, may have their leaves cut off without much injury, especially 
in the early part of the season, as they have an indefinite power of renewing 
them ; and, consequently, what would render an endogen flowerless the fol- 
lowing year, would have little or no effect on an exogen. Grasses, however, 
form an order of endogens which possess the same properties of renewing their 
foliage as exogens ; and hence a grassy surface may be cropped by cattle, or 
mown with the scythe, all the summer, and yet live and thrive. But sup- 
pose a lawn composed of plants of hyacinth, tulip, narcissus, or crocus, the 
leaves of which are not unlike those of the grasses, to be mown when the 
leaves were fully grown ; in that case the plants would not produce another 
leaf that season, and instead of a green lawn we should have the naked earth 
till the following spring. 

27. These three grand classes of plants are divided into orders and tribes, 
genera, species, and varieties. The orders of plants indigenous or cultivated 
in Britain amount to upwards of 200, and the tribes to perhaps a third of 
that amount. The genera amount to upwards of 8,700, and the species to 
upwards of 30,700. {Loud. Hort. Brit.) The botanical varieties are perhaps 
1,000 ; and those of culinary vegetables, fruits, roses, and florists' flowers, may 
amount to perhaps 10,000. Now, though it is not to be expected that any 
individual can know, and bear in his mind, the names of one-tenth of 
these plants, yet it is extremely desirable that he should be able to speak of 
any one of them, when he meets with it, whether it has been previously 
seen by him or not. For example, a very slight degree of attention to a 
plant seen for the first time, will enable any one to determine to which of 
the three grand divisions it belongs. Next, in each grand division there are 
two or three of what may be called popular orders, which orders any person 
may recognise almost at sight ; and to these orders belong fully half the 
plants which are commonly met with in Britain, either in a cultivated or a 
wild state. A knowledge of the grand divisions of these popular orders, 
therefore, will be a grand step gained, and give the gardener or amateur a 
notion of a great number of plants. The grand divisions of Exogens are 
Thalamifldrte, Calycifldrse, CorollifldrsB, and Monochlamydese. 



WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. 



11 



Thalamiflor.^. 

28. This is one of the subdivisions of Exogens, which is characterised by 
the petals of the flowers being distinct, and by the stamens being fixed, to 
the receptacle. There are fifty-eight orders described under this subclass, 
in our Hortus Britannicus, of which those which will be most readily 
recognised by a general observer, or a beginner, are, — jRanunculacese, Cru- 
ciferae, ilfalvacese, and Geraniaceae. 

ii9. ^anunculdcece. — Calyx with deciduous sepals ; petals 3-15 ; stamens 
numerous ; carpels numerous and generally distinct ; herbaceous plants, and 
a few of them suffruticose shrubs, natives of the temperate regions of both 
hemispheres ; leaves alternate or opposite, generally lobed or much divided ; 
flowers often large and showy ; properties, acridity and causticity. P^amiliar 
examples of this order are, the Clematis, Anemone, Hepatica, Ranunculus, 
Hellebore, Columbine, Larkspur, Monkshood, and Peony. 

30. Crucifercs. — Sepals and petals 4 each ; the sepals deciduous, and the 
petals always arranged in the form of a cross. Stamens 4 long and 2 short ; 
stigmas 2 ; fruit a pod with seeds in a double line. Herbaceous plants, 
mostly annuals and biennials, natives of most parts of the world. Leaves 
alternate, all simple, and not much cut. Flowers yellow or white, rarely 
purple. Properties antiscorbutic and stimulant, combined with acridity. 
Familiar examples are the Common Stock, the Wallflower, Honesty, Shep- 
herd's Purse, Rocket, Cress, Cabbage, Mustard, Sea Kale, and Radish. 

31. Malvaceae. — Sepals and petals five each; the sepals generally with 
bracts upon them ; the petals twisted before expansion, and unfolding 
spirally ; the stamens numerous and united together, forming a cylinder 
round the pistillum ; the fruit a ring of carpels, each single-seeded. Herba- 
ceous plants, trees, or shrubs, natives of every part of the world. Leaves 
alternate, stipulate, more or less divided. Flowers for the most part showy. 
Properties, mucilaginous and wholesome. Familiar examples are, the Mallow, 
the Hollyhock, the Lavatera, the Althaea frutex, and the Cotton plant. 

32. Geraniacece. — Sepals 5 ; petals 5 ; stamens 5-10, united together ; car- 
pels 5, united to a long elastic style attached at the top to the beak of the 
receptacle. Herbaceous plants or shrubs with stems tumid and separable at 
the joints ; natives of various parts of the world ; and the more showy species 
almost everywhere cultivated. Leaves simple, either opposite or alternate, 
often lobed and divided ; frequently stipulate. Flowers showy and bright- 
coloured. Properties astringent and aromatic or resinous. Familiar ex- 
amples are. Geranium, Erodium, and Pelargonium. 

33. Other orders belonging to this division, are, — 

Magnoliacesd, containing the Magnolia and other trees and shrubs, (of 
which, however, there are very few,) bearing a close resemblance to this 
well-known ornamental tree. Berberidacese — The Berberry, and similar 
shrubs. NymphcBdcecE — The Water-lily, and similar plants. VapaverdcetB 
— Plants with their flowers and fmits of the general structure of the poppy. 
Yumaridcece — Plants resembling the common Fumitory, ^eseddcece — Mig- 
nonette, and similar plants. Cistdcecs — Cistus-like plants ; easily recognised 
by their flowers, and for the most part by their rough leaves. ViolaridcecB 
— Violet-like plants. Caryophylldcecs. — Plants bearing a general resem- 
blance to the pink. Alsindcecs — Chickweed-looking plants. luindcecE — 
Plants resembling the common Flax. TUidcece — The Lime trees. Camel- 



12 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS, 



/iacese — The Camellias, including the Tea plant. Aurantidcete — The Orange 
trees. Hypericdcecs — Plants resembling and agreeing in characters with 
the St. John's Wort. Acerdcece — Trees and shrubs resembling the Maple 
and Sycamore. Hippocastandcece — The Horse-chesnuts. TropcBoldceca — 
The Indian Cress species. Balsamdcece. — The Balsams. 

There are a number of these orders, such as Tiliacese, CamelH«ce«, .4cer- 
aceae, Hippocastanaceae, &c., which include only one or two genera ; and 
hence, while acquiring a knowledge of the order, a knowledge of the genera 
is obtained at the same time. To recognise these orders, it is necessary for 
a beginner to see the flowers ; but, after a little experience, most of them 
may be discovered by the leaves. 

Calyciflor^. 

84. This second subdivision of Exogens consists of plants having several 
petals with stamens attached to the calyx. It includes about sixty orders, of 
which the more remarkable are, Legumindsae, jRosaceae, Cactaceae, Umbel- 
laceae, Compositae, and i'ricaceae. 

85. Legumindsce. — Sepals and petals five each; the petals papilionaceous, 
or arranged somewhat like the wings of a butterfly ; stamens ten, mostly 
diadelphous, that is, in two bundles ; fruit superior, that is, formed above 
the calyx, and generally becoming a pod. This is one of the most ex- 
tensive orders of plants, consisting of herbs, shrubs, or trees ; natives of 
most parts of the world. Leaves generally compound, alternate, stipulate, 
with the petiole tumid at the base. Flowers in most species yellow, showy. 
Properties farinaceous, resinous, and furnishing various dyes. Almost all the 
trees are either useful or ornamental, and many of the herbs are valuable 
agricultural and garden plants. Familiar examples are, the common Furze, 
Broom, Genista, Cytisus, Clover, Lucerne, Melilot, Indigo, Liquorice, 
Locust Tree of America, Acacia, Mimosa, Bladder- Senna, Astragalus, Saint- 
foin, the Tare, Bean, Vetch, Pea, Kidney-bean, Lupine, and Judas Tree. 
There is scarcely any person who does not know one or other of these 
plants. 

86. "RosdcecB. — Sepals and petals four to five each ; stamens numerous ; 
carpels numerous, distinct as in the bramble, or enclosed in a fleshy calyx 
as in the rose. Trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, natives of every part 
of the world ; many of them producing valuable fruits, and most of them 
having showy, and in many cases fragrant, flowers. Leaves alternate, stipu- 
late, simple, or compound. Flowers large, showy, often of bright colours. 
Properties, astvingency, gum, and hydrocyanic acid. Familiar examples are, 
the Almond, Peach, Apricot, Plum, and Cherry, which form a sub-order 
called ^mygdaleae, the fruit and leaves of all the species of which contain 
Hydrocyanic or Prussic Acid. The common ,S'pirae'a frutex and the yellow- 
flowered Corchorus are examples of another tribe ; and the Raspberry, the 
Strawberry, the Potentilla, and the herb Agrimony, exemplify a third tribe. 
The Ladies' Mantle and the Burnet also represent a tribe : the Rose forms 
a tribe by itself ; and the Hawthorn, Quince, Medlar, Apple, and Pear, 
represent the tribe Pomaceae. 

87. UmhelldcecB. — Sepals, petals, and stamens, five each; styles two; 
fruit achenia or pendent seeds; flowers in umbels. Herbaceous plants, 
with f.stular furrowed stems, natives chiefly of the northern parts of the 
northern hemisphere. Leaves alternate or opposite, usually divided or com- 



WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. 



13 



pound ; rarely simple, sheathing at the hase. Flowers in umbels, white, 
pink, blue, or yellow, not in general very showy ; the umbel surrounded by 
an involucre. Properties of the leaves, stems, and roots, frequently poisonous, 
as in the Hemlock, Water Parsnep, &c. ; but sometimes wholesome, as in the 
Parsle}'-, Carrot, Parsnep, &c. ; the properties of the fruit are usually warm, 
aromatic, and wholesome ; gum is produced by some species. Familiar 
examples are, the Hemlock, Parsley, Caraway, Celery (the leaves of which 
are rendered wholesome by blanching), Angelica, Assafoetida, Fennel, Pars- 
nep, Cow Parsnep, CaiTOt, Chervil, and Coriander. Every one is familiar 
with some plant or other of this order, which may be known from all 
others by the umbels alone. 

38.. Composites. — Flowers compound, that is, numbers set closely together 
on a plate or disk ; anthers united ; seeds solitary, inferior, and mostly 
crowned with a pappus or plume. Herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs; natives 
of most parts of the world. Leaves usually simple, though often much 
divided, alternate, or opposite, without stipules. Stamens frequently showy, 
for the most part yellow. Properties various ; in some astringent, in others 
resinous, mucilaginous, bitter, diuretic, emetic, &c. Familiar examples are, 
the Dandelion, the Lettuce, the Sow Thistle, the Endive, the Artichoke, 
the Burdock, the Thistle, the Everlasting, the Aster, the Golden Rod, the 
Daisy, the Groundsel, the Ragwort, the Marigold, the Chrysanthemum, 
the Chamomile, Tansy, Southernwood, Milfoil, and the Dahlia. All who 
have seen the latter flower and the common Daisy, may distinguish the plants 
of this order at a glance, as readily as in the case of Leguminosae or Umbel- 
lacese. 

89. EricdcecE, — Calyx and corolla four to five cleft ; stamens eight to ten ; 
the latter inserted under the ovary ; anthers opening by pores ; fruit four or 
five celled, a many-seeded capsule, or a berry. Shrubs or under shrubs, 
natives of Europe, North and South America, Asia, and very abundant in 
Africa, more especially in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope. 
Leaves simple, mostly evergreen, without stipules, rigid, entire, whorled or 
opposite, frequently small and linear. Flowers usually bright-coloured and 
very showy. Properties astringent and diuretic, and in some poisonous. 
Familiar examples are, the Arbutus, Andromeda, Heath, Kalmia, Rhodo- 
dendron, and Azalea. A beginner will more readily recognise this order 
by examining the flowers and fruit, than by the general aspect and habit of 
the plant. 

40. Other orders belonging to this division, which are easily recognised by 
those who know the plant after which the order takes its name, are the fol- 
lowing : — i^hamnacese, Calycanthaceae, Granat^ceae, Onagraceee (including 
the CEnotheraand Fuchsm), Philadelphaceae, Jfyrtacese, Cucurbitacese, Pas- 
sifloraceae, Turnerace^e, Cactaceae, Crassulaceae, Grossulacese, ^Saxifragaceae, 
Araliaceae, Caprifoliacese, hohelidcecE, Campanulaceae, Gesnermce<K, and 
various others. To recognise these orders it is necessary, in most cases, to 
see the flowers ; but in the case of the Umbellaceae, as already observed, the 
order may be recognised by the appearance of the flower-stems ; and in Cac- 
taceae by the stems, and the entire plant. A number of the orders contain 
only one or two genera ; and though the list has a formidable appearance 
on paper, yet in the garden the plants of several of the orders occupy but 
comparatively a small space. 



14 



CLASSIFICATION OP PLANTS, 



COROLLIFLOR^. 

The cliaracteristic of this division is — petals united ; stamens fixed to the 
corolla. The most important orders are Scrophulariacese and Lahiaceai : 
both very readily distinguished. 

41. ScrophularidcecB. — Calyx and corolla irregularly four to five cleft; 
stamens two to four ; fruit, a two-celled, many-seeded capsule. Herbs, 
undershrubs, and occasionally shrubs ; natives of, and found in abundance 
in, all parts of the world. Leaves simple, opposite, whorled, or alternate, 
with or without stipules. Flowers axillary or racemose, often showy. Pro- 
perties, acridity and bitterness ; sometimes purgative or emetic. Familiar 
examples are, Buddlea, Snapdragon, Scrophularia, Foxglove, Eyebright, 
Calceolaria, Schizanthus, and Veronica. 

42. LabiacecB. — Calyx tubular, five to ten parted; corolla lipped; sta- 
mens two to four ; seeds four together, enclosed in a general seed-vessel, 
superior; flowers whorled. Herbaceous plants or undershrubs with four- 
cornered stems and opposite ramifications ; natives principally of the tempe- 
rate regions of both hemispheres. Leaves simple or compound, opposite 
without stipules ; aboundmg in pores filled with aromatic oil. Flowers 
sessile, in axillary cymes. Properties tonic, cordial, and stomachic. Familiar 
examples are. Mint, Savory, Thyme, Pennyroyal, Hyssop, Germander, 
Rosemary, Day-nettle, Betony, Ground Ivy, Horehound, Lavender, Balm of 
Gilead, Balm, and Sage. 

43. Other orders in this subdivision are : — Epacridacese, Cape and Aus- 
tralian shrubs resembling Epacris, and frequent in greenhouses, flowering in 
the winter. Myrsinacea?, J^asminaceae, .4sclepiac?«ceie, GevLtiandcece^ Bigno- 
niacese, Cobosace^P, Polemoniaceae, Convolvulaceae, ^oraginaceae, Hydro- 
phyllaceae, jSolanaceae, rerbenaceae, ^cantliaceae, Primulacese, and various 
others. 

MoNOCHLAMYDEiE. 

44. Calyx and corolla not distinct ; that is, the flowers have only a single 
envelope. The principal orders are Amentacese and Comferae. 

45. Amentdcece. — Flowers monoecious ; that is, the male and female in 
separate catkins, but borne on the same plant ; or dioecious, that is, the male 
and female on diff'erent plants. The stameniferous flowers in drooping catkins ; 
fruit solitary, or aggregate ; in some one-celled, enclosed in a sheathed capsule, 
as in the Oak, Chestnut, Beech, Hazel, and Hornbeam ; in others with the 
fruit small and tufted with fine hairs, as in the Willow and Poplar ; and in 
others two-celled, Avith small seeds not enclosed in the receptacle, and not 
clothed with hairs, as in the Birch and Alder. Trees, and some shrubs ; 
natives chiefly of the temperate regions of both hemispheres. Leaves 
simple ; flowers not showy. 

46. ComfercB. — Flowers in catkins generally erect ; fruit a cone, as in 
Pines and Firs ; sometimes with scales compressed so as to resemble a berry, 
as in the Juniper and Yew. Seeds naked. Trees, and some shrubs, natives of 
every part of the world ; often called resiniferous trees. Every one has seen 
a Pine, a Fir, or a Cedar, and their cones ; and the fruit of the Juniper and 
the Yew are not uncommon. The Coniferae are frequently spoken of as in 
two divisions ; the one the ^bietinse, or Pine and Fir tribe ; and the other 
the Cupressinae, or the Cypress and Juniper tribe. 

47. Other orders belonging to this division are : — PlantagmesBj plants 



WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. 



15 



more or less resembling the Plantago, or common Plantain. .4marantliace3e, 
Chenopodiacese, Begonidce^s, Polygonacese, Z/amiaceae, Proteacete, rhyme- 
laeacese, Eui^horhidcece, J/rticacese, T/Imacese, J'uglandacese, Empetraceae. 
Of these the Comferae may generally be known by their foliage ; but the 
others, for the most part, require to be seen in flower, at least by the beginner. 

Endogens. 

48. Endogens have no general subdivisions like the exogens ; but their 
principal orders, with a view to the general observer, are Orchidaceae, Scita- 
minacese, /ridaceae, Amarylliddcece, ^sphodelaceae, TuUpdcece^ Palmaceae, 
and Gramiaaceae. 

49. OrcMddcecE. — Flowers of six sepals, irregular ; stamen and style 
united. Herbaceous plants, often with the stems and leaves perennial ; 
many of them epiphytes, that is, growing on the trunks and branches of 
trees. Leaves simple, quite entire, often articulated with the stem. The 
flowers of this order are so remarkable in their external appearance, that 
when once seen they are easily recognised, either in the indigenous Orchises 
of British marshes and chalky downs which grow in the soil ; or in the 
tropical species kept in stoves, which for the most part grow on the bark of 
the trunk and branches of trees. 

50. Scitamindcece. — Stem formed of the cohering bases of the leaves ; never 
branching. Leaves simple, sheathing one another on the stem. Flowers in 
spikes, racemes, or panicles, with numerous bracts. Tropical herbaceous 
plants, of which the following are examples : the Ginger, the Indian Shot, 
Alpinia, Hedychium, Plantains, and Bananas. 

51. Iriddcew. — Flowers superior ; stamens three, distinct, their anthers 
turned outwards. Herbaceous plants, chiefly bulbs, natives of the Cape of 
Good Hope, but many of them also of Europe. Leaves ensiform, equitant, 
or alike on both sides. Flowers terminal, in spikes, corymbs, or panicles ; 
bright-coloured, large, and showy. Familiar examples are. Iris, Ixia, the 
Tiger Flower, Gladiolus, and Crocus. The latter flower is familiar to all. 

52. AmaryllididiCQ?^. — Flowers superior; stamens six, distinct; their 
anthers turned inwards. Bulbous-rooted herbaceous plants, natives of most 
parts of the world, with ensiform leaves having parallel veins. Flowers with 
sheath-like bracts, large, bright-coloured, and showy. Familiar examples 
are, the Amaryllis, Crinum, Bloodflower, Hypoxis, Narcissus, Snowdrop, 
Summer Snowflake, and Alstroemeria. 

53. hilidcecB. — Flowers inferior, of six divisions ; stamens six. Her- 
baceous plants with bulbous roots, natives of the temperate parts of the 
northern hemisphere. Familiar examples are, the Lily, the Scilla, the 
Hyacinth, Fritillary, Dog's-tooth Violet, Tulip, Star of Bethlehem, As- 
phodel, Butcher's Broom, Solomon's Seal, and Lily of the Valley. The 
TuKp and the Lily are familiar to every one. 

54. ValmdcecB. — Flowers enclosed by a sheath, six-parted ; stamens, six ; 
fruit fleshy or baccate. Trees, sometimes low plants ; always with simple 
stems, very seldom branched, and having the leaves in clusters at the top 
of the stem. Leaves large, pinnated or fan- shaped, folded before expansion. 
Natives of tropical climates, and in Britain only to be seen in hothouses. 
Familiar examples are, the Fan Palm, the Date, the Sago Palm, and the 
Zamia. 

55. Gramindcece, — Plants with hollow round stems, and mostly ever- 



16 



CLASSIFICATION OP PLANTS, 



green leaves. Sheaths of the leaves split on one side. Herbaceous plants, 
and sometimes trees and shrubs, natives of every part of the world, and 
familiar to all. 

56. Other orders belonging to Endogens are : .dtlismacese or Water-Plan- 
tain-like plants, natives of marshes or standing water. SutomaceaB, the 
Flowering Rush, the most ornamental of British water plants; PistiacesB, the 
Duckweed ; Dioscor«ce<e, the Yam; Tamacees, the Black Bryony, a twining 
plant occasionally found in hedges ; ^SmilacesB, the Smilaxes ; Bromelidcea;, 
the Pine Apple ; Commelin«ce<«, Spider Wort ; Typhinaceae, Cat's Tail ; 
^roidaceae, the Arums ; Juncacese, the Rushes ; and CyiperdcecB, the Sedges, 
which are distinguished from the proper grasses by having solid stems. 

ACROGENS. 

57. Acrogens, or vegetables which grow from their upper extremities, 
contain the following principal Orders : i^ilices, Musci, Zichenes, ^'Igse, 
and jPungi. 

58. Y,ilices. — Plants often consisting of a single leaf called a frond, mostly 
without stems ; the leaves are rolled up before expansion, and with equal- 
sized veins. Herbs, and sometimes trees, natives of every part of the world 
in moist shady situations. Familiar examples are, the common Polypody 
of tlie hedges, which is found also on pollards and large trees in moist situ- 
ations, Maidenhair, the Brake, the Hart's Tongue, the Osmunda, the Ad- 
der's Tongue, and the Moonwort. 

59. Musci. — Leafy cellular plants, with fruit in covered capsules. 

60. hichenes — Frondose plants with seeds in receptacles of various kinds, 
of the same substance as the frond. 

61. A'lg<js. — Cellular water plants, chiefly found in the sea ; bearing fruit 
in bladders either attached to, or imbedded in, the surface of the frond or 
leaf-like plate. A common example of this order is the green hair-like 
Conferva, found in ditches and stagnant waters. 

62. Fungi. — Succulent masses without leaves, veins, or fronds, and 
bearing their sporules, or substitutes for seed, in tubular cells. Familiar 
examples are, the common Mushroom and Toadstool. 

63. Other orders of Acrogens are JS'quisetaceae, or plants resembling the 
common Equisetum or Horsetail, which to general observers is distinguished 
by its terminal catkin from the Mare's-tail, in which the flowers are axillary. 
Characeai or floating water-plants, consisting of a leaf and root ; and Lyco- 
podiacese, which are moss-like plants, bearing a general resemblance to 
the common club moss. All these orders may be recognised without refer- 
ence to flowers or fruit, and they are chiefly of botanical interest. 

64. If the reader has profited from the preceding part of this section in 
the manner in which we have wished him, he will have learned, when 
endeavouring to describe a plant which he has seen to another person who 
has not seen it, not to begin with the leaves and flowers and similar details, 
but with the general appearance of the plant, and the resemblance which it 
has to known plants, either single species, or orders, tribes, or genera. It is 
in genera] of far more importance to be able to determine the order to which 
a plant belongs, than its mere generic and specific name ; unless, indeed, the 
knowledge of tliis serves as a key to books from which the natural order 
may be learned, and consequently something of the properties of the plant 



WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. 



17 



ascertained. We therefore repeat our recommendation to grown-up pupils, 
to begin their study of plants by looking at them in masses or groups ; after 
which they may correct and render more definite the knowledge thus 
acquired, by a study of all the separate parts of plants. In like manner, if 
we were to recommend what we consider the best mode of getting a know- 
ledge of grammar, we should begin with sentences ; or of the exterior effect 
of buildmgs, we should recommend, first, attention to the outline and the 
general masses ; and next, an examination of the doors, windows, cornices, 
and other details; and finally of the bricks or stones of the walls, and 
the slates or tiles of the roof. To a young person, on the other hand, 
we should recommend the contrary mode, in botany, in grammar, and in 
architecture. 

65. Besides characterising plants according to the natural orders to which 
they belong ; when cultivators are speaking of plants with a view to their 
art, they employ a number of terms which, though not rigidly scientific, 
are all more or less useful, as enabling us to speak of plants in groups or 
masses. The principal of these are as follow : 

65. Evei^greens. — Plants which retain their leaves green throughout the 
winter. The principal British evergreen trees, are the Coniferae, the Ever- 
green Oak, and the Holly ; but there are many evergreen shrubs. Evergreen 
herbaceous plants are not very numerous ; but we have the Pink, Carnation, 
Sweetwilliam, many of the Saxifrages. Silenes, the Perennial Flax, some 
Campanulas, and all the perennial Grasses. 

66. Suhevergreens. — Plants which retain their leaves green through the 
winter, and drop them in spring, so that they are for two or three weeks 
without leaves. The principal trees are : the varieties of the Lucombe and 
Fulham Oaks, Turner's Oak, Quercus Pseudo-,S'uber, and one or two others. 
Of shrubs there are a number ; such as Buddlea globosa, Aristotelia Mdcqui, 
Photinia serrulata, Cotoneaster frigida, some kinds of Genista, Piptanthus 
nepalensis, Ribes glutuiosum, &c. Subevergreen herbaceous plants are : Q^no- 
thera biennis and several other species, Pentstemon, Cheldne, Asters, &c. 

67. Persistent-leaved plants are such as retain their leaves after they have 
withered and become brown, till the spring. Examples of trees are, the 
Beech, Hornbeam, and Turkey Oak when young, Quercus Tauzin, and some- 
times the common Oak ; and there are one or two shrubs, such as Rhus 
Cotinus ; and some herbaceous plants, such as Pulsatilla. 

68. Deciduous-leaved plants are those that drop their leaves in the autumn, 
which is the case with the great majority of plants, whether trees, shrubs, 
or herbs, in all extra-tropical countries. 

69. Ligneous plants are such as have woody stems and branches. 

70. Sujfruticose plants are such as have stems intermediate between woody 
and herbaceous ; as, for example, the Tree Peony, the Sage, the Carnation, 
the Tree Lavatera, &c. 

71. Trees, when young, are scarcely to be distinguished from shrubs, both 
coming up with a single stem ; but a tree, if left to itself, ultimately becomes 
a plant with a single erect stem, and a branchy head. Thus the common 
Mountain Ash, though it seldom grows above thirty feet high, is a perfect 
tree ; while the common Laurel, which will attain the height of forty or 
fifty feet much sooner than the Mountain Ash wUl thirty feet, never has an 
erect stem, and has generally several stems rising together, and is therefore 
considered a shrub Trees are commonly divided into large, small, and 

c 



18 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 



middle-sized. Most fruit trees are considered low trees; trees between 
thirty and fifty feet are middle-sized ; and those of greater height large. 

72. Shrubs are either large, as when they exceed twenty feet; small, 
if under four feet ; or undershruhs if under two feet, such as the Thyme 
and Rosemary, and many Heaths. Shrubs climb by twining, as exemplified 
in the Honeysuckle ; by clasping with tendrils or leaves, as in the Vine, the 
Five-leaved Ivy, and the Clematis ; or by elongation, as in the iycium and 
5olanum Dulcamara ; or by attachment of the rootlets, as m the common Ivy. 
Shrubs are also distinguished as trailers, when the shoots lie along the ground 
without rooting into it ; as stoloniferous, when the shoots ramble along the 
ground, and root into it at certain distances, as in the Bramble ; as creeping, 
when they root at every joint, as in some species of i2hus; and as recum- 
bent, when the shoots recline without spreading or rooting, as in many 
species of Cytisus. 

73. Herbaceous plants may also be similarly divided. 

With reference to their habits, plants are called alpines, hill, or moun- 
tain plants, marsh, aquatic, bog, heath, wood, copse, hedge, meadow, and 
pasture plants. With respect to soil, a very common division is into peat- 
earth plants or American border plants (from the soil for American plants 
being generally peat), and common garden soil plants. 

Herbaceous plants are also distinguished as florists' flowers, such as the 
Auricula, Tulip, Hyacinth, &c., \vhich have been long cultivated by florists, 
who have laid down canons or rules, by which the merits of flowers are to be 
tested ; border flowers, or such as are adapted for growing in a miscellaneous 
ornamental border ; botanic plants, or such as are chiefly interesting to 
botanists ; shrubbery flowers, or such large coarse-growing species as are 
adapted for growing among shrubs ; rockwork plants, or such as from their 
native habitation, and low compact habit of growth, are considered as adapted 
for rockwork ; and pot plants, or such as for the same qualities are adapted 
for growing in pots. There are also lawn plants, or such as are adapted for 
growing singly on a lawn, as the Peony ; and covering plants, such as the 
rerbena Melindres^ which are adapted for covering beds and parterres wdth 
masses of flowers of the same colour. The common divisions of herbaceous 
plants into annual, biennial, perennial, bulbous, tuberous, ramose-rooted, 
and fibrous-rooted, it is unnecessary here to describe, 

74. The uses of plants have given rise to several divisions ; such as horti- 
cultural plants, agricultural, culinary, medicinal, tinctorial, pomological and 
other plants bearing edible fruit; graniferous, pasturage, and herbage 
plants ; hedge plants, or such ligneous species as are adapted for growing as 
hedges ; copsewood plants, or such as shoot up freely from the stool or collar 
when cut down, and are consequently adapted for copsewoods ; seaside plants, 
or such as are adapted for standing the sea-breeze, &c. 

75. Plants are also distinguished as having variegated foliage ; or anoma- 
lous foliage, in which plants having naturally simple or entire leaves, exhibit 
them occasionally much divided, as in the Fern-leaved Beech, Cut-leaved 
Lime, &c. ; as having double flowers, which, in the earlier ages of gardening, 
was considered the greatest beauty which a plant could have ; as being 
dwarfs, and lower than the normal size; or tall, and higher than the 
normal size. Considered with reference to climate, plants are described as 
hardy, growing in the open air without protection ; half-hardy, requiring 
some kind of protection ; frame, requiring the protection of gla^s without 



NOMENCLATURE OF PLANTS. 



19 



heat ; greenhouse plants, requmng glass with heat ; and hothouse plants, 
which may be either dry-stove plants, such as Cacti, Aloes, Crassulas, &c., 
which require a high degree of heat with a dry atmosphere, or damp-stove 
plants, such as the Orchidacese, which require a high degree of moist heat. 

Sect. III. — Nomenclature of Plants^ with a view to Horticulture. 

76. The principles on which plants are named ought to be kno\\Ti to the 
young gardener and the amateur ; partly because tiiey ought not to be 
entirely ignorant of anything closely connected with their pursuit, and 
partly because the names of plants sometimes indicate ideas respecting 
their nature and culture. The names of the grand divisions, as we have 
already seen, are compounded of Greek words expressive of the structure 
or character of the division or subdivision. The names of the orders are, for 
the most part, without meaning in themselves, further than as being the 
names of certain genera which are considered as the types of the orders, all 
the plants of which have a close general resemblance to that genus in struc- 
tu re and properties. The same may be said of the names of tribes. 

77. The names of the genera of plants are chiefl}^ compounded of Greek 
words signifying something respecting the plant, as Chionanthus, snow-flower, 
from the snow}'- whiteness of the blossoms, or Gypsophila, because the plant 
loves chalky soil ; or they are commemorative of individuals, as Smithia, after 
Sir James Smith. Occasionally, but rarely, they are named after countries 
or a people, as ^rmeniaca from Armenia, and Araucaria from the Arauca- 
nians, a people of Chili. By far the greater number of generic names are after 
persons, and those in tliis volume, and in all our other works, are distinguished 
by having the letters additional to the name in italics, as explained with 
other matters at the end of the Preface. Specific names are generally Latin 
adjectives expressing some obvious quality of the plant ; or proper names 
used adjectively, to signify the change that has taken place in removing the 
species from the genus, of which the adjective was the name ; as for example, 
Veronica Chamaj'drys indicates that Chamae'drys was formerly the generic 
name of that species of Veronica. Commemorative names are also used as 
specific names, sometimes in the genitive case, as Ferbena Drummondi, in- 
dicating that the plant was discovered or originated by Mr. Drummond ; or 
with the addition of ana as Ferbena Tweediawa, indicating that the plant 
was named in honour of Mr. Tweedie. Specific names also often indicate 
the situation or the country where the plant is found naturally, as paliistris 
growing in marshes, or edinburgensis growing about Edinburgh. 

78. The names of varieties of plants given by Botanists follow the same 
laws as those of species ; but the names given by horticulturists and florists 
are sometimes indicative of properties, as large, small, &c., and for the 
most part fanciful, and sometimes whimsical. In general, culinary vege- 
tables and fruits bear the name of the person who raised them, with the 
place where they were raised, with or without the addition of some adjective 
expressing their properties, as Forest's Large Upsal Cabbage, Reid's New 
Golden Pippin, &c. The names applied to varieties of gooseberries, florists' 
flowers, and roses, are for the most part given in honour of individuals; some- 
times they indicate a quah'ty, as Brown's Scarlet Verbena, and sometimes 
they imply a superiority, or a challenge, as the Top-Sawyer gooseberry, or 
Cox's Defiance Dahlia. The Dutch give their florists' flowers many high- 
sounding titles, which at first sight appear ridiculous ; but in giving them 

c 2 



20 



STRUCTURE OF PLAINTS, CONSIDERED 



they intend at once to compliment their patrons, and to describe something 
of the nature of the flower: thus the letters W.,Y.,0.,R.,C.,P.,V.,B.,&c., 
when capitals, are understood to mean white, yellow, orange, red, crimson, 
purple, violet, blue ; and hence, when a flower is named William the Con- 
querer, or Wonder of Constantinople, its colours are understood to be white 
and crimson ; Charming Phyllis, crimson and purple ; British Rover, blue 
and red, Sec. It is always desirable to know the meaning of a name, or 
even to know that it has no meaning ; in the former case some positive ideas 
are obtained, and in both the memory is assisted. 

Sect. IV. — Structure of Plants, with a view to Horticulture. 

79. The anatomy of a plant furnishes us with numerous component 
parts, of which we can do little else than enumerate those more imme- 
diately connected with the practice of horticulture. 

80. Elementary organs consist of cellular tissue, or transparent vesicles 
which adhere together so as to form a substance more or less compact, 
which, in the leaves, fills up the interstices between the veins, and forms 
the parenchyma. Woody fibre is an elementary organ consistmg of 
elongated tubes, wliich are found more or less in most plants, and especially 
in the wood and inner bai'k, among parenchymous matter. Spiral vessels, 
consisting of elastic tissue twisted spirally within a membrane, are found 
in the medullary sheath, but rarely in the wood, bark, and root, and they 
scarcely exist in acrogens. Plants furnished with them are called Vascu 
lares ; a term which includes both exogens and endogens ; and plants without 
them are called Cellulares, in which the acrogens are included. Other forms 
of elementary tissue are : the ducts, which are transparent tubes marked 
with lines or dots ; the cuticle, which is a thin skin covering the leaf ; and 
the stomata, which are pores scattered over the cuticle, or epidermis, of the 
leaves. Grafting and budding are founded on the affinity of the elementary 
organs in different species. 

81. Compound organs are combinations of the elementary organs, and 
consist of the axis and its appendages ; two words which comprise the whole 
vegetable structure. The axis may be compared to the vertebral column of 
animals, and is formed by the development of a seed, a bulb, or other germ, 
or of a leaf-bud. An embryo is the origin of a plant contained within a 
seed, and it diff'ers from a bulb or bud in bemg produced by the agency of 
sexes. When a seed or a bud is excited by its inherent vital action, the 
tissue of which it is composed, and which has the power of generating new 
tissue Oy the growth of one elementary vesicle out of another, developes 
itself in three directions, upwards, downwards, and horizontally. The part 
which descends is called the descending axis or root ; the opposite part the 
ascending axis or stem ; and the horizontal elongations, which are chiefly 
leaves and buds, are called the appendages of the stem. 

82. The root begins to be formed before the stem ; from which it diff'ei'S 
anatomically, in the absence of spiral vessels, of pith, of buds, with certain 
exceptions, and of stomata. The uses of roots are to fix plants in the soil, 
and to absorb nutriment from it by their spongioles. 

83. The stem is generated by the development of the plumule of the seed, 
and increased by the development of leaf-buds. If a ring of bark be cut oflF 
from the stem of an exogenous plant, below a branch or even at the base of 
a growing shoot of the current year covered with leaves, or if a ligature be 



WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. 



21 



made round the stem in a similar situation, the part of the stem above the 
wound or ligature swells and increases in thickness, while that below it does 
not ; a proof that, in exogenous plants, the matter by which stems are thick- 
ened descends. Hence, when a shoot is cut through immediately below a 
leaf-bud, the portion of the shoot left dies back to the next bud. Hence, 
also, has arisen the technical expression of " cut to the bud which means 
that, in pruning or cutting off a shoot, the section should be made so close 
to a bud as that the wound may soon be healed over, and no stump left, 
as is the case in gardens where trees have been carelessly pruned. The 
greater the number of leaves on a shoot, or of leaf-buds on a stem or branch, 
the greater will be the diameter of the parts below the leaves, buds, or 
branches, and the contrary. 

84. Stems are either exogenous, growing from the outside ; endogenous, 
growing from the interior ; or acrogenous, growing by elongation or dila- 
tation, and mostly without buds. Exogenous stems consist of the pith, a 
fungus-like matter occupying the small cylindric space in the centre of the 
stem, and never increasing in diameter ; of the medullary sheath, consisting 
of a thin cylinder of spiral vessels and ducts immediately surrounding the 
pith ; and of the wood, which surrounds the medullary sheath in the form 
of concentric layers, which layers are penetrated by projections from the 
pith called medullary rays. In general every concentric layer requires a 
year for its production ; and hence the age of a tree may be known by the 
number of rings shown in the section of the main stem. In woody stems of 
several years' growth, the interior of the wood is rendered hard by the 
deposition of secreted matter, and is called heartwood ; while the more 
recent exterior layers are known as soft wood or alburnum. 

85. The hark surrounds the young wood, and like it consists of concentric 
layers, one being added yearly on the inside, between the previously ex- 
isting bark and the alburnum. Every layer of bark consists of woody fibre, 
and ducts covered with parenchymous matter ; the two former constituting 
the liber, or inner bark, and the latter the cellular integument, epidermis, 
or outer bark. The uses of the bark are, to protect the alburnum, to serve 
as a channel for the descending sap, and sometimes to serve as a medium 
for the deposition of the peculiar properties of plants. 

86. The medullary rays or plates consist of compressed vertical parallelo- 
grams of cellular tissue, which connect together the different layers of wood, 
and serve, at least in trees that are without dead wood in the centre of their 
stems, as a communication between the pith and the bark. Between the 
liber and the alburnum, a viscid secretion is found in spring, which renders 
trees easily disbarked at that season, and this secretion is called cambium. 
It has been supposed to nourish the descending fibres of the buds, and to 
originate medullary rays. 

87. Endogenous plants have stems which offer no distinction of pith, 
medullary rays, wood, and bark ; the whole structure being composed of 
bundles of vascular tissue among a mass of cellular tissue, surrounded by a 
zone of cellular tissue and woody fibre : but, as this exterior zone is not sepa- 
rable from what it encloses by any natural division, it is consequently not bark. 
Endogenous stems increase by the successive descent of new bundles of 
vascular tissue into the cellular tissue towards the centre of the stem, and 
these bundles of tissue gradually distend those previously formed, by 
which means the diameter of the stem is slowly increased in thickness, and 

' its circumference in hardness. After this hardness has reached a certain 



22 



STRUCTURE OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED 



point, it can no longer be distended, and the diameter ceases to increase. 
Hence, generally, the life of an endogenous tree seems more limited than that 
of an exogen ; because it is well known that trees of the latter kind will 
live for an indefinite period, and even for centuries, after the interior of the 
trunks have become entirely rotten, and their circumference separated so as 
to form vertical sections, or fragments of trunks, with rotten wood on one 
side, and living bark and gi'owing shoots on the other ; the increase both of 
bark and wood still going on. Endogens differ from exogens in commonly 
developing only a terminal bud, as in Palms, in which case the stem is of 
the same thickness tlu'oughout, and cylindrical ; but when several buds deve- 
lope themselves, as in the stem of the Asparagus, and in that of the Bamboo, 
the stem becomes conical like the stems of exogens. 

88. I'hough the normal direction of stems and branches is upwards, or 
at all events above the surface of the ground, yet there are exceptions in the 
case of creeping roots, as in the Everlasting Pea ; in rhizomas, which are un- 
derground stems, as in the Water-lily, and the common Reed ; in tubers, 
which are stems under the surface, as in the Potato ; and in corms, as in the 
Crocus, the root of which, though commonly called a bulb, is, botanically, a 
dilated stem. 

89. JVodi, or knots, are the places where buds are formed, and intei-nodia 
the spaces between them Whatever is produced by a leaf-bud is a branch, 
which, when in a growing state, is called a shoot. Leaf-buds sometimes are 
imperfectly developed so as to form a spine, with or witliout leaves, as in the 
common Hawthorn ; and such spines are therefore imperfectly developed 
brajiches. All growths from the stems which are not the evolutions of leaf- 
buds, as for example the prickles, are modifications of the cellular matter, 
and of the epidermis of the bark. The uses of prickles to the plant appear 
to be imperfectly understood. 

90. Buds are either leaf-buds or flower-buds, and the former are either 
regular or adventitious. Regular leaf-buds are only found in the axils of 
the leaves, or in the axils of their modifications. Hence, as scales, stipules, 
bracts, sepals, petals, stamens, and carpellas, are considered as metamor- 
phosed leaves, adventitious buds are believed to exist in their axils ; though 
they are rarely developed in a state of nature and only sometimes by artifi- 
cial processes. Regular buds alone develope themselves untouched by art 
or accident ; and, hence, whatever may be the arrangement of the buds, 
the same will be that of the branches. Adventitious leaf-buds are found 
suiTounding the bases of regular leaf-buds, and in general where there is 
an anastomosis of woody fibre. They are found in the roots of a number 
of plants, and sometimes on the margin of leaves, or at the base of their 
petioles ; they are never visible either on the root or stem till they begin to 
develope themselves and burst through the bark. 

91. Leaves are expansions of the bark, and only found at the nodi of the 
stem. They are developed as the stem advances in growth, one above and 
after another, opposite, alternate, or verticillate, and in each of these modes 
with greater or less regularity. A complete leaf consists of a petiole or foot- 
stalk, a lamina or disk, and a pair of stipulae or small side leaves at the base 
of the petiole. The lamina is sometimes wanting or changed in shape, and 
sometimes the petiole is extended, and instead of terminatmg in a lamina, it 
assumes a cylindrical wirelike figure, and becomes a tendril. The veins of 
leaves branch in all exogenous plants, with the exception of the orders Coni- 
ferse and CjcadejB, the stems of which have an exogenous structure, while 



WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. 



23 



the veins are parallel like those of endogens. The veins of a leaf are in two 
strata, the one forming tlie upper, and the other the nnder surface ; the 
former conveying the juices from the stem for elaboration, and the latter 
returning them when elaborated. Simple leaves have undivided laminae, or 
laminae divided but not articulated ; in the latter case it is a compound leaf, 
as in the Mimosa, and in what would, at first appearance, seem a simple leaf, 
the Orange. Some leaves have a power of producing leaf-buds, but com- 
monly not till they have dropped off and lain some time on moist ground, as 
in Bryophyllum, Malaxis, and some tropical Ferns. 

92. Hairs are minute expansions of tissue, found occasionally in all parts 
of the plant above ground, but chiefly on the under surface, and they are in- 
tended for the purposes of secretion, for the control of evaporation, and for 
the protection of the surface on which they are placed. 

93. Flower-buds consist of floral envelopes and sexes, and they either pro- 
ceed from the axillae of common leaves, or from those of bracts or floral 
leaves. The floral envelopes are connected with the stem by a peduncle. 
The modes in which flower-buds are arranged on a stem, which are various, 
are called the forms of inflorescence ; and the order in which they expand is 
called the order of expansion. 

94. Inflorescence is the ramification of that part of the plant bearing the 
flowers, and it is in general either terminal, that is, at the end of the branch ; 
or axillary, proceeding from the axils of the leaves. Both these kinds of inflo- 
rescence assume a great many dififerent forms which cannot be here detailed. 

95. The floral envelopes consist of the calyx and corolla, both of which are 
generally present, but sometimes only one, which in that case is considered 
the calyx ; and sometimes both are wanting, as in apetalous flowers. The 
divisions of the calyx are called sepals, and those of the corolla petals. 

96. The sexes of plants consist of the male organs, or stamens, and the 
female organs, or pistilla, with a process, usually an annular elevation, 
which occurs between them, referred by former botanists to the nectary, but 
now called the disk. The pistillum occupies the centre of the flower within 
the stamens, and it consists of three parts, the ovarium, the style, and 
the stigma. The ovarium is the lowest part, and encloses the ovula or 
young seeds, in one or more vacuities called cells ; the stigma is the summit 
of the pistillum, which is connected with the ovarium by the style. This 
last part is sometimes wanting, but the ovarium and stigma are always 
present. Those parts of the pistillum which remain, and continue growing 
after the floral envelopes and the stamens have decayed, are called carpels, 
which are sometimes united, as in the Poppy, and sometimes separated, as in 
the Ranunculus. 

97. Tlie ovulum is the infant seed united to the interior of the carpella by 
the placenta, to which it is attached by the funiculus, podosperm, or 
umbilical cord. 

98. The fruity in a strict botanical sense, is the mature pistillum ; but, in 
a less strict sense, it is applied to the pistillum and floral envelopes taken 
together, and united in one general mass. All fruit, except those of the 
Coniferee and Cycadese which have no ovarium, indicate upon their surface 
some traces of a style ; and, wherever this is the case, what are apparently 
and commonly called seeds, as the grains of Com and other Grasses, are pro- 
perly fruits. When the pistillum has become mature fruit, what was the 
ovarium takes the name of pericarpium. 



24 



FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED 



99. Fruits are either simple, proceeding from a single flower, as in the 
Poppy, Rose, Strawberry, Apple, &c. ; or compound, formed out of several 
flowers, as in the Mulberry, the Fig, and all the Coniferse. When simple 
fruits are formed of a single carpellum, they are called follicles, as in tlie 
Peony ; legumes, as in the Pea ; drupes, as in the Peach ; akenia, as in the 
strawberry ; cariopsis, as in Corn ; or utricles, as in the Chenopodium. The 
capsule is a many-celled dry pericarpium, as in the Poppy ; the silique is a 
pod, consisting of two or four carpella, as in the Cabbage tribe, and all the 
Cruciferse. The nut or gland is a dry, bony, one-celled fruit, enclosed in an 
involucrum, cupula, or cup, as in the Oak ; the berry is a succulent fruit, 
the seeds of which lose their adhesion when ripe, and lie loose in the pulp, as 
in the Grape and the Gooseberry ; the Orange is also a berry separable into 
an epicarp, or outer skin, and endocarp or central part in which the seeds 
are fixed, and a sarcocarp or fleshy substance between the epicarp and the 
endocarp ; the pome consists of two or more inferior carpella united, as in 
the Apple ; and the pepo is a pulpy fruit in which the seeds are embedded, 
but their point of attachment never lost, as in the Cucumber. Of all these 
fruits, the most remarkable are : the Pine-apple, which is a spike of inferior 
flowers grown together into a fleshy mass ; the Fig, which is the fleshy hollow 
dilated apex of a peduncle, in the interior of which the flowers are arranged, 
each flower containing a one- seeded pericarpium ; and the cone of the ^bie- 
tinse, which is an indurated amentum ; and when reduced in size, and its 
scales so firmly adhering as almost to resemble a berry, is called a galbulus, 
as in 2^huja and J'uniperus. 

100. The seed is a mature ovulum, and consists of the integument or testa, 
the albumen or perisperm, and the embrj^o, which consists of the cotyle- 
dons, the radicle, the plumula, and the collar or neck. As all ovula are 
enclosed within an ovarium, and all seeds are matured ovula, there can 
be no such thing as naked seed, except in Comferse and Cycadeas, in 
which the ovula are destitute of every covering, and exposed naked to the 
influence of the pollen. In consequence of some ovula rupturing the ovarium 
in the course of their growth, the seeds become naked, as in Leontice ^halic- 
troides ; while in some, as in J?eseda, the ovula are imperfectly protected by 
the ovarium, and in that case also the seeds are naked. When a seed 
is separated from the placenta, and the umbilical cord is removed, a scar 
appears on the point Avhere it was attached, which is called the hilum 
or umbilicus. It is very distinct in the common Bean, and in all the Legu- 
mindsae. The hilum always represents the base of the seed, or that part 
whence the roots proceed ; and hence it ought to be placed undermost when 
the seed is committed to the soil. In curved seeds, however, as in the 
Mignonette, the apex and base are brought together; and in sowing such 
seeds they should be laid on their side. There is much to study on the 
subject of seeds, both with a view to a scientific knowledge of plants and to 
their culture, and we must therefore recommend the reader to study either 
Lindley's Outlines of the First Principles of Botany^ or his Introduction to 
Botany^ 8rd edit., 1839 ; the last being by far the most complete work of 
the kmd extant. 

Sect. "V . — Functions of Plants, with reference to Horticulture. 

101. The development of a plant takes place in consequence of the elas- 
ticity, excitability, and hygroscopicity of its tissue ; and it requires the 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



25 



presence : 1. of " substances containing carbon and nitrogen, and capable of 
yielding these elements to the growing plant ; 2. of water and its elements ; 
and 8, of a soil to furnish the inorganic matters, which are likewise essential 
to vegetable life." {Liebig, P* 4.) A summary view of the whole process 
of vegetable development is thus given by Professor Henslow : " Plants 
absorb their nutriment by their roots ; this nutriment is then conveyed 
through the stem into the leaves • there it is subjected to a process by w'hich 
a large proportion of water is discharged ; the rest is submitted to the action 
of the atmosphere, and carbonic acid is first generated and then decomposed 
by the action of light. Carbon is now fixed under the form of a nutri- 
tive material, w^hich is conveyed back into the system ; and this material 
is farther elaborated for the development of all parts of the structure, and 
for the preparation of certain secreted matters which are either retained 
wdthin or ejected from the plant/' (^Descriptive and Physiological Botany^ 
p. 176.) This short passage comprehends the essence of all that can be said 
on the subject of vegetable development ; but, for the purposes of horticul- 
ture, it will be useful to go more into detail, and to consider vegetable de- 
velopment under the form of germination, growth, function of the leaves, 
action of the flowers, and maturation of the fruit and seed. 

102. Germination. — The seed containing an embryo plant, its develop- 
ment is effected by its being placed in suitable cu'cumstances for that purpose. 
These are, moisture, warmth, the absence of light, and contact with air ; to 
which may be added, with a view to cultivation, the presence of soil. The 
undeveloped seed is principally composed of concentrated carbon ; and, in the 
act of germination, this carbon, by the absorption of water, is converted into 
mucUaginous matter, which is decomposed and rendered soluble by the 
oxygen of the atmosphere. Thus it appears that the first act of germination 
is to reverse the process of maturation ; and hence the reason why all seeds, 
if sown fresh when they are nearly ripe, wdll germinate more speedily than 
when fully ripe ; and when fully ripe, sooner if sown immediately than if 
kept for months or years. The soluble mucilage of the cotyledons supplies 
the embryo plant wdth nourishment till it is able to extract food from 
the soil, after which it absorbs food from the soO by the points of its 
radicles. Seeds will not germinate without the presence of oxygen. In 
nitrogen, or in carbonic acid gas, if moistened with water, they will 
swell, but not vegetate. Hence seeds excluded from the atmosphere and 
from water may be preserved from decay for an indefinite period ; but it 
does not follow that during the whole of this period they will retain 
their vital principle. The presence of light is not only unnecessary to the 
germination of seeds, but injurious ; and hence, in horticulture, they are 
always more or less buried in the soil, generally to a depth equivdent to 
the diameter of the seed. The temperature required to germinate seeds 
varies from 32° to 80° or 90° ; and some seeds, such as those of the Robima 
Pseud- Jcacia, and of some species of Australian Acacias, may be immersed in 
water at the boiliag point, and kept for some minutes in it, without destroy- 
ing vitality. The seeds of no plant will vegetate under 32°, because below 
that degree water freezes, and consequently could not be absorbed by the 
tissue of the seed. The common Annual Grass (Poa annua) will vegetate at, 
or very slightly above, that temperature ; as will the Chickweed ( Jlsine 
media), the common Day-Nettle (iamium rubrum), and various others. The 
process of malting barley is exactly the same as that of germinating a seed. 
By moistening the barley, it swells, the starch of the cotyledon is changed 



26 



FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED 



into sugar, and absorbed by the embryo, the radicle being protruded at 
one end of the grain or seed, and the plumule or commencement of the stem 
elongated at the other. 

103. Growth in plants is eflfected, not as in animals by the expansion of 
all the parts of the embryo, but by additions to it. Thus roots and stems 
lengthen by matter added to their extremities ; and are thickened by layers 
of matter deposited on their surface in the case of exogenous plants, and in 
the interior of their stems and roots in the case of endogens. In the embryo, 
the root first begins to move by the extension of all its parts, but imme- i 
diately after it is protruded into the soil, and the young stem is elevated i 
into the air, the root ceases to increase by the general distention of its tissue, | 
and grows by the addition of new matter to its point. Hence the extreme ' 
delicacy of the poiats of young roots, which, like all the newly formed parts ' 
of vegetable matter, are extremely hygrometrical, absorbing water like a . 
sponge, and hence are called spongelets or spongioles. Roots, from their 
organic structure, are not permeable by water throughout their whole i 
length, and it is only by means of the spongioles at the extremities of the 
small fibres that they absorb nourishment. In general, the buds of plants 
have a power of producing roots from their base, in a manner analogous to 
seeds ; but much greater care is required on the part of the cultivator to 
bring about this process, and with many plants it will not succeed. In 
some, it may be effected by taking off a mature bud, and placing it in the 
soil, like a seed ; but, in most plants, it is requisite to preserve a portion of 
the stem along with the bud, as in striking Vines by buds ; in others it is re- 
quisite to have a plate of the bark, with or without a portion of the soft 
wood, as in propagating by budding on the living plant ; and in some a leaf 
or leaves are requisite. Roots are also protruded from all parts of the stems 
of some plants, as of most kinds of Willow ; and from the joints imme- 
diately under the buds of most plants. On this last property depends the art 
of propagating plants by cuttings inserted in the soil. In some plants cuttings 
of the matured wood without leaves will emit roots : but ui many others, and 
ilideed in most plants, roots are most freely produced from cuttings of unripe 
or partially ripened wood, with the leaves on, and in a growing state ; and 
even in those cases in which roots are produced from cuttings having no 
leaves, if leaves are not speedily produced, the roots will decay, and the 
cuttings will die. In short, the connexion between leaves and roots is as 
intimate in cuttings, whether of stems, branches, or tubers, as it is between 
the radicle and the plumule of the seed. A portion of the tuber of a Dahlia, 
which has no bud, will produce roots ; and we have known these to live, and 
the tuber to remain fresh, for upwards of a year, without leaves having been 
protruded ; ultimately, however, the roots decayed, and the tubers soon after- 
progress of the plant, in the growmg season, yet they continue to perform 
their office even in the winter season, unless the soil which contains them 
should be frozen. In this case they are much injured, and the spongioles are 
w^ards rotted. Though roots are most active, and most essential to the 
ruptured and destroyed ; but, when the growing season returns, new spon- 
gioles are formed, commonly branching out from the fibres more numerously 
than before. This result is sometimes produced by overpowerful liquid 
manures poured on the roots of plants, which destroy the spongioles, and 
cause tlie fibres to throw out a greater number. As plants absorb their food 
chiefly, and almost entirely, by their roots, and as it has been proved that in 
general the spongioles have no power of selection, it follows that plants may 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



27 



be poisoned in the same manner as they are nourished ; and hence it has 
been found that solutions of opium, mercury, arsenic, and even common 
salt, presented to the roots of plants, will destroy their vital powers. In 
general the roots of plants are not furnished with buds, and hence roots 
cannot be used in propagation in the same manner as branches : nevertheless, 
there are numerous exceptions, and some extensive orders of plants, such 
as the iiosaceae, Campanulacese, Cruciferae, and some of the Amentacese, 
have roots abounding in adventitious buds ; and if these roots are cut into por- 
tions, and planted in the soil with the part of the root which was next the 
stem uppermost, and their points exposed to the air, or very slightly covered, 
they will produce plants. This, however, is never the case with the roots of 
annuals or biennials; and hence, in Cruciferae, while the common Sea-kale 
produces buds in abundance from the cuttings of the roots, the same thing 
never takes place in the common Cabbage. The nature of plants in this 
respect is very different ; for while the fasciculated tubercles of the Dah- 
lia, if deprived of the plate which produces the buds, have no power of 
originating fresh buds, yet the tubers of the common Peony so treated 
produce them freely, 

104. Every plant contains nitrogen in its albumen and gluten, and it has 
been found that this elementary principle abounds in a particular manner in 
the spongioles of the roots, and in all the newly-formed parts of plants, and 
that those seeds germinate the earliest which contain the largest quantity of 
nitrogen. Hence the great value of animal manures to plants, all of which 
contain nitrogen ; but especially those of carnivorous animals. {Lieb. p. 190.) 

105. The stem of plants is not protruded so early as the root ; but as soon 
as the latter is in a state of action, and has penetrated a few inches into the 
soil, the seed-leaves appear above the surface, and from the centre of 
these arises the stem. Both the roots and stems of plants, when first 
springing from seed, are perpendicular to the earth's surface, or, in other 
words, they extend in the direction of radii from the earth's centre. The 
root, which penetrates downwards, always avoids light ; and the stem, which 
rises upwards, as constantly seeks the light, and avoids darkness. There 
are some apparent exceptions to this law ; as, for example, in the Mistletoe, 
the seeds of which, when deposited on the under side of a branch, send their 
radicles upwards, and their stem downwards ; and this may perhaps also be 
said of some orchideous epiphytes ; but, in general, few laws are so universal 
as that of the ascending and descending axis of a plant being always in the 
direction of a radiating line from the centre of the earth. 

106. The stem at first is a mere point, scarcely so large as to be recognised 
as a bud ; but, as soon as it feels the effect of the nutriment impelled into 
it by the growing root, it becomes developed, enlarged, furnished with leaves, 
and solidified. From being a small portion of cellular tissue, possessing 
neither strength nor tenacity, it becomes, by the formation of woody matter, 
a slender rod or shoot, sufficiently firm and tough to require an effort to sepa- 
rate it from the root ; and in a short time it adheres to the latter so firmly, 
as, when drawn up forcibly, to pull the entire plant out of the soil. 

107. Before the formation of leaves on the stem, it is quite succulent, and 
without woody fibre ; but, as soon as the leaves appear, woody matter is 
deposited in the form of tubes of extreme fineness, which, originating in the 
leaves, pass downwards through the cellular tissue, and are incorporated with 
it, so as to add to its bulk, strength, and flexibility. The first woody matter 



28 



FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED 



arises from the base of the seed-leaves, and is m general in very small 
quantity ; but, as soon as the proper leaves appear, the quantity of woody 
matter formed is considerable, even during the first growing- season. 

When this woody matter first penetrates the cellular tissue of the infant 
stem, it forms a little circle within its circumference, and thus separates the 
interior of the stem into two parts. These parts are, the bark or exterior 
portion, and the pith or central part ; and between these, at least in all 
exogens, there is a third portion, which constitutes the wood. 

108. Organically, the stem may be said to consist of two parts : the 
cellular tissue, which is not, from its nature, capable of increasing by growth 
more in one direction than in another ; and the woody fibres, which are trans- 
mitted from the leaves through the stem, and down into the roots. In 
speaking of the construction of stems, the cellular tissue in them is called 
the horizontal system ; and the woody fibres, as they increase longitudinally 
by the addition of new fibres or tubes having the same lengthened direction 
as themselves, are called the perpendicular system. 

109. Wood.^ in exogenous plants^ consists chiefly of the perpendicular sys- 
tem, while the pith in the centre of the stem, and the bark on its circum- 
ference, are chiefly formed of the horizontal system. The bark communi- 
cates with the pith by the continuation of the cellular tissue through the 
woody fibres ; and the cellular tissue, seen among these woody fibres in the 
section of a tree made smooth by the plane, is called the medullary rays, 
from the pith in plants being supposed analogous to the medulla of animals. 
Hence the section of the trunk of a tree has been compared to a piece of 
cloth ; the horizontal system, or medullary rays, representing the woof. 
and the woody system the warp. 

110. When a stem is injured by the removal of a portion of the bark of 
such a depth as to reach the wood, the wound is healed over ; first, by the 
cellular matter oozing out of the last-formed wood, and granulating on the 
surface ; and secondly, by this ^.ellular matter being penetrated by the fibres 
of the perpendicular system. Rings of bark are frequently cut from the 
stems of trees for the purpose of checking the returning sap, either to cause 
the tree to produce blossoms, or for the purpose of inducing the stem or 
branch to throw out roots along the upper edge of the part from which the 
bark has been taken. The immediate efi^ect of the process is the protrusion 
of granulated matter, or cellular tissue, along both sides of the wound, but 
especially on the upper side. Now, if the wound be surrounded with a 
quantity of moss, tied firmly on, and kept moist, the perpendicular system, 
or ligneous fibre, will penetrate through the granulated matter, and become 
roots ; while no roots whatever will be protruded from the granulated matter 
on the under side of the wound ; thus proving, firstly, the truth of the 
theory of the perpendicular system ; and secondly, that roots, in growing- 
plants, are formed by the protrusion of woody fibre through cellular matter. 
The first process of nature, when a cutting is formed and planted in the soil, 
is to protrude cellular matter round the edges of the section of its lower 
extremity ; this protruded matter, or callosity, as it is termed by cultivators, 
sometimes remains for several months before it undergoes any change ; but 
ultimately, if the cutting succeeds, the perpendicular system passes through 
it and appears in the form of roots, and the cutting is established as a plant. 
If a cutting be planted in the soil in an inverted position, though the 
portion in the soil be cut and nrepared as in cuttings treated in the usual 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



29 



manner, yet in general it will neither produce a callosity nor roots ; though 
there are some exceptions, as in the Willow tribe, and of these if the cutting is 
prepared at both ends, and laid horizontally in the soil, then at both ends 
callosities, and ultimately roots, will be formed. Hence a shoot of a Willow 
inserted in the ground at both ends, being bent for that purpose so as to 
form an arch, will root at both ends ; but this is a result that wiU happen i^i 
the case of very few plants. 

111. The hark consists of two parts; the outer bark, formed entirely of 
cellular matter, and resting on the liber or inner bark ; and the inner bark, 
which consists partly of woody, and partly of cellular matter. The latter 
ultimately becomes wood, and the former ultimately hardens, cracks, and 
sometimes falls off. No wound in the outer bark can be healed or filled up, 
but the reverse is the case with wounds in the alburnum. The wood in all 
exogenous plants of the tree kind is distinguishable into the heart wood, or 
that which is mature, and the soft wood or alburnum, which is wood in a 
young and growing state. The heart wood is for the most part of a darker 
colour than the soft or young wood, which is generally white, till by age its 
tubes and vessels become thickened with matter deposited by the sap in its 
ascent to the leaves, when it darkens in colour, at least in most trees. When 
the sap absorbed by the spongioles enters the solid matter of the plant, it 
passes upwards through the alburnum to the leaves ; and, being elaborated 
there, it descends through the liber, communicating horizontally, by means 
of the medullary rays, with both the old and the young wood. Wherever 
it penetrates, it deposits cellular matter, till at last in the old wood the pores 
become completely filled up and hardened. 

112. The stems of all plants, and especially of exogenous trees, have, 
beginning at the centre, pith, old wood, medullary rays, alburnum, liber or 
inner bark, and outer bark. The medullary rays connect all the parts of 
the section of a stem or branches horizontally; and the ligneous fibres, 
which penetrate all the parts except the pith, connect them longitudi- 
nally, and complete the vegetable structure. In all plants whatever these 
parts exist ; but in many herbaceous plants, especially annuals, and others of 
short duration, they are not easily defined ; the wood, alburnum, and liber 
often appearing in one homogeneous body, and the bark and the pith 
only being quite distinct. The root stem differs from the stem above 
ground in being without pith, without visible buds, and without an outer 
bark ; or at all events without a bark which cracks and decays, like that of 
the stems and branches. There are exceptions in the case of some root 
stocks of herbaceous plants, such as those of the Colchicum and the 
Crocus ; but nevertheless this holds true in the underground stems or tubers 
of the Potato, in the fasciculated tubercles of the Dahlia, and in most other 
tuberous-rooted plants. 

113. ieat;es are formed on the surface of stems at certain distances, and 
in a certain order in each species of plant ; and at the base of the petiole of 
each leaf there is a bud either visible or latent ; in either case ready to be 
called into action and produce a new stem, shoot, or branch, when the neces- 
sary excitement is given. If the leaves are removed from a growing stem as 
soon as they appear, no buds are formed in their axils ; or, if the germs of 
them have existed there, they die for want, of the nourishment of the leaf. 
Hence, by taking off every leaf as soon as it is protruded from an over- 
vigorous-growing shoot of the current year, that shoot may be prevented 



30 



FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED 



from maturing its buds and wood, and consequently deprived of the power of 
growing vigorously the following season ; and this is found a better mode 
of treating excessively luxuriant trees than cutting off such over-vigorous 
shoots, which would only throw more vigour into the heart of the tr^. 
B}^ taking off the incipient leaves the tree is allowed to exhaust itself of all 
its superfluous force. (See Beaton in Gard. Mag. 1837, p. 203.) 

1 14. In general, buds are rarely found except in the axils of the leaves ; but 
occasional!}^ they are formed in the spaces of the stem between the leaves, more 
or less distant from the base of the leaf, or from the joints whence leaves are pro- 
duced. They are also, as we have before observed, sometimes found in roots, 
though never visible in them to the naked eye ; and they are also produced 
in some cases on leaves, as in Kalanchoe (Bryophyllum) crenata, and in Car- 
damine hirsuta. Buds of this kind ai-e said to be dormant or adventitious. 
When the bud of any stem has been once matured, if rubbed off, one or 
more other buds will arise from its base ; and this will take place though 
the operation be repeated an indefinite number of times, provided the plant 
be furnished with leaves in some other part of its stem above the point 
whence the buds were rubbed off, so that the shoot or stem may be continued 
in a growing state. Thus the regular visible buds of vines are frequently 
cut entirely out, but still the adventitious buds throw out shoots with such 
vigour, other circumstances being favourable, as to produce abundance of 
fmit the same season. 

115. Buds are of two kinds, leaf-buds and blossom-buds. It is only the 
former that can produce shoots, or by which, under ordinary circumstances, 
a plant can be propagated directly. But if a blossom-bud be taken oflF and 
inserted in a living plant by the usual operation of budding, though only 
blossoms will be produced the first year, yet the dormant leaf-buds will the 
second year produce shoots. In practice this does not hold good alike in all 
plants, but it is the case with many of the iiosacese, for example in the 
Peach. The nodule is a concretion of embryo buds found in the bark of 
various trees, and especially of the common Elm, the Birch, some of the 
Poplars, and the Olive; and by fragments of which these trees may be 
propagated. 

IIG. All bulbs are buds, and the scales of which they are composed are 
aboi-tive or imperfectly developed leaves ; consequently, as at the base of 
every leaf there is a bud, so must there be, at the base of every scale of 
a bulb, a bud either regular or adventitious. Hence, by cutting over the 
bulb of a common Hyacinth about the eighth of an inch above the plate to 
which the scales are attached, a number of buds and young leaves will be 
produced from between the bases of the scales, and by these buds the plant 
may be increased. 

117. The stem of a plant may be considered as the base, receptacle, or 
habitation of the leaves and buds ; by means of which they are exposed to the 
air and light, without being too much crowded, and are thus enabled to elabo- 
rate the sap sent to them by the roots, and to form buds and seeds for the 
continuation of their species. The watery matter absorbed by the spongioles 
ascends the stem by the soft wood, dissolving in its ascent a part of the starch 
or sugar which it finds there, and hence becoming denser as it ascends its 
specific gravity increasing till it reaches the summit of the stem and branches. 
As it ascends it enters the leaves, where it is elaborated in consequence of the 
action of light on their upper surface, and it is then returned to the stem by 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



31 



the vessels in the under surface of the leaves, whence it descends to the roots, 
not however by way of the alburnum, where it would meet with and inter- 
rupt the ascending sap ; but by way of the inner bark, communicating hori- 
zontally, as we have before observed, with the interior of the stem by means 
of the medullary rays. Hence, the great importance of the alburnum and 
the inner bark to plants ; the former in conveying sap from the root to the 
leaves, and the latter in returning it from the leaves to the stem, branches, 
and roots. Hence also we find that trees will live, and even thrive, with tlie 
interior of their trunk entirely rotten, provided the alburnum, the inner 
bark, and the leaves, are in a healthy state. The alburnum is constantly 
changing into hard wood, and the inner bark as constantly into hard bark or 
outer bark. As the heart wood v/hen thoroughly hardened may be removed 
without injury to the growth of the tree, so also may the thoroughly hard- 
ened outer bark. The hard wood is to the tree what the bones are to an 
animal, the chief source of mechanical support ; and the outer bark, being a 
non-conductor of heat, protects the inner bark and the alburnum from too 
great cold, and in hot climates from too much heat, in the same manner as 
the outer coverings of animals. 

118. Though the sap of plants circulates in general by rising through the 
alburnum, and descending through the inner bark, yet such is the effect of 
vitality, and the simplicity of their structure, that the sap can be made both 
to rise and fall by the alburnum, and to rise and fall also by the inner bark. 
Instead of ascending from the roots to the branches, it can be made to enter 
by the branches and descend to the roots. To prove the truth of the first of 
these assertions, the trunk of a tree has been sawn through in opposite direc- 
tions in such a manner that there could not, by any possibility, be direct 
linear communication between the portions below and above the wound, and 
yet the tree has lived. The wood of the shoot of a Willow has been extracted 
at the peeling season, and the shoot being supported by a stake has grown, 
and in the course of the first summer filled up the cavity left by the removal 
of the wood. That the sap will both ascend and return, not merely by the 
alburnum, but by wood of a considerable degree of age and hardness, is 
proved, among other instances, by a Lime-tree in the royal gardens at Fon- 

tainebleau, which continues to live and produce leaves every 
year, though a large portion of the stem has been without 
' bark for thirty years. Fig. 1 is from a sketch made by 
M. Poiteau, a scientific cultivator and physiologist, in 
whose company we examined this tree in July, 1840. To 
prove that the sap will enter by the branches and descend 
to the leaves, take a ligneous plant growing in a pot, and 
elevating it on a post between two trees of the same or 
of allied kinds, inarch the extremity of a branch of each 
tree into the plant in the pot, and in two years cease to 
_ supply water to the earth in the pot, and at last shake this 
Lime-tree at Fontaine- earth away from the roots, and leave the plant suspended 
hieau. between the two trees. We have not seen this done, but 

we have seen branches which had inosculated with other branches cut 
thro\igh, and, being left attached by the inosculation, live for several years. 
Some ctoious experiments bearing on this subject, by Mr. Niven of Dublin, 
will be found m the Gardeners Magazine^ 1888, p. 161. 

119. The cause of tlie motion of the sap is a subject which has occasioned 
much discussion. The general opinion is, that it is in motion, to a certain 




32 



FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED 



extent, in winter as well as in summer ; but that an extraordinary absorp- 
tion by the roots, and consequent ascent through the alburnum, takes place 
with the development of the buds, in consequence of the stimulus of heat in 
spring. The swelling of the buds, and the expansion of the leaves, decom- 
pose a quantity of sap in the same manner as the swelling of the embryo of 
the seed (102); a portion is fixed in the plant, and a portion given off into the 
atmosphere ; and, to supply the consumption thus occasioned, the office of the 
spongioles of the roots is called into extraordinary action, and nature, always 
stronger than strong enough, produces a superabundant supply. 

120. The leaf of the plant is an organ of so much importance, that there 
can be no growth beyond the first development of the seed without it. No 
mode of treatment will compensate to a plant for the want of leaves, and the 
most vigorous plant that exists may be destroyed in a short time by the 
removal of all the leaves as soon as they appear. The important consequences 
that result from this fact, are not sufficiently known to many gardeners, and 
they require particularly to be impressed on the minds of amateurs. We 
have seen in a preceding paragraph how trees may be weakened, and parti- 
cular shoots killed, by the removal of leaves. The most powerful weeds, for 
example, Perennial Thistles, Docks, Ferns, Rushes, and all similar plants, 
may be killed in grass lands on the same principle ; that is, by the removal 
of the leaves as soon as they appear, and before they are developed. 

121. The normal form of a leaf consists of an expanded part called the 
disk, and a narrow prolongation called the petiole (91); but some 
leaves are solid and cylindrical, and others are so modified as to appear like 
scales ; for example, in bulbs, the bracts in the fruit of the Pine-apple, 
spines in the common Thorn, tendrils in the Vine ; and, consequently, all these 
organs or appendages ought to have buds, either visible or adventitious, in 
their axils. This is accordingly found to be the case. Shoots have been 
produced where the tendrils of a Vine have been cut off; and, in the fruit of 
the Pine-apple, every bracteal leaf having a " pip" or flower in its axil has 
produced a sucker. (^Cowel.) The disk of the leaf is considered as an ex- 
pansion of the inner bark (91 ) ; its veins are the continuation of the ligneous 
fibres of the bark, and its cellular substance of the horizontal system or 
cellular tissue of the trunk. The woody tissue which forms the veins of 
leaves, as already observed, is arranged in two layers ; one forming the 
upper surface of the leaf, by which the sap is elaborated ; and the other, the 
under surface, by which the elaborated sap is returned to the inner bark. 
The two plates of layers may be readily seen in a leaf w^hich has been ma- 
tured, and afterwards anatomised, by the alternate action of water and the 
atmosphere. The upper layer has its vessels in communication with the 
interior of the stem, while the under layer communicates only with the 
inner bark ; tiie upper one maintains a connexion with the soft wood, in 
order to receive the sap from it, while the under one is connected with the 
inner bark, in order to return the sap through it to the stem and roots. 

122. The two plates of vessels and cellular matter which form the disk of 
the leaf, are covered with a thin skin or epidermis. This epidermis, when 
the leaf is beginning to expand, abounds with innumerable minute cavitie? 
filled in that early stage with fluid ; but ultimately, when the leaf is fully 
grown, these cavities become dry. In plants indigenous to moist arid shady 
places, the epidermis is thin ; but in those growing naturally in hot, dry, ex- 
posed situations, it is very hard and thick. It varips, indeed, not only with 



^V1T1I REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



33 



the natural habitations of plants, but with their natures. In all, whether 
thick or thin, it is pierced with numerous pores, called stomata, which can- 
not be seen with the naked eye, but through which the leaf inhales and 
exhales gases, and perhaps watery matters. The stomata are generally 
largest and most abundant in aquatic or marsh plants, or plants adapted by 
nature for shady places, and Avhich can procure at all times an ample supply 
of liquid food ; and they are, on the contrary, fewest and least active, in 
warm, open, airy situations, where liquid food is less abundant. Thus it 
appears that the structure of a leaf being adapted to the particular situation 
in which the plant naturally grows, it may serve to indicate what sort of 
culture may be most suitable for plants of which we have previously known 
but little. It is evident, however, that this criterion must be of rather 
difficult application in practice, except by gardeners who are scientific bota- 
nists, and have been in the habit of using powerful microscopes. 

123. There are some plants which produce no leaves, or in which the 
leaves are so small, and drop off so soon after they are formed, as to leave 
no traces of them on the bark. Instances of this kind are found in the 
genera Cactus, Epiphyllum, Opuntia, Stapelm, and even, but in a much 
less degree, in some species of Asparagus, (Spartium, and Genista. In 
all such cases, the functions that in other plants are performed by the 
leaves, are performed in these plants by the bark. The functions of the 
leaves, and of the green parts of the bark, and of the plant in general, 
are to absorb carbonic acid, and, with the aid of light and moisture, to appro- 
priate its carbon. Carbonic acid may enter the plant by the roots, by the 
leaf, and by the green parts of its bark. When either of these parts is 
exposed to the action of the sun, the carbonic acid is decomposed, oxygen is 
given off, and the carbon is fixed in the leaf or bark. The escape of the 
oxygen may be proved by immersing a leaf in water, and exposing it to the 
sun. If a leaf be immersed in water in the shade, little or no air will be 
given off, and that little will be found to be carbonic acid gas. Plants, it has 
been found, decompose carbonic acid during the action of solar light on the 
leaves during the day, and form it again in the shade and during night ; 
and hence, in a healthy plant, the decomposition of carbonic acid and the 
liberation of oxygen during the day, and the absorption of oxygen and the 
liberation of carbonic acid gas during the night, are perpetually going on 
while the plant has leaves, or is in a growing state. The healthiness of a plant, 
other circumstances being alike, is in proportion to the quantity of carbonic 
acid decomposed during the day ; and this will depend on the quantity of 
light it receives during the same period. Plants which naturally grow in 
shady situations form exceptions to this general principle ; probably, because 
the powerful action of the sun on their leaves would cause them to perspire 
water in too great abundance. 

124. In conclusion, it may be observed, that all assimilations of matter 
by plants, whether of a general kind, such as carbon, or of a specific nature, 

; such as acids and alkalies, resins, oils, &c., are effected by the action of 
light on the leaves ; and hence, as we have said before (9), the treatment 
of the leaves of plants is of far greater importance than the treatment of any 
other part whatever. 

125. The action of the leaf generally ceases when the part of the stem to 
which it is attached is matured, or when the fruit which is nearest to it is 
j ripened. At that period the leaf commonly changes colour, ceases to decom- 
I ^ 



34 



FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED 



pose carbonic acid, and, yielding to the chemical influence of the oxygen of 
the atmosphere, dies and drops off. Those leaves are called deciduous 
(69), which fall off in the autumn after the maturation of the shoots of the 
current 3'ear; those are called persistent (68), which remain on in a withered 
state till the following sprmg ; and those evergreen (66), wliich remain 
attached and green till the following summer, or later. Some of these 
evergreen leaves, as for example in certain species of Comferee, remain on 
for several years. 

126. The /lowers of plants generally consist of the following parts : — 
1st, The floral envelopes, comprising the calyx or exterior covering, which 
is generally green, and the corolla or interior covering, which is commonly 
of some other colour than green ; 2d, The organs of reproduction, comprising 
the stamens and pistil ; and od. The gcrmen or rudiment of the fruit and 
seed. In general, the calyx and the corolla are present in every flower, and 
also both sexes are contained in the same flower : but there are numerous 
exceptions ; some flowers having a calyx without a corolla, as in .4tragene ; 
others having the calyx coloured, so as to resemble a corolla, as in Fuchsia 
and many bulbs ; many being without any floral envelopes, as in the Wil- 
low ; and the sexes being, in many cases, on diff'erent plants, as in Madura 
and Salisburfa, JPopulus and ^alix. No flower in a natural state, how- 
ever, is to be found in which there is not present one or other of the sexes, 
except double flowers, which are monstrosities, and those of some hybrids, 
which are anomalies. 

127. The floral envelopes may be considered as making the nearest ap- 
proach to common leaves ; and in many plants, particularly such as are in 
a higli state of cultivation, they assume the appearance of leaves ; as, for 
example, in some varieties of Rose. In many plants the sexes are also 
changed into leaves, and this is the mode in which most double flowers are 
produced. Occasionally both the floral envelopes and the sexes are turned 
into leaves, as is found occasionally in wet seasons in the flowers of the 
common Parsley. In the earlier stages of the progress of gardening in 
Bi'itain, when few plants were introduced from foreign countries, the great 
object of the curious cultivator was to produce double flowers, and other 
monstrosities ; and hence we have double-flowered varieties of most of the 
ornamental herbaceous plants that have been long in cultivation, and even of 
some trees and shrubs, such as the Double-blossomed Cherry, Double-blos- 
somed Hawthorn, Double-blossomed Peach, &c. 

128. The art of causing plants to produce flowers sooner than they would 
do naturally, is one of great importance to the cultivator. The principle on 
which it is founded seems to be, that of causing a greater accumulation of 
nutritive matter in the particular part of the plant intended to produce 
flowers than is natural to that part ; or, in the case of annual plants, to con- 
centrate the nutritive matter of the entire plant,. by growing it in a drier 
soil than that which is natural to it. Hence by ringing any particular branch 
of a tree, blossom-buds will be formed on the part of the branch above the 
ring, while shoots more watery than usual will be formed below it. Hence, 
also, by grafting a shoot from a seedling tree on the extremities of the 
branches of a full-grown tree of the same species, blossoms will be produced ' 
some years sooner than would have been the case had the branch remained ; 
on its parent plant. In this way new kinds of fruit, raised from seed, may '> 
be proved much sooner than if the seedling plants were left a sufficient 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



35 



number of years to produce l)lossoms. Sometimes blossoms are produced 
which, from defect or want of vigour, prove abortive ; and when this is the 
case, by removing from the plant all the blossom-buds before they expand, 
for one or more years in succession, more vigorous blossoms will be pro- 
duced, and the production of fruit ensured. This is the reason why, on fruit 
trees, a defective crop is generally succeeded by an abundant one, and the 
contrary ; and why double-blossomed trees or herbs, which yield no fruit, 
produce abundance of blossoms every year. 

129. The sexes consist of the stamens and pistils, of each of which there 
are one or several, and often a great many in every flower. The use of the 
stamens is to fertilise the rudimentary seeds which are contained in the 
germen, or lower part of the pistillum. Fertilisation is effected by the pollen 
of the anther applied to the stigma on the summit of the pistillum, in conse- 
quence of which an embryo plant, or ovulum (lOO), is generated in the 
ovarium. In general the pistil of every flower is fertilised by pollen from the 
stamens of the same flower ; but it occasionally happens in nature by the 
action of bees or other insects^ and in gardens by the instrumentality of man, 
that the stigma of the flower of one species is fertilised by the pollen of the 
flower of another species. The conditions of success are, for the most part, 
that the two species should, at least, belong to the same genus, and in this 
case the produce is said to be a hybrid ; when it is effected b}'- two varieties 
of the same species, the plants produced are said to be crossbreds. The 
latter generally produce fertile seed, but the former only sometimes. 

ISO. The fruit succeeds to the flower, the germen or base of the pistillum 
growing and increasing in size, after the floral envelopes and the stamens 
have decayed and dropped off. In some cases, the calyx is retained till the 
fruit is ripe, (but without increasing in size,) when the fruit is said to be 
inferior ; as in the Apple, where the remains of the calyx form what is called 
the eye, in the upper part of the fruit : whereas in the Peach, and all supe- 
rior fruits, only the upper part of the pistillum is seen in that position. The 
superior fruit adheres to the shoot on which it grows by the base of the 
pistillum alone, while the inferior fruit adheres to it by the base of the entire 
flower. For this reason inferior fruits are supposed to be less likely to drop 
off in consequence of frost during the blossoming season, or other adverse 
causes, than superior fruits ; and hence, other circumstances being the same, 
a crop of Apples, Pears, Quinces, Haws, Hips, Medlars, Currants, Goose- 
berries, Melons, or Cucumbers, ought to be more certain than a crop of 
Strawberries, Raspberries, Peaches, Plums, Apiicots, Cherries, Grapes, or 
Figs. 

131. So long as the fruit is green, it possesses to a certain extent the phy- 
siological action of a leaf, and decomposes carbonic acid under the influence of 
light ; but as soon as it begins to ripen this action ceases, and the fruit is 
wholly nourished by the sap elaborated by the leaves. Thus the fruit has, 
in common with the leaves, the power of elaborating sap, and also the power 
of attractmg sap from the surrounding parts. Hence we see that where a 
number of fruits are growing together, one or more of them attract the sap 
or nutriment from all the rest, which in consequence drop off. As the food 
of the fruit is prepared by the leaves under the influence of solar light, it 
follows that the excellence of the fruit will depend chiefly on the excellence 
of the leaves ; and that if the latter are not sufficiently developed, or not duly 
exposed to the action of the sun's rays, or placed at too great a distance from 

2 



3(1 



FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS CONSIDERED. 



tlie fruit, the latter will be diminutive iu size, and imperfectly ripened, or may 
drop off before attaining maturit3\ Hence the inferiorit}^ of fruits which 
grow on naked branches, or even on branches where there is not a leaf close 
to the fruit ; as in the case of a bunch of grapes where the leaf immediately 
above it has been cut off, or in that of a gooseberry where the leaf imme- 
diately above it has been eaten by a caterpillar. Hence it is evident that 
the secretions formed by the fruit are principally derived from the matter 
elaborated in the leaf or leaves next to it, and, as the sap of all the leaves is 
more or less abundant according to the supply received from the roots, the 
excellence of fruits depends ultimately on the condition of the roots, and the 
condition, position, and exposition of the leaves. As a proof that the fruit 
has a specific influence on the matter it contains, independently of the influ- 
ence of the leaves, we have only to taste the leaf of an apple or a peach, 
and compare it with the taste of the fruit. The sweetness of fruits under 
ordinary circumstances is increased by warmth and light, and acidity is 
increased by the opposite qualities. An abundant supply of water to plants 
ripening their fruits, diminishes the intensity both of sweetness and acidity, 
as well as of all other secretions ; and hence the advantage of withdrawing 
water from plants in forcing -houses, or from fruit-bearing plants generally, 
at the ripening season. 

132. The grand object of nature in producing fruit is to nourish the seed, 
and there appears to be no other intention with most fruits in a wild state ; 
but the art of man has, b}" enlarging and improving fruits by culture, ren- 
dered them in a superior degree suitable for his nourishment, without in 
general rendering them less fit for the nourishment of the seed. As, how- 
ever, in a wild state, the seeds of pulp}^ fruits must necessarily germinate in 
the decayed mass of pulp after the fruit is dropped and rotted on the surface 
of the ground, so in a state of high culture it has been recommended to 
bury the whole of the fruit, as of a peach for example, with the seed, when 
a young plant is intended to be produced. (^Beaton.) As the fruit attracts 
its food from the stem through the fruit-stalk, so the seed attracts its nourish- 
ment from the interior part of the fruit ; and hence in all covered seeds, or 
what are commonly called fruits, the seed never can be separated from its 
envelope, without being destroyed, till it is perfectly ripe. Seeds in a 
young state are found to be of a mucilaginous consistency, like gum ; but 
as they ripen, more carbon is deposited, and the gummy mucilaginous sub- 
stance assumes the condition of flour or starch, which ultimately becomes 
nearly as hard as wood. This is a wise provision of nature for the preser- 
vation of the seed. In the immature or mucilaginous state of the seed, heat 
and moisture easily decompose it, and consequently unripe seeds do not keep 
well ; though when seeds are sown, it is necessary, before they germinate, 
that their solid part should be again decomposed and made soluble. Hence 
well -ripened seeds are so much more easily preserved than those which are 
imperfectly ripened ; and hence also the reason why unripe seeds, provided 
only their embryo be perfected, will germinate more quickly than ripe seeds; 
the starch of the ripe seed having to be again reduced to mucilage, before it 
can become soluble food. (Lymbu7'n.) All seeds, when ripe, are dry and firm, 
and they retain their vitality a greater or less length of time according to 
their natures. In general oily seeds are the most perishable, and starchy seeds 
the most tenacious of life. There are, however, exceptions in the case of 
oily seeds, as in the common Cabbage, the seeds of which will retain their 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 



37 



vitality for ten or twelve years. Melon and Cucumber seeds, which are 
mucilaginous, may be kept for thirty or forty years; Kidney-beans for nearly 
a century ; but not Scarlet Runners, which will not keep above two years ; 
a remarkable circumstance, since the two species are so nearly allied as to 
be considered by some to be only varieties. The seeds of many Legumindsae, 
and particularly those of warm climates, where their carbon is concentrated 
to the hardness even of wood, as in the Australian Acacias, will keep an 
unknown period ; as a proof of which, all France continues 'to be supplied 
with seeds of the common Sensitive Plant from a bag which was sent to 
Paris, we believe, above sixty years ago. In general the younger and 
more vigorous the seed, the stronger will be the plant produced, and 
the contrary. Hence when it is wished to have plants of a vigorous- 
growing species, of more concentrated growth than usual, seeds weaker 
from being smaller and less abundantly nourished, or from being dried 
by long keeping, are chosen ; and when very vigorous plants are desired, 
the largest and freshest seeds are selected. Thus in the case of plants pro- 
ducing their flowers in corymbs, the seed is chosen from the summit of the 
corymb, as the first flowers open there, which, as well as the seeds which 
follow them, are always the largest. In general the first-formed flowers of 
all plants are the strongest, and the seeds produced by them the largest and 
most vigorous of growth. 

133. In this section there is necessarily some repetitions of facts stated in 
preceding parts of this chapter ; but it became necessary to do so in order to 
connect the process of development with structure. The reader who is de- 
sirous of studying the subject more in detail is recommended to consult 
Lindleys Principles of Horticulture^ and Lymburn, Beaton, and Niven, in 
the Gardeners Magazine ; from which source, and our own observation and 
experience, this section has been chiefly compiled. 

Sect. VI. — The Geographical Distribution of Plants^ and their Stations and 
Habitations, with reference to their Culture in Gardens. 
184. By the geography of a plant is to be understood the latitude and 
longitude in which it abounds in a wild state ; by its station or " habitat," 
the particular soil or situation in which it is found ; and by its habitation, 
the particular range of country to which it is limited. In a general view, 
the vegetation of the globe is distributed over its surface, varied according 
to its latitude, its inequalities of elevation, and its differences in regard to 
soils and moisture. The subject is of great importance to gardeners, because 
the culture of all plants must necessarily be more or less founded on a know- 
ledge of the climate and station in which they are found wild. In the 
natural distribution of plants on the earth's surface, the different species 
are found only in particular situations, which they prefer to others. Some 
prefer exposure to the full influence of the light and air ; others the shade 
of rocks or of trees ; some grow on mountains, some in plains, some in bogs 
or marshes, some on the banks of rivers ; some in the running water of 
rivers, others in the still water of lakes ; some in salt marshes, and others 
in the sea. Each of these different localities, in any one country, is charac - 
terised by a difference in physical circumstances; such as more or less 
elevation above the level of the sea ; a greater or less exposure to light ; a 
soil more or less compact in texture ; abounding more or less in water ; or 
composed of particular earths. All this is independent of temperature, 



38 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED 

which varies with the latitude and the elevation in which plants grow, and 
considerably also with the nature of the soil, its condition with respect to 
water, and its exposure and shelter. The degree of temperature required by 
different plants varies exceedingly ; from that of the cold regions of the 
frigid zone, through the temperate regions of both hemispheres, to the torrid 
zone. For the culture of the first description of plants, a shady situation, 
and a soil kept constantly moist, in order that it may be kept contmually 
cool by evaporation, constitutes the artificial or garden station ; while to pro- 
duce a garden station for plants of the warmer regions the various kinds of 
artificial climates produced in plant houses are necessary. Hence the great 
importance, to cultivators, of a knowledge of the natural stations of the plants 
they cultivate, as well as of the structure and functions of plants generall}^ 
It will, therefore, be useful to notice briefly the external circumstances 
which influence the natural distribution of plants ; and these may be reduced 
to temperature, light, water, soil, and the atmosphere. 

135. Temperature has by far the most important mfluence on the distri- 
bution of plants ; because it would appear, that each species is so constituted 
as to thrive only within certain limits of heat and cold, and that any excess 
beyond these limits is injurious to it. Hence the geographical boundary of 
any species is restricted by the extremes of temperature which the plant 
will bear, and yet bring its seeds to maturity. 

136. The temperature of any place depends principally upon its latitude^ 
and its ehvation above the sea. From the poles to the equator, the temper- 
ature gradually increases ; and, measuring from the level of the sea into the air, 
the heat gradually decreases, till we arrive at a point, which is to be found 
on the mountains of all countries, where water exists only in a state of ice 
or snow. Hence, in forming an estimate of the temperature of any place, 
the latitude of that place, and its elevation above the sea, are to be jointly 
considered. From actual experiment, in the neighbourhood of London, by 
Green the aeronaut, it has been found that when the air was 74° at the 
surface of the earth, at an elevation of about 3000 feet it was 70"^ ; at 
10,000 feet, 69^; and at 11,293 feet, 38°. The difi'erence in time between 
making the first observation and the last was about 27'. According to De 
Candolle, heat decreases in France at the rate of one degree of latitude for 
every 540 feet of altitude ; so that the temperature of a place 8240 feet 
above the level of the sea in 45° N. lat. equals that of a place in about 51^ 
N. lat. on a level with the sea. In the middle of the temperate zone, 
Humboldt found that the mean heat of the year diminished at the rate of 
2° N. lat. for every 600 feet of altitude. From the powerful influence on 
temperature produced by elevation, arises the great variety of plants which 
are found between the base of a mountain and its summit ; though there are 
a vast number of plants in all countries that will grow indilferently on 
plains and on mountains as high up as plants will vegetate. There are 
a few plants, however, that have their range of elevation and of latitude 
comparativel}'- limited ; as, for example, the Sweet Chestnut, the Olive, the 
Mulberry, and the Fig. 

137. According to Humboldt, the geographical parallels of latitude do not 
indicate corresponding degrees of heat either in the old and new world, or in 
the northern and southern hemispheres. In the former, heat diminishes 
more rapidly as we recede from the equator ; and in the latter beyond the 
parallel of 34°, corresponding latitudes indicate a greater degree of cold in 



WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR CULTURE. 



39 



summer, but of warmth in winter. Hence, Humboldt arrives at this con- 
clusion : " That the lines of equal mean heat, which may be called isothermal, 
are not parallel with the equator, but intersect the geographical parallels at 
a variable angle." The mean annual heat of the same latitudes, in the new 
and old worlds, are show^n in the following table : — 



Latitude. 


Mean heat of the Year in the 
Old World. New World. 


Difference. 


Oo 


80" 


80O 


Oo 


20 


77 


77 


0 


30 


70 


67 


3 


40 


63 


54 


9 


50 


50 


38 


12 


6 '3 


40 


24 


16 



Thus it is found that the old world is warmer than the new, and that the 
heat does not decrease from Florida to the Gulf of St. Lawrence in the same 
ratio that it does from Egypt to Scandinavia. In general, the summer 
temperature of North America, as far as 40° N. lat., is about 4P higher than 
in Europe, under the same isothermal parallel ; which accounts for Magno- 
lias, Rhododendrons, Annonas, and other trees, extending so far to the north 
as latitude 86°, where the summer heat scarcely differs from the mean annual 
heat of the equator. 

138. A certain degree of difference is sometimes found in the vegetation 
of a country according to its longitude; but as this is occasioned almost 
entirely by the nature of the face of the country, or its situation relatively 
to the ocean, longitude by itself cannot be considered as having any influence 
whatever either upon temperature or vegetation. 

139. The mean heat of any situation does not enable us to judge of what 
particular species of plants will live there ; for the mean temperature found 
may be deduced from such extremes of heat and cold as would suit but few 
plants, as in the case of certain northern regions ; or it may be made up 
from moderate limits in which many plants will live ; as, for example, from 
the summers and winters of Ireland, or of the sea-coast of the middle of 
Europe. Thus the constitution of a plant which may be very well suited 
to the mean temperature of a place, may not be adapted to its extreme dif- 
ferences. Hence many plants which will live in the open air at Belfast, 
would perish in the winters of Edinburgh ; and many which w^ould live there, 
owing to the dryness of the air, and the moderate degree of cold from the prox- 
imity of the sea, would perish in Yorkshire, where the air is not only more 
highly charged with moisture, but much colder. Hence the mean annual 
temperature of any place is of much less consequence with respect to the 
stations of plants, than the mean monthly temperature and the extremes of 
each month. In general, " the western parts of continents are more nearly 
equable in their temperature throughout the year than the eastern, and the 
southern hemisphere than the northern ; and evergreens are found to aflecfc 
the former, and deciduous trees the latter description of climate." (Henslow.) 
In all those parts of the world where the sea never freezes^ the temperature 
is higher, and much more equable, than the temperature of inland situation 
in the same degree of latitude ; and hence plants which mature their fruit, 
or ripen their wood, at Edinburgh in the open air require protection at 



40 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS, CONSIDERED 



Warsaw and Moscow, though these cities are nearly in the same parallel 
of latitude as Edinburgh. 

140. Among the physical circumstances which affect the distribution of 
plants, the temperature of water merits notice. In many parts of the northern 
regions, water exists during great part of the year in the form of ice ; and 
hence, as it cannot be imbibed in that state by the roots, no plants can live 
in such regions, except those lowest in the scale, such as Lichens, &c. ; or 
such annuals as flower and ripen their seeds during the summer of these 
regions, though it does not extend longer than two or three months. Hence 
Barley and other corns can be ripened in the north of Sweden and Russia, 
where no perennial or ligneous plants equally tender could live throughout 
the year. In countries which are early in autumn covered with snow, many 
herbaceous plants will live through the winter that could not exist without 
this covering, which serves as an excellent non-conductor of heat. The 
bark of trees is also a bad conductor ; and as the roots of trees penetrate 
much deeper into the soil than frost, and as a slow circulation is carried on 
in their trunks and branches throughout the whole winter, the sap they 
contain is prevented from being frozen by the heat they obtain from the 
subsoil. " The internal parts of large trees retain a temperature which is 
about equal to that of the subsoil at one half the depth of their roots." 
(^Henslow.) Whenever the sap in the vessels of a plant freezes, they become 
ruptured and the plant dies; and were it not for the supply of heat obtained 
from the subsoil by the trees, and the protection of herbaceous plants by the 
covering of snow, there could be neither trees nor perennial herbs in the 
more northern regions of our hemisphere. 

141. Supposing the temperature of the subsoil and of the trees growing 
on the surface to be the same, then in high latitudes that temperature will be 
higher than the atmosphere during winter ; and in low latitudes where the 
atmosphere is of a high temperature, that of the trees will be lower during 
summer ; for the bark, which by its non-conducting properties retains heat in 
high latitudes, excludes it in low latitudes from penetrating into the wood of 
the tree. Von Buch found that the temperature of the subsoil is principally 
affected by the infiltration into it of the surface waters ; and hence, in the 
frigid zones, where the surface is in a state of ice or snow during winter, no 
infiltration can take place ; and thus the mean heat of the subsoil, in high 
latitudes, will be higher than the mean heat of the atmosphere. In those 
latitudes, however, where the surface water seldom freezes, the infiltration 
will continue daring great part of the winter, and will reduce the mean 
temperature of the subsoil below the mean temperature of the atmosphere. 
In those countries in low latitudes where rain falls during the coolest 
season of the year, the subsoil will be more cooled than in those places where 
it falls both in hot and cold weather. " Hence the mean temperature of 
springs throughout the central and northern parts of Europe, as far as Edin- 
burgh, is much the same as the mean temperature of the air ; whilst from 
the south of Europe to the tropic of Cancer, the difference is gradually in- 
creasing in favour of the atmosphere ; but from the latitude of Edinburgh 
northwards, the difference increases in favour of the subsoil. The conse- 
quence is, that certain plants which naturally belong to the more temperate 
parts of our zone are enabled to extend themselves further north and south 
than they could do if the mean temperature of the soil and air were every- 
where the same." (Henslow.) 



WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR CULTURE. 



41 



142. Tlie temperature of the natural stations of plants is always such as 
to enable the species to continue itself by seeds ; but as, in a state of culture, 
plants can be propagated by various modes whicli do not require the pro- 
duction of either flowers or fruits, it follows that in any given natural 
station a great many plants may be cultivated by art, which could not 
exist there in a state of nature ; and which, if introduced by art, and not 
continued by the same power, would perish with the life of the individual. 
Hence the immense number of species, from all parts of the globe, which 
will grow in the open air in Great Britain, and which, if the island were to 
relapse into a state of barbarism, would for the most part disappear. Hence, 
also, by the artificial climates of our plant structures, we can grow and 
propagate all the plants of the world, though there are many that for want 
of space cannot attain their natural magnitude in such sti*uctures. The 
mere fact, however, of our being able to grow tropical plants in air arti- 
ficially heated, shows that temperature has a greater influence on vegetation 
than any other element of growth. 

143. The influence of light on the distribution of plants is very consider- 
able. As heat and moisture are the chief agents in calling the vegetable 
germ into existence, so, the plant once developed, light is the grand sti- 
mulater of vitality ; causing, by its influence on buds and leaves, the ab- 
sorption of the sap by the roots, and the exhalation of water and decompo- 
sition of carbonic acid by the leaves. It is probable, as Professor Henslow 
conjectures, that each species requires a diff'erent degree of light as well as 
of heat ; and, though no general laws have yet been discovered on this sub- 
ject, we find that succulent, resinous, or oily plants, and all plants with 
needle leaves, prefer situations where they can obtain much light ; while 
almost all evergreens, except such as are needle-leaved, prefer situations 
somewhat shaded. As the density of air is diminished as we ascend in 
the atmosphere, so the intensity of light is increased ; and it has been sup- 
posed that as high elevations correspond with high latitudes in regard to 
heat, they ought to correspond also in regard to light ; though this has not, 
as far as we know, been determined by facts. But it is clear, from what 
has been stated, that in any given latitude the plants which grow on plains 
receive less light than those on mountains ; and that the two extremes, in 
any country, are the sea-shore and the line of perpetual snow. The mean 
distribution of light is unquestionably much more equable in all latitudes 
than tJie mean distribution of temperature ; but the extremes, in its mode 
of distribution, are remarkably diff'erent. Plants in the northern regions 
generally are covered with snow more than half the year ; and those which 
reach above the snow, such as the trees, have perpetual sunshine for 
several weeks together during summer, and the absence of the sun for a 
similar period during winter. In all countries where snow falls, and rests 
on the country for some weeks or months, the mean degree of light received 
by herbaceous plants, such as the pasture grasses, must be considerably dif- 
ferent from the mean light received by the same species m climates where 
snow is unknown ; but as in all cases in which light is so entirely excluded 
from plants in a natural state vegetation is dormant, or nearly so, plants 
escape uninjured. From these facts some valuable deductions may be 
drawn as to the light which plants require, or may dispense with, in a state 
of culture. 

144. The influence of wate}\ whether in the soil or in the atmosphere, on 



42 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED 



the distribution of plants, if not so great as that of temperature, is in some 
cases more striking. In general, plants are as differently constituted in re- 
spect to water as they are in regard to temperature. The quantity of water 
absolutely necessary for the nourishment of a plant varies according to its 
tissue. Plants with large and soft leaves, with little or no pubescence, with 
many pores or stomata, and with the texture of the entire plant loose and 
spongy, require most water ; and accordingly this is the description of plants 
which are found in marshes, and in lakes or rivers. Plants having their 
general texture firm and succulent, clothed with pubescence, and having- few 
stomata, grow in dry warm stations. Trees and herbaceous plants, with 
roots which penetrate into the soil, require least water on the surface, and 
best resist extreme drought ; and, next to these, those that have succulent 
leaves and few stomata, because they evaporate but little moisture from 
their surface. Some plants live entirely on water, floating on its surface ; 
and others immersed in it, and attached to the soil at the bottom of the lake 
or river : in some, as in river -plants, the water is constantly in a state of 
motion ; while in lake-plants it is alwaj^s at rest, except on the surface. In 
general, all aquatic and marsh plants require the water to be pure ; but in 
salt marshes, salt steppes, and on the sea-shore, it is strongly impregnated 
with s^a-salt or soda, in which only a small number of vegetables will live. 

145. The influence of soil on the distribution of plants is universally ac- 
knowledged ; though the difference in the selection of soils by plants depends 
much more on the condition of that soil with respect to water, than on its 
chemical properties. By soil is to be understood tliat upper coating of the 
earth's surface composed of earths or the rust of rocks, and organic matters ; 
and the capacity of this coating for water will depend on the elevation or de- 
pression of its surface, on its texture, and on the nature and texture of the sub- 
soil. The relative proportions of the primitive earths do not appear to have 
much influence on the distribution of plants; but when a soil has any decided 
character, such as when it consists almost wholly of sand, of chalk, or of 
clay, the influence is considerable. In general, the greatest number of species 
are coramonl^^ found on soils having a loose sandy surface ; because their 
seeds being blown there, or otherwise conve}' ed, from the plants on ad- 
joining soils, readily take root ; whereas on chalky and clayey soils, from 
tlieir greater hardness, and also from their surface being generall}'' more 
clothed, the seeds which fall on them do not so readily vegetate. Many of 
the plants which spring up in sandy districts perish for want of moisture, 
or are blown out by the winds ; but they are nevertheless continually re- 
newed by the seeds furnished from adjoining surfaces. Those which are 
indigenous to gravelly soils, much exposed, are chiefly low, compact, or trail- 
ing plants, which offer but a small surface for the wind to act on, or such 
as have deeply-penetrating roots. Chalky and clayey soils, on the other hand, 
from their firm, compact texture, are adapted only to such species as have 
small fibrous roots, and which do not requu-e any great depth of soil. 

146. A few plants appear to prefer the soils formed by particular rocks^ 
such as limestone, chalk, granite, and slate ; yet the same plants which 
prevail on these rocks are frequently found abounding in districts of a 
totally different geological character. Thus according to De Candolle, 
although the Box in France is very common on calcareous surfaces, it is 
found in equal abundance on such as are schistous or granitic. The Sweet 
Chestnut grows equally well in limestone soils and clays, in the volcanic 



WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR CULTURE. 



43 



ashes of iEtiia, and in the sand of Calabria. Tlie plants of J ura, a calca- 
reous mountain, grow equally well on the argillaceous rocks of the Vosges, 
or the granitic Alps. But though the kinds of earths in which plants 
grow naturally, seem of no great importance, yet the presence of metallic 
oxides and salts, such as sulphate of iron or copper, or sulphur alone, or 
alum, or other similar substances in a state to be soluble in water, is found 
to be injurious to all plants, of which the maremmes of Tuscany, and some 
parts of Derbyshire, are examples. As a general result of the facts which 
have been collected relative to the influence of soil on the distribution of 
plants, it may be stated that the chemistry and the geology of soils have 
much less influence on plants than their temperature, moisture, and texture; 
and that it is often a very bad method of culture to imitate exactly the soil 
in which a plant is found growing. 

147. The influence of the atmosphere^ considered with reference to its 
chemical composition, and the gaseous matters which may be suspended in 
it, or its motion as wind, on the distribution of plants, is not supposed to be 
great ; or at all events, that influence is not yet so far understood as to be 
reduced to any general law. Its difference of density at difi^erent elevations 
produces, as we have seen, a corresponding increase in the intensity of light ; 
and it is also found that humidity decreases as we ascend. This last result 
must be attended with some eff'ects on plants ; but, as the ratio of the de- 
crease of humidity has not been determined, its effects, separated from those 
of temperature and light, are not sufficiently understood. De Candoile 
remarks that the rarefaction of the atmosphere by elevation may diminish 
the quantity of oxygen for absorption by the leaves, and may at the same 
time facilitate evaporation ; but the precise result of these conditions is 
unknown. 

148. The following are the principal stations of plants wdiich require to 
be known by the cultivator, and all of which he can imitate by art, 

(1.) Marine plants^ which grow in or on the surface of the sea, and which, 
though practicable, it has rarely been attempted to cultivate by art. 

(2.) Maritime districts^ as the sea-shore, where the soil is more or less 
impregnated with salt, which must be absorbed by the roots of plants, while 
those parts which are above ground must be affected by the spray and sea- 
breezes. Some are absolute sea- shore plants, such as Salicornia, but others 
grow equally well on the sea-shore and in inland situations, as the E'ryngium 
campestre and the common Thrift. 

(3.) Saline steppes^ where the soil is impregnated with salt, but where the 
foliage is not influenced by a saline atmosphere. 

(4.) Aquatic plants^ or such as grow in fresh- water rivers and lakes, either 
immersed and rooted in the soil forming the bottom on which the water 
rests, or floating on the surface and sending down roots so as to touch the 
soil ; in some cases scarcely doing so, as in iemna. This kind of habitation 
is imitated by artificial ponds or currents, or by basins in which the surface 
of the water is kept in motion by jets or fountains. 

(5.) Marshes^ bogs, and fens, easily imitated by suitable soil kept con- 
stantly saturated with water. 

(6.) Meadows and pastures^ the plants inhabiting which may generally 
be cultivated in common soils and situations. 

(7.) Cultivated lands, of which the same may be said. 

(8.) Rocks, which are chiefly the habitations of cryptogamic plants, and 



44 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 



which, in artificial culture, require the rock or stones for some species to be 
kept dry, and in others to be kept moist by artificial springs of water. 

(9.) Sandy soils, in inland situations, dry or moist, which are easily imi- 
tated, and in which a greater or less number of plants will grow according 
to the supply of water. Bulbous plants are particularly^ adapted for such 
soils, because they are driest in summer when the bulb is at rest. When 
dry, sandy soils are warmer than any others. 

(10.) Forests, copses, and hedges, the plants of which include trees and 
shrubs, deciduous or evergreen, and the plants which grow in their shade. 
Among these are some few which grow under the constant shade of ever- 
green trees, as the Pyrola in pine-groves ; and others which require light in 
winter and spring, and are found growing only under deciduous trees, as the 
common /S'cilla nutans and many bulbs, the Cowslip, and various other 
plants found under the shelter of hedges. Climbmg and twining plants 
are commonly found in stations of this description. 

(11.) Mountainous or Alpine regions, the plants of which include such as 
grow on mountains of moderate height, which are clothed with vegetation to 
their summits, and are consequently subject to greater drought in summer 
than in winter ; and those which grow on mountains, the summits of which 
are covered with perpetual snow, which, from its melting partially in summer, 
keeps the surface- soil of the mountain moister at that season than during 
winter. It is evident, however, that much must depend on the soil of the 
mountain ; for a peaty or clayey soil will be kept in a state of greater mois- 
ture than one which is composed chiefly of sand, and a deep soil will 
retain more moisture than a thin stratum on rock. In the culture of moun- 
tain plants, therefore, the particular kind of soil in which they are found 
naturally, and its condition with regard to moisture, are of much greater 
importance than its elevation. In short, it is found that the mountain 
plants of the Highlands of Scotland may, with scarcely any exceptions, be 
cultivated with success in the botanic gardens of Edinburgh and Glasgow, 
which are on a level with the sea. 

(12.) Subterranean stations are either dark caverns where some species of 
acrogens are found, or, as in the case of the Truffle, the interior of the soil 
itself. The culture of the Truffle is still a desideratum in horticulture. 

(13.) Living or dead t7-ees or other plants constitute a station. Parasitic 
plants, such as the Mistletoe and the Dodder, root into the stems of living 
trees, and their dissemination can be effected by art as well as by nature. 
Epiphytes or pseudo-parasites grow either upon dead or living vegetables, 
but without deriving any nourishment from their vital parts. Of these, 
we have in Britain the common Polypod}^, a fern found on the rough bark 
of old trees, especially Oaks, in moist climates, as about the lakes of Cumber- 
land and ^Westmoreland ; and on old pollards in many situations. There 
are also numerous Mosses, Lichens, and Fungi, which live on the outer bark 
of old trees in temperate regions ; and an immense number of Orchidaceae 
which have their stations on trees in tropical climates, and the culture of 
which in British stoves has recently called forth an extraordinary degree of 
ingenuity among gardeners. 

] 49. To these stations botanists have added some others ; such as the rub- 
bish near human dwellings, which is supposed to have an attraction for certain 
plants from containing nitrogen ; roadsides, &c. : but, with a view to culture, 
these, and several which have been mentioned, are of no great importance. 



SOILS CONSIDERED WITH r.EFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 45 

Some stations, on the other liand, ave absolute ; such as maritime, marine, 
aquatic, marsh, subterranean, and parasitic, and cannot be dispensed with in 
our attempts at cultivation. 

150. " The habitations of plants" is an expression used to denote the 
range of country throughout which any particular species is found distri- 
buted ; the stations being those soils or situations in that country in which 
alone, or chiefly, the plant is found. (134.) For example, a plant may 
be an inhabitant of mountains, and its station on these mountains may be 
a peat -bog. The habitations of plants are much less certain than their 
stations ; for the limits in latitude and longitude within which plants occur 
have little relation to those in which, judging from the stations and climate 
in w^hich they are found, they might extend themselves. Thus we have 
certain species growing in a particular station and temperature in the 
northern hemisphere, which are not to be found in stations and temperatures 
of exactly the same kind in the southern hemisphere. On the other hand, 
there are some species, such as certain Grasses, which are found extensively 
distributed in both hemispheres ; w^hile some few plants, such as the Stre- 
litzia, have their habitations so limited as to be found only in one or two 
stations of very confined extent. Plants of this kind are called solitary, while 
those w^hich grow in immense masses are said to be social. Those which 
have been long in cultivation are said to be domesticated ; but this term is 
not applied to such plants as have been introduced into gardens without 
undergoing any change in their habits there. 



CHAPTER II. 

SOILS CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 

151. In the last section of the preceding chapter we have seen, that 
though plants are less absolute in the choice of soils than of climates, yet 
that in the cultivation of plants, soils are much more under our influence 
than any other element of culture. The term soil is applied to that thin 
stratum on the surface of the ground which is occupied by the roots of the 
smaller herbaceous vegetables ; on uncultivated surfaces it varies in depth 
with the nature of the soil and the plants growing on it ; but on lands in 
cultivation, the soil extends to the depth usually penetrated by the imple- 
ments of culture. The principal materials of which soils are composed are 
earths formed of the debris of different kinds of rocks, combined with organic 
matter derived from decomposed vegetables or animals. Earths without 
organic matter will only support plants of the low^est grade, such as Lichens 
and Mosses ; and w^here soils are found supporting the higher classes of 
plants, endogens and exogens, their vigour wdll generally be found to be 
greater or less according to the proportion of organic matter which the soil 
contains. This organic matter, when supplied by art, is called manure, and 
constitutes the food of plants ; while the soil may be compared to a stomach, 
in which that food is digested. The subject of manures will be most conve- 
niently treated in our next chapter. Here we shall confine ourselves to the 
consideration of soils, and treat, first, of their origin and kinds, and secondly, 
of their improvement. 



4(1 



ORIGIN AND KINDS OF SOILS, CONSIDERED 



Sect. L — Origin and Kinds of Soils. 

152. The earthy ^Dart of all soils must necessarily have been derived from 
the debris of rocks, and the organic part from the intermixture of decayed 
vegetable or animal matter. The earthy mass so produced varies in colour, 
but, from containing humus and mould (161), it is always darker in a greater 
or less degree than subsoils, which in general are without organic matter. 
Soils also contain mineral salts and metallic oxides, some of which are bene- 
ficial, others harmless, and some few injurious, to plants. The chemical 
constitution of a soil can only be known by analysis, which cannot, in gene- 
ral, be depended on, unless performed by professional or experienced che- 
mists * ; the mechanical state or texture of a soil is ascertained by digging 
up a portion of it ; and its actual fitness for plants, by examining tiie species 
growing on its surface. The rock, or geological formation, the earth of which 
forms the basis of any soil, will frequently be found to constitute the substra- 
tum on which that soil rests ; but this is frequently not the case, because the 
earths of many soils have been held in suspension by water in a state of motion, 
and by that means have been transported to a great distance from the rocks of 
which they are the debris. From this suspension of the earths of soils in 
water, and their transportation to a distance, we are able to account for the 
circumstance of several different kinds of earths being almost always found 
in the same soil. Thus in alluvial deposits, on the banks of rivers, we find 
the earth of various rocks of the country through which the river has taken 
its course ; and as such soils are always the most fertile, we may conclude 
that a mixture of various earths in a soil is to be preferred to any one kind 
of earth alone. From the earth of the alluvial deposits of every country 
being formed of the debris of the various rocks of that country, and from 
every country containing nearly the same kinds of rocks, hence the alluvial 
deposits on the banks of all the larger rivers of the world consist nearly of 
the same earths. But as the rocks or geological formations from which 
the earths of soils are washed away still remain in their places, and are of 
many different kinds, it follows that there must be as great a variety in the 
upland soils of a country as there is uniformity in those of the lowlands, 
and of the banks of rivers. Thus there are between twenty and thirty 
geological formations in England, Avhich form the substratum or bases of 
soils, and each of which must consequently be more or less different in its 
compositionf. For all practical purposes, however, soils may be charac- 
terised by their prevailing primitive earths; and, hence, they are reduced 
to sands and gravels, clays, chalky and limestone soils, alluvial soils, and 
peat-bogs. 

153. Sandy Soil. — Silica, which is the basis of sandy soils, is, perhaps, the 
most universal of all earths ; and there is scarcely a species or variety of 
rock in which it does not abound more or less. Silica is found perfectly 
pure in rock crystal, and tolerably so in what is called silver sand, and 
also in the sand of some rivers and of the sea. The practical test of the 
earth, when tolerably pure, is, that w^lien moistened it cannot be formed into 



* At the Museum of Economic Geology, attached to the Board of Woods and Forests, 
Craig's-court, Charing Cross, London, an analysis of a pound of soil, sent from any part of 
the country, will he made hy Mr. Richard Phillips, one of the best analytical chemists in 
Europe, for a fee of about 20.9. 

t See Morion on Soils. 2d edit. 12mo. 1840. 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



47 



a plastic mass, or consolidated by pressure, whether in a moist or dry state, 
so as to form a compact solid body. Hence all sandy soils are loose, never 
present a firm surface, and are never covered with a compact clothing of 
grass or other herbaceous plants. Such soils, from being without cohesion, 
are incapable of retaining moisture ; and, as they are readily permeable by 
both moisture and air, they powerfully promote the putrefaction of organic 
matter, whilst they as readily permit it to be washed away from them by 
rains, or to escape in the form of gas. Hence, in manuring sandy soils, no 
more should be applied at once than what can be consumed by the crop of 
the current year ; and hence, also, they should be cultivated to a greater 
depth than other soils, in order that there may be a greater mass of material 
for retaining moisture. One great advantage of a sandy soil over all others 
is its natural warmth. This arises from its greater looseness and porosity, 
in consequence of which the atmosphere penetrates into it more rapidly, and 
to a greater depth, than in the case of any other soil. Hence, in the absence 
of sunshine, a sandy soil will be raised to the temperature of the atmosphere, 
to the depth of several inches, by the mere penetration of the air among its 
particles ; while a firm compact soil, the earthy basis of which is clay or 
chalk, could not be heated to the same depth without the direct influence of 
the sun's rays. Sandy soils are also more easily penetrated by water than 
any others, and hence they are sooner raised or lowered to the temperature 
of the rains which fall on them than a clayey or calcareous soil. As the 
water never rests on sandy soils, they are never cooled down by evaporation ; 
the reverse of which is the case with clayey and calcareous surfaces. Sandy 
soils being much less cohesive than soils in which clay or lime prevails, they 
are much more easily laboured ; and, being always loose and friable on the 
surface, they are better adapted for the germination of seeds. Sandy soils 
may be made to approach alluvial soils by the addition of clay and calcareous 
earth, either taken from clayey or calcareous surfaces, or from subsoils in 
which these earths abound ; but the former source is greatly preferable, from 
the earths being already in combination with organic matter. 

154. Whatever has been said of sandy soils is applicable to gravelly soils ; 
in some particulars in a greater, and in some in a less degree. The small 
stones of which the greater part of gravel consists being better conductors of 
heat than the particles of sand, it follows that gravels are both easier heated 
and easier cooled than sands ; they are also more readily penetrated by rain, 
and more readily dried by filtration and evaporation. Like sands, they are 
improved by the addition of clay and chalk, or fey alluvial soil ; and they 
require also to be cultivated to a greater depth than clays or chalks. A gra- 
velly soil, isolated so as not to be supplied with water from higher grounds is 
of all others the most suitable for a suburban villa (^Sub. Arch, and Land- 
scape Gard. p. 16) ; and therefore, though not so suitable for a kitchen-garden 
as a sandy or loamy soil, yet as a sufficient portion of soil, whatever may be 
its earths, may always be improved so as to render it fit for the cultivation 
of vegetables, a gravelly or sandy soil for building on should never be rejected. 

155. Clayey Soil. — Alumina, which is the basis of clayey soil, is the most 
frequent of earths next to sand. It is found nearly pure in the ruby and 
sapphire, tolerably so in the blue or London clay, but more so in the white 
plastic clay which is found between the London clay and the upper chalk, 
and which is used for making tobacco-pipes. This soil, relatively to water, is 
the very reverse of sand ; for while in nature sand and water are never found 



48 ORIGIN AND KINDS OF SOILS, CONSIDERED 

chemically combined, in clay- they are never found chemically separate. 
Hence, though clay when prepared by the chemist, and kept apart from 
water, appears as a light dry powder, scarcely different to the eye from pure 
sand or pure lime, yet in soils it forms an adhesive mass, the particles of 
which cannot be permanently separated except by burning to expel the 
water held in fixation. When clay is burnt and reduced to powder, it be- 
comes for all practical purposes sand, and in that state it may be employed 
to great advantage for reducing the cohesive properties of stiff clay. Rela- 
tively to heat, clays do not admit the atmosphere between their particles, 
and an unimproved clayey soil is generally a cold one ; partly because the 
heat penetrates wdth difficulty into it, and partly from the evaporation wdiicli 
during great part of the year is going on from its moist surface. The obvious 
improvement of clays is by the addition of sand or gravel ; and when the 
clay does not contain lime, by the addition of that material, either in a caustic 
or mild state, or as chalk. 

]5G. Lime^ or the basis of chalk and limestone rock, is much less common 
as a soil than either clay or sand ; though there are scarcely any soils which 
are naturally fertile that are absolutely without it. Lime is found in a state 
of carbonate in white or statuary marble, and more or less so in chalk-rock 
and in some limestone-rocks. Lime is never found pure in a state of nature, 
bat always combined with carbonic acid and water, which are driven off from 
it by burning, leaving the earth in the caustic state called quicklime. In this 
state lime rapidly reabsorbs water and carbonic acid from th^ atmosphere, 
or from any other material which comes in contact with it containing these 
elements. Hence its use in a caustic state in promoting the putrefaction of 
imperfectly decomposed organic matter in soils, and in attracting carbonic 
acid and moisture from the atmosphere. Relatively to the retention of water, 
a limy or chalky soil may be considered as intermediate between a sandy 
and a clayey soil, without becoming so tenacious as clay on the one hand, or 
parting with water so readily as sand on the other. Hence the use of lime 
or chalk in reducing the tenacity of stiff clays, and increasing the absorbent 
powers of sandy soils, and improving their texture. A calcareous soil is im- 
proved by sand and clay, especially if laid on in sufficient quantity to destroy 
the tenacity and compactness of its texture. 

157. Magnesia^ for all practical purposes, may be considered as lime ; 
it is not very common in soils, and though it is said to be inimical to vege- 
tation under some circumstances, yet this appears very doubtful. 

158. The iron of soils is mostly found in a state of rust, or oxide. There 
is scarcely any soil w- ithout it ; but it is never very abundant in soils naturally 
fertile. In a diy state the oxide of iron is insoluble in water, and not inju- 
rious to vegetation ; but when, in consequence of saline substances in the soil 
or applied to it, a salt of iron is produced, the iron becomes soluble in water, 
is taken up by the roots of plants, and is very injurious to them. Iron in this 
state is termed hydrate, and its evil effects are to be counteracted by caustic 
lime, with w^hich it forms an insoluble compound. 

159. Alluvial soils have been already described as composed of very fine 
particles of the debris of sevtral kinds of rocks, which have been held in sus- 
pension by water, and deposited in plains, or along the banks of rivers, along 
with organic matter also held in suspension. The earthy character of this 
soil must necessarily always partake of the character of the rocks of the 
country in which it is found. 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



49 



IGO. Peat or log is composed of partially decayed vegetable matter, soft, 
light, and spongy to the touch ; and the very reverse of sand with respect to 
water, holding that element like a sponge, so as, in its natural state, to be 
totally unfit for the growth of vegetables, except those of the lowest grade. 

161. The organic matter in soils in its solid state may be considered as 
carbon, which is found pure in the diamond, and tolerably so in the charcoal 
of wood. In soils it is found in various states of decomposition, from recent 
woody fibre to humus, which is woody fibre in a state of decay. The 
proportion of organic matter varies exceedingly in difi^erent soils. In barren 
sands there is scarcely a trace of it, while in fertile soils it varies from 10 to 
80 per cent. ; and peat-bogs which have been drained and cultivated contain 
often 80 or 90 per cent. Humus, according to Professor Liebig, exercises 
its influence on vegetation " by being a continued source of carbonic acid, 
which it emits slowly. An atmosphere of carbonic acid, formed at the 
expense of the oxygen of the air, surrounds every particle of decaying 
humus. The cultivation of land, by stirring and loosening the soil, causes 
a free and unobstructed access of air. An atmosphere of carbonic acid is, 
therefore, contained in every fertile soil, and is the first and most important 
food for the young plants which grow in it. The property of humus, or 
M'oody fibre, to convert surrounding oxygen gas into carbonic acid, diminishes 
in proportion as its decay advances ; and at last a certain quantity of a brown 
coaly-looking substance remains, in which this property is entirely wanting. 
This substance is called mould (152) ; it is the product of the complete decay 
of woody fibre, and constitutes the principal part of brown coal and peat." 
(Organic Chemistry, p. 47.) 

For practical purposes, all the soils ordinarily met with may be reduced 
to the following : — 

362. Loose naked sands or gravels, without either clay or calcareous 
matter, and almost destitute of vegetation on the surface; exemplified on some 
parts of the sea-shore, and in Hounslow and other extensive heaths.' 

163. Calcareous soils or gravels, containing little or no clay or organic 
matter, and almost without vegetation on the surface ; found on the sea- 
shore in some places, and on ttie surface of chalky districts. 

164. Loams. — Rich sandy loams consist of sand, clay, and more or less of 
calcareous soil, with organic matter ; they never become hard on the surface 
after rains followed by drought, and never retain water to such an extent 
as to prove injurious to vegetation. Vegetation commences some weeks 
earlier in sandy loams than in clayey loams, in the same climate, or even in 
the same garden ; and during summer plants on such soils will be in ad- 
vance of those on clays ; so much so, as Mr. Lymburn has observed, as 
to attain maturity a month earlier. Clayey loams consist of clay with a 
proportion of sand and organic matter ; they produce large crops, but become 
hard and baked on the surface after heavy rains followed by drought. Stiff 
adhesive claj^s contain in their composition little or no sand or lime, and are 
almost without organic matter. All clayey loams are later than sandy 
loams. 

165. Loams are the best soils, and are characterized according to the 
earths which prevail in them, as a sandy loam, &c. ; according to their 
degree of friability, as a free loam, a stiff loam, &c. ; or according to both, as 
a free calcareous loam, &c. These soils, with reference to geology, are gene- 
rally found on the sides of valleys, along the bases of hills or mountains, or 

E 



50 



ORIGIN AND KINDS OF SOILS CONSIDERED. 



on the banks of upland rivers. Mechanically, they are of a texture easily 
penetrated by all the implements of cultui-e, and not liable to become hard 
on the surface, and crack after heavy rains followed by drought; chemically, 
they contain clay, sand, calcareous matter, and humus ; and with reference 
to vegetation, produce abundant crops in all ordinary seasons, with moderate 
supplies of manure. 

166. In general, much more depends on the texture of a soil and its capacity 
for retaining or parting with water and heat, than on its chemical composition. 
Soils have been found consisting chiefly of clay, others chiefly of calcareous 
earths ; some, in America, without calcareous earths ; and all producing good 
crops for a series of years. Nevertheless, it has been found that no soil will 
remain fertile for many years that does not contain lime in some form natu- 
rally, or is not liberally supplied with manure containing animal matter, 
one ingredient of which is lime in a state of phosphate or sulphate. 

167. Subsoils. — Next in importance to the texture of a soil, is the nature 
of the subsoil or substratum on wliich it rests ; because on the texture and 
other circumstances of this subsoil depends, in a great measure, the capacity 
of the surface-soil for retaining or parting w^ith water or heat. The worst 
subsoils are those of clay kept moist by subterraneous water ; and the best, 
those of clay resting on gravel or porous rock ; because these retain a useful 
degree of moisture, and admit of increasing the surface-soil to any depth 
which may be required for culture. Sandy and gravelly subsoils, with but 
a tliin coating of surface-soil over them, are not sufficiently retentive of 
moisture ; and chalky subsoils are generally cold. 

168. The surface of soils has, perhaps, as powerful an influence on their 
natural fertility as the subsoil ; because on the inclination of the sur- 
face depends, in a considerable degree, the moisture retained by the soil, 
and consequently its fitness for the growth of plants. Too steep a slope 
throws off the rain witli too great rapidity, and thus deprives the soil of a 
sufficient supply of water during dry seasons ; while a flat surface will 
retard its drainage and occasion loss of heat by evaporation. The colour of 
the surface of a soil exercises some influence on its heat. A dark-coloured 
soil will be sooner heated by the rays of the sun than a light- coloured soil ; 
but it will also part with its heat more rapidly when the sun does not shine. 
A white soil, such as we sometimes find on chalky or marly subsoils, is the 
longest of all soils in being warmed, because by all white surfaces the rays 
of light and heat are reflected, while by all black surfaces they are absorbed. 
Hence, takmg into consideration colour, texture, and aspect, a dark sandy 
soil, on a surface exposed to the south or south-east, must be the warmest of 
all soils ; and a moist white clay of compact texture, similarly exposed, the 
coolest. It may be thought that such a soil would be colder on a surface 
exposed to the north than on a southern exposure ; and this will be the 
case when the soil is in a dry state, but not when it is supplied with moisture 
from the subsoil; because, in the latter case, the cold, produced by evapo- 
ration, is great in proportion to the warmth of the atmosphere. The aspect 
is not only of importance with reference to the influence of the sun in 
warming or cooling the soil, but also as to its effects in maturing the produce 
which grows on it. 

] 69. The plants which grow on a soil are the surest indications, to a prac- 
tical botanist and cultivator, of the actual state of that soil with reference to 
culture ; though they do not always indicate the improvement of which the 



IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS CONSIDERED. 



51 



soil is susceptible. Marshy soils are indicated with considerable certainty 
both by herbaceous and ligneous plants, and also very dry soils ; but the 
earths of fertile soils cannot be so readily inferred from the plants growing on 
them. Thus thorn-hedges will be found growing vigorously alike on clays, 
sands, and chalks ; though never on these soils, or on any other, when they 
are either very dry, or saturated with water. Some few plants, when found in 
their native stations in considerable quantities, may be considered absolute 
in respect to the earths of the soil in which they grow ; such as the Tussilago 
JParfara, which always indicates clayey soil ; Clematis Vitalba, calcareous soil ; 
Arenaria rubra, sandy soil ; iiumex Acetosa, ferruginous soil ; Faccinium 
uligindsum, peaty soil ; Salicornia herbacea, saline soil ; Caltha palustris, 
marshy soil, &c. : but by far the greater number of plants only indicate the 
state of a soil relatively to water and organic matter. In short, nature may 
be said to have only three kinds of soil relatively to plants ; the dry, the 
moist, and the fertile. 

Sect. II. — The Improvement of Soils, with a View to Horticulture. 

170. Having seen, in the preceding section, that the permanent fertility 
of a soil depends mainly on its condition relatively to water and heat, it 
follows that the improvement of soils must be principally directed to increase 
their capacity for absorbing and retaining these elements in the degree most 
suitable for vegetation. The principal operations for tliis purpose are : draining, 
to withdraw superfluous water from soils ; and mixture and pulverization for 
improving their texture, in order to admit more readily the moisture and the 
heat of the atmosphere. 

171. Draining is the principal means for altering the condition of a soil 
with reference to water. Soils are affected by rains from above and springs 
from below ; and the former are carried off by open gutters, and the latter 
by covered channels. All draining is founded on the well-known hydrostatic 
law by which all fluids have a constant tendency to arrange themselves 
in a horizontal position. Hence, to carry off water, either from a surface or 
a subsoil, it is only necessary to form channels above or under ground in 
an inclined position. The kind of drains, and the number employed in any 
given case, will depend on the texture of the soil and the inclination of the 
surface. Flat surfaces and retentive clays require the greatest number of 
drains, and inclined surfaces and porous soils the smallest number. There 
are very few soils that may not be improved by draining ; and it is 
almost umaecessary to observe, that, where draining is requisite and not 
performed, the application of other modes of improvement will be made in 
vain. 

172. Altering the texture and composition of soil by the addition of other 
soils is the improvem^ent next in importance to that of draining, and requires 
only to be mentioned to be understood. Too sandy soils will be improved 
by the addition of clay, and the contrary ; and both clay and sand by the 
addition of lime ; because without alkaline matter no soil can be permanently 
fertile. Though on a large scale the expense of this kind of improvement is 
too great to be generally adopted, yet in the case of the grounds of small 
country residences it is practicable at a moderate expense. To ascertain the 
proportion of one soil that must be added to any other soil so as to perfect 
its texture, can only be determined by experiment. The first thing to fix 
on is the depth to which the soil is to be cultivated. In kitchen gardens 

E 2 



52 



IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS, CONSIDERED 



this may be between two and three feet : but in pleasure-grounds, where the 
surface is to be chiefly in grass, nine inches or one foot in depth will suffice. 
" It is astonishing," Mr. Rhani observes, " how small a portion of pure 
alumina will consolidate a loose sand, and convert it into a good loam, the 
parts of which, when moistened, will adhere and form a clod in drying.'' 
{Jour. Ag. Soc. vol. ii. p, 51.) If we take an extreme case, and suppose 
that any given soil is so sandy as to require the addition of one sixth its 
bulk of clay, or so clayey as to require one sixth its bulk of sand, then, in 
the case of kitchen gardens where the soil is three feet deep, every square 
foot of the clayey surface will require the addition of half a cubic foot of 
sand ; and in the case of a lawn where the soil is a foot in depth, every 
square foot of sand will require the sixth of a cubic foot of clay. To cover 
a statute acre with soil to the depth of one inch requires 121 cubic yards. 
Hence to add two inches to the soil of a garden of one acre, exclusive of the 
space occupied by the walks, would require 242 cubic yards or cart-loads, 
which, at 2*. each, amount to 24,1. 4:S. The cost, however, will depend 
chiefly on the distance from which the soil is to be brought. A case is 
mentioned in the Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii. p. (17, 
in which a white sand varying in depth from one to four feet, and so barren 
that it never had been cultivated to profit, had the surface improved to the 
usual depth penetrated by the plough (nine to twelve inches), by laying on 
clay at the rate of 150 cubic yards to the acre. The clay being dug from 
the subsoil, the expense was not more than 5/. 10*. per acre. It frequently 
happens that a sandy or gravelly soil is incumbent on a bed of clay, and the 
contrary ; in either of which cases the supply of the required soil may be 
obtained by digging pits, or sometimes even by deep trenching. The earth 
thus obtamed will generally be w^ithout organic matter, but that can be sup- 
plied afterwards by manuring. Where the soil required for the improvement 
of another soil can be obtained in the state of surface soil, the eff'ects produced 
w^ill be more immediate from the organic matter which such soil contains ; but 
even when it is obtained from the subsoil, the change in the condition of the 
soil to which the new soil is applied will soon be rendered obvious ; though 
not so much the first year, as it will be in two or three years afterwards, 
when the amalgamation of the two soils is more complete. Much of the 
efl'ect of adding one soil to another will depend on their intimate mixture; 
and this can be best effected by repeated trenchings or diggings in dry weather, 
w hen both soils are as nearly as possible in a state of dry powder. This point 
is of great importance, particularly when the soils mixed together contain a 
good deal of organic matter, because if a very intimate mixture of both soils 
is not effected, they will, from the difference in their specific gravities, in a few 
years separate into two different strata. There is, indeed, a constant tend- 
ency to do this in all soils under culture, and more especially in all such 
as have been improved by admixture. I'his takes place in consequence of 
the softening of the soil by rains, by which the particles are in a manner 
held for a time in suspension, and the heaviest gradually take a lower place 
than those wdiich are lighter. Hence the necessity of digging or trenching 
such soils occasionally to the depth to which they have originally been im- 
proved. This is required even in artificial soils laid down in grass ; for sup- 
posing a clayey soil to have received a considerable admixture of lime or 
chalk, and sand, with rotted stable dung, and the whole to have been 
incoj-porated in a state of fallow, and afterwards sown with grass seeds, { 



WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. 



53 



then in seven years the black matter or mould remahiing of the dung will be 
found among the roots of the grass at the surface, the sand in a stratum 
three or four inches below the surface, and the lime at the bottom of the 
artificial soil. By placing tlie same mixture in a flower -pot, and watering it 
frequently during a year, the pot being plunged in the soil, the same result 
will take place sooner, and be more conspicuous. If the pot be kept con- 
stantly immersed in water to within an inch of the brim, the result will 
take place in the course of a few days. These facts ought to be kept con- 
stantly in mind by whoever would improve soils by admixture ; if they are 
not, disappointment is very likely to ensue. When soils mixed together are 
comparatively without organic matter, and w^hen the particles of which they 
are composed are very small, the mixture becomes more intimate ; the 
particles of the one soil filling up the interstices among the particles of the 
other, and the amalgamation as it may be termed is then so complete that 
the earths will never afterwards separate. In this way pure sands may be 
improved by the admixture of pure clays, or by marls or chalks. The 
words pure and amalgamate are here used, not in a chemical, but in a 
popular sense. 

173. Changing the inclination of the surface of soils is a mode of improve- 
ment that may frequently be adopted on a small scale, by arranging a 
steep slope into narrow terraces, and a broad slope into level platforms. The 
former mode has been practised from time immemorial in the Land of 
Canaan, and in other countries of the East, and the latter is common in 
France and Italy, in order to admit of surface irrigation without waste of 
water. By this last mode, a field or garden is arranged into different plat- 
forms, which may either be on the same or on different levels. In the former 
case, the water is let into one platform after another ; or, if there is an abun- 
dant supply, into several at the same time ; in the latter case the supply of 
water is conducted to the highest platform, which is first w^atered, and 
the others follow in the order of their elevation. Arrangements of this kind 
are not so important in British gardens as they are in those of warmer 
climates ; but still they might in many cases be advantageously introduced 
with a view to watering summer crops. 

174. Burning of soils has been resorted to as a means of altering their 
texture, destroying injurious substances, and changing or forming others 
which may act as a manure. Burning is useless on siliceous sands contain- 
ing little or no vegetable matter ; but on all soils containing chalk, lime, or 
clay, it may be practised with advantage. By burning calcareous or chalky 
soils, the same effect is produced as if quicklime had been procured and 
added to the soil ; and by burning clayey soils the same result is obtained as 
if sand had been procured and mixed with them. The effect of burning clay 
is totally different from that of burning sand or lime. On sands and gravels 
burning can have no effect, except that in some cases it renders the particles 
smaller. Burning lime drives off the carbonic acid and the water, and renders 
the lime caustic and well adapted for decomposing organic matter ; but the 
lime has no sooner lost its water than it begins to attract it again, and after a 
certain period will be found in the same state of combination with water and 
carbonic acid as it was before. Clay, on the other hand, when once the water 
is driven off by burning, will never regain it, but remains for ever after- 
wards in a state which, with reference to its mechanical effect on a soil, is 
exactly the same as that of sand. This is a fact, the great importance of 



54 



IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS, CONSIDERED 



which in the improvement of clayey soils, and indeed of all soils which are 
of too compact a texture, is not duly appreciated. It is evident that, by 
means of draining and burning, any clayey soil may have its texture as much 
improved as can be desired ; and though the expense of this may, in many 
cases, be too great for application on an extensive scale, yet it may always 
be adopted in kitchen gardens ; and often over the entire surface of the 
grounds of small villas. It is indeed only by this kind of improvement 
that the heavy claye}^ soils of many of the small villas in the neighbour- 
hood of London can be at all rendered comfortable to walk on after rains 
in summer, and throughout the whole of the other seasons ; or suitable and 
agreeable for the cultivation of culinary vegetables and flowers. Clayey soils 
often contain iron, and the operation of burning them, by forming an insoluble 
compound of iron and alumina, lessens the risk of the iron ever becoming 
noxious to the plants. Burning also destroys the inert vegetable fibre ; and 
thus it at once produces ashes containing vegetable alkali, and supplies the soil 
with a portion of hum_us ; without both of which, accordmg to Liebig, no 
soil can bring plants to maturity. Where a strong clayey soil is covered with a 
healthy vegetation, as of pasture or wood, it may not be desirable to burn the 
surface soil, on account of the quantity of organic matter which it contains ; 
but it may still be very desirable to burn such a portion of the clayey subsoil 
as may be sufficient j when reduced to a sandy powder, to render the surface 
soil of a proper texture. In this case the surface soil should be removed to the 
depth to which it has been cultivated, and a portion of that below taken up in 
lumps, and dried and burned. The burning is performed on the spot by the 
aid of faggot-wood, or any description of cheap fuel. The burned lumps 
being reduced to a powder, and scattered equally over the soil when also in a 
dry and powdery state, the whole should then be intimately mixed toge- 
ther by repeated diggings and trenchings. As an example of the strong 
clayey soil of a garden ha>'ing been improved by burning, we ma}'- refer to 
that of Willersley Castle, near JNIatlock, which the gardener there, Mr. 
Stafford, has rendered equal in friability and fertility to any garden soil in 
the country. " When I first came to this place," says Mr. Stafford, " the 
garden was for the most part a strong clay, and within nine inches of the 
surface ; even the most common article would not live upon it ; no weather 
appeared to suit it — at one time being covered by water, at another time 
rendered impenetrable by being too dry. Having previously witnessed the 
good effects of burning clods, I commenced the process, and produced in a 
few days a composition three feet deep, and equal, if not superior, to any 
soil in the country." {Hort. Reg. vol. i. p. 210.) The success was here 
greater than can be expected in every case, because the clay contained a 
large proportion of calcareous matter. 

iTo. Pulverising soils comes next in the order of improvement, and is 
effected by trenching, digging, and other modes of reversing the surface and 
mixing and transposing all the different parts. By changing the surface, 
fresh soil is exposed to the action of the weather ; by changing the position 
of all the parts, new facilities for chemical changes are produced ; and by 
loosening the whole mass of the soil, air and rain are more readily admitted, 
and greater freedom is given to the growth of the roots. By loosening soil 
the air is admitted among its particles and confined there, and hence it 
becomes a non-conductor of heat, and is consequently warmer in winter 
and cooler in summer than if it were in one firm mass. By the con- 



WITH A VIEW TO HORTICULTURE. 



55 



finement of air in the soil, the heat imparted to it by the sun during 
the day is retained, and accumulates in all free open soils to such a degree 
as sensibly to raise their temperature over that of the air, especially 
during night. From thermomefcrical observations made at different places, 
it appears that the mean temperature of the soil, at about one foot below the 
surface, is somewhat higher naturally than the mean temperature of the 
atmosphere on the same spot ; and hence we may reasonably suppose that, 
by draining and pulverization, the temperature of the soil may be perma- 
nently increased as well as that of the atmosphere. From experiments made 
by Mr. Thompson, in the garden of the Horticultural Society of London, it 
appears, that " m the valley of the Thames, the maximum mean of terres- 
trial temperature, at one foot below the surface, has been found to be 64*81° 
in July, which is the hottest month in the year : but that the greatest differ- 
ence between the mean temperature of the earth and atmosphere is in the 
month of October, when it amounted, in the two years during which the 
observations were made, to between three and four degrees ; and that, in 
general, the mean temperature of the earth, a foot below the surface, is at 
least one degree, and more commonly a degree and a half, above the mean 
of the atmosphere. In these cases, if the terrestrial temperatures be com- 
pared with those of the atmosphere, it will be found that in the spring, when 
vegetation is first generally set in motion, the temperature of the earth not 
only rises monthly, but retains a mean temperature higher than that of the 
atmosphere by from one to two degrees ; and that in the autumn, when 
Avoody and perennial plants require that their tissue should be solidified and 
their secretions condensed, in order to meet the approach of inclement wea- 
ther, the terrestrial temperature remains higher in proportion than that of 
the atmosphere, the earth parting with its heat very slowly," (^Lindleys 
Theory of Hort.^ -p. 97.) In hot countries the sun often heats the soil to 
such a degree as to be injurious to the roots of cultivated plants, and pulveri- 
zation is there resorted to to diminish the force of its rays, which, as it is well 
known, are less effective on a porous and spongy than on a solid substance. 
This, as Chaptal informs us, is one of the uses of pulverization even in the 
south of France. 

176. The free admission of atmospheric air to soil is also necessary for the 
decompositioji of humus, or organic matter, by which carbonic acid is formed ; 
and atmospheric air is also a great source of nitrogen, which has been lately 
found in all plants (104), and more especially in the spongioles of the roots. 
The soil also, when loosened, becomes a rapid conductor of water ; and, sup- 
posing the texture of the soil to be suitable for culture, it will retain a suffi- 
cient quantity of moisture for the purpose of vegetation, and allow the escape 
of what is superfluous by filtration into the subsoil, or into the underground 
drains which have been formed as a substitute for a porous substratum. 
The mere act of pulverising any soil has a tendency to improve its texture, 
more especially if the operation be frequently repeated. In summer, by 
exposure of a soil to the air, the particles are separated by the evaporation 
of the water in their interstices by heat ; and by exposing a soil to the frosts 
of winter, the particles are separated by the expansion of the water in the 
form of ice. Clayey soils contauiing iron are in an especial manner improved 
by exposure to the atmosphere ; the iron being still farther oxidised, and 
thus acting like sand in separating the particles, as well as being less likely 
to be rendered soluble by the addition of saline matters. 



ORGANIC MANURES, CONSIDERED 



177. Soils are improved by the modes in which they are cultivated ; as for 
example, by the order in which crops are made to succeed each other, by 
fallowing, by resting, and by the manner in which water is applied to grow- 
ing crops ; but these subjects will come under notice when we are treating 
of the practice of Horticulture. 



CHAPTER III. 

MANURES CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 

] 78. The improvement of the composition and the texture of a soil, and 
of its condition with reference to water and heat, will have but little effect 
on the plants cultivated in it, without the addition of manure ; for this 
article, it must be borne in mind, is the food of plants, while the soil is only 
the stomach, or laboratory, in which that food is digested and rendered fit 
for being taken up by the spongioles of the roots. In order to determine 
what substances are suitable for becommg manures, it is useful to know what 
are the constituent elements of plants. Of these we shall find that some 
elements are common to all plants whatever, such as carbon with oxygen 
and hydrogen in the proper relative proportions for forming water, and 
nitrogen ; while some elements are only found in particular plants, such as 
certain salts, earths, and metallic oxides. Every plant, therefore, may be 
said to have its general or common food, and its specific or particular food ; 
and hence, in this point of view, manures may be classed as common and 
specific. The most perfect manure for any plant would therefore seem to 
be, that plant itself in a state of decomposition ; but as the purpose for which 
plants are cultivated is to supply food, clothing, and various constructions 
and contrivances, for animals, hence, in a state of civilisation, it is among 
these, and from animals themselves, that we must seek for the most suitable 
manure for plants. The various substances which have been used for manures 
may be classed, with reference to their effect on plants, as general and speci- 
fic ; and with reference to the soil, as improving, enriching, and stimulating. 
Improving manures are such as, while they afford positive nourishment or 
stimulus, add some permanent matter to the soil; such as lime, chalk, marl, 
bones, &c. Enriching manures are such as supply only nourishment to 
plants ; such as stable manure, and every description of organic matter ; and 
stimulating manures are such as serve to aid in the decomposition of, or 
otherwise operate on, the organic matter. As some manures, however, par- 
take in an equal degree of more than one of these properties, such as lime, 
which is both a stimulating and improving manure, the most convenient 
arrangement of manures will be organic, inorganic, and mixed. 

Sect. I. — Organic Manures. 

179. Organic manures must obviously be either of animal or vegetable 
origin. Purely vegetable manure is exemplified in leaf-mould, malt-dust, rape- 
cake, spent tanner's bark, some kinds of peat, and green vegetables when 
they are buried in the soil in a living state. 

180. Leaf-mould is perhaps the most universal manure for garden plants, 
because, when thoroughly decomposed, the most tender kinds will live in it, 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICITLTURE. 



51 



and all the more vigorous-growing vegetables will grow in it most luxuriantly. 
Hence, mixed with fine sand, leaf-mould is used as a substitute for heath- 
soil, for growing many of the Cape and Australian shrubs; and alone, or mixed 
with common garden soil, it is used for growing melons and pine-apples. 

181. Fresh and tender vegetables dug into the soil, produce an immediate 
effect, from the facility with which they undergo fermentation, and thus 
supply soluble matter for the spongioles. Sea-weed is still more readily 
decomposed than recent land or garden plants, in consequence of the mineral 
alkali which it contains ; and hence this manure is stimulating as well as 
enriching. Malt-dust is valuable for the saccharine matter which it contains, 
and rape-cake for its albumen and oil ; but these manures are oniy occa- 
sionally to be met with. Straw, haulm, and in general all the stems and 
leaves of herbaceous plants, and the shoots with their leaves on of trees and 
shrubs, form valuable manure when decayed ; more especially, if from the 
saccharine matter which they contain, or the addition of stable manure or 
of animal matter, they can be made to heat and promote fermentation. 
Nevertheless, without fermentation, they form useful garden manures ; or 
moulds, which, like leaf-mould, may oft«n be substituted for heath-soil. 

182. The least valuable truly vegetable manure is spent tanner s bark, 
which, consisting entirely of woody fibre impregnated with tannm, not only 
contains no soluble matter, but the tannin, in as far as it can be taken up by 
the spongioles, seems to prove injurious. Nevertheless, as every addition of 
organic matter to a soil must ultimately increase its fertility, spent tanner's 
bark may be used with a view to distant effects ; and in stiff soils its mecha- 
nical action will be immediate, by rendering such soils for a time more open. 
From the porosity and lightness of this material, it is an excellent non - 
conductor of heat ; and hence, when laid on the surface of the ground as a 
covering to the roots of tender plants, it protects tliem better from the frost 
than a more compact covering, such as coarse sand, or than coverings vrhich 
are great absorbents of moisture, such as leaves or half-rotten litter, or any 
other covering of this kind which does not act as thatch. Rotten tan, how- 
ever, being peculiarly favourable to the growth of fungi, should be used 
with great caution when applied about young trees, and more especially 
Conifer ai. 

183. Peat soil is of two kinds, that formed in peat bogs by the growth of 
mosses, and that found in valleys, or other low tracts of country, which, being 
formed of overthrown and buried forests, consists of decayed wood. The lat- 
ter being the remains of a much higher class of plants than the former, must 
contain a greater variety of the constituent elements of plants, and must conse- 
quently be a better manure. Peat from bogs cannot be used till it has been 
reduced, either by time or fermentation, to a fine mould or a saponaceous mass ; 
the former result is obtained by exposure to the air, and repeated turnings 
during several years, and the latter by fermentation with stable dung. A load 
of this material, mixed with two loads of partially dried peat, will commence 
the putrefactive process, in the same manner as yeast commences ferment- 
ation in dough ; and, in the one case as in the other, additions may be made 
by degrees of any quantity, so that two loads of stable-dung may be made to 
produce twenty, a hundred, or in short an unlimited number of loads of fer- 
mented peat. The peat of decayed wood is commonly reduced to mould by 
exposure and turniag, and then applied to the soil, with or without lime. 
Both kinds of peat are frequently burned for the sake of their ashes. 



58 



ORGANIC MANURES, CONSIDERED 



The ashes of the peat of wood are alwaj's found richer in alkaline matters 
than those of the peat of moss, and on this account they form an article of 
commerce in the neighbourhood of Newbury in Berkshire, and in Holland. 

184. The principal vegetable manures which are formed in suburban 
villas are, the mould of collected leaves swept up in autumn, and in all sea- 
sons when they fall ; the mould of grass mown from lawns, and either rotted 
by itself, or on dung-casings to pits ; and the mould from the common vege- 
table rubbish heap ; that is from a heap on which all decaying or refuse 
vegetable matters are thrown as taken from the garden, and sometimes, also, 
includmg the leaves of trees and short grass. This heap is, or should be, 
placed in the reserve ground of all gardens. The grass mown from lawns, 
however, is most economically added to casings of dung to aid in producing 
heat by fermentation, as it is laid on dug surfaces round the roots of plants 
during summer to retain moisture. The leaves also are generally best kept 
by themselves, for the purpose of deca3dng into leaf-mould. In whatever 
way these vegetable materials are made use of, the gardener ought to have 
a vigilant eye to see that none of them are lost. 

185. Animal manures require much less preparation than those derived 
from plants, from their greater tendency to the putrefactive process. The 
kinds of animal manures are chiefly excrement ; urine ; coverings of animals, 
such as hair, wool, feathers ; entrails of animals, such as blubber, the con- 
tents of the abdomen of fish ; entire animals, such as fish, vermin ; parts of 
animals, such as hair, bones, &:c. ; or articles manufactured from parts of 
animals, such as woollen rags, old leather ; or any article manufactured from 
skins, hair, wool, feathers, horn, bone, &c. Of all these manures by far the 
most valuable is nightsoil, next urine, and thirdly bones. The different 
excrements and urines of animals rank in value according to the kind of 
food with which the animal is nourished, and within this limit according 
to its grade ; and hence the most valuable animal manure is that of man, 
the next that of horses as abounding with ammonia and nitrogen. The ma- 
nure of the horse ranks before that of the cow or the sheep ; and the manure 
of highly-fed animals before that of those which are lean. 

186. Excrementitious manures^ including urine, should never be applied 
to crops in a recent state, because from the abundance of ammoniacal salts 
which they contain, or perhaps from some other reason not understood, they 
are found in that state injurious to vegetation ; but when these manures 
are fermented they are the most powerful of all, producing an immediate 
effect on the plants. It is a remarkable fact that the recent urine of sheep 
is not injurious to grass lands, while that of horses and cows commonly 
injures the grass on the spot where it falls, which however recovers and 
becomes of a darker green than before in the year following. The loss of 
excrementitious manures in the large towns in England is immense, and 
while they are lost to the soil, they are poisonous to the fishes of our rivers, 
and injurious to those who drmk their water. The great advantage of urine 
or other liquid manure is, that its manuring elements are consumed by the 
plants in a few months, and hence an immediate return is made on the capi- 
tal employed ; whereas, when solid excrementitious manures are employed, 
a period of two or three years must elapse before complete decomposition 
ensues. {See Sprengel on Animal Manures, in Jour. Eng. Ag. Soc,, vol. i. 
p. 473.) Liquid manure, also, from the ammonia which it contains, when 
poured on the soil destroys worms, snails, &c., as effectually as lime-water. 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



59 



187. In every suburban villa, arrangements should be made for collecting 
all the liquid manure into two adjoining tanks, and mixing it there with 
v^^ater ; one tank to be kept filling and mixing, while the other is fermenting 
and being emptied. Where urine cannot be got, excrement and water form 
the best substitute. The fermented liquid may either be poured direct on 
the soil of the garden, among growing crops, at the roots of fruit trees, or on 
the naked soil, with or without other manure, and more especially with straw, 
or other vegetable matters, for the purpose both of enriching them and 
promoting fermentation. 

188. Hair, wool, feathers, leather, horn, rags, &c., decompose much more 
slowly than excrementitious or vegetable manures ; but they are exceedingly 
rich in gelatine and albumen, and are therefore very desirable where the 
object is duration of effect, as well as luxuriance. Dead animals of every 
kind, including fish, make excellent manure ; and when there is any danger 
anticipated from the effluvia which arises during decomposition, it is readily 
prevented by covering or mixing the putrid mass with quicklime. In this 
way nightsoil and the refuse of the slaughter-houses in Paris, Lyons, and 
other continental towns, are not only disinfected, but dried under the name 
of poudrette^ and compressed in casks, so as to form an article of commerce. 
Sugar-bakers' scum, which is obtained from sugar refineries, consists of 
the blood of cattle and lime ; it can be sent in a dried and compressed state 
to any distance, and forms a manure next in richness to bones. In gardens 
it may be used as a top dressing to culinary vegetables, and as an ingredient 
in the composition of vine borders. Animalized carbon consists of nightsoil 
of great age ; it is sent to different parts of Europe from Copenhagen, where 
it has accumulated during ages in immense pits and heaps, which some years 
ago were purchased from the city by an Englishman. It is an exceedingly 
rich manure. 

189. Bones, though a manure of animal origin, depend fortheir effects a good 
deal on their mineral constituents. Next to nightsoil, bones are perhaps the 
most valuable of all manures. Chemically they consist of gelatine, albumen, 
animal oils, and fat, in all about 88 per cent. ; and of earthy matters, such 
as phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, fluate of lime, sulphate of lime, 
carbonate of soda, and a small quantity of common salt. In consequence of 
the animal matters which they contain, crushed bones when laid in heaps 
very soon begin to ferment, and when buried in the soil previously to being 
fermented in heaps, the putrescent fermentation goes on with great rapidity. 
In gardens they should seldom be used without being broken small and fer- 
mented in heaps for several months. Bones are valuable as a specific 
manure, because they contain phosphate of lime, which is an ingredient 
common to a great many cultivated plants both of the field and of the gar- 
den. Bone manure, if used on the same soil for a number of years, is 
found to lose its effect ; the reason of which is inferred from one cause of 
their excellence, viz., that the animal matter which they contain acts as a 
ferment or stimulus to the organic matter already in the soil, by wliich 
means this organic matter becomes sooner exhausted than otherwise would 
be the case. The remedy for this evil obviously is, to discontinue the use 
of the bones, and to supply putrescent manure, such as stable-dung. 

190. Vegeto-animal manures consist of a mixture of animal and vegetable 
substances, such as the straw used as litter in stables or farmyards, and the 
excrements and urine of the animals which are kept in them. It may be 



60 



INORGANIC MANURES, CONSIDERED 



classed according to the kind of animal to which the litter is supplied ; and 
hence we have horse -dung, cow-dung, the dung of swine, sheep, rabbits, 
poultry, &c. All these manures require to be brought into a state of active 
fermentation, and reduced to a soft easily separated mass, before being 
applied to the soil. This is effected by throwing them into heaps, and occa- 
sionally turning these heaps till the manure becomes of a proper consistence. 

191. In horticulture, advantage is generally taken of the heat produced 
by manures of this kind, in forming hotbeds, and in supplying heat to pits by 
what are called linings, but which are properly casings, of dung placed round 
a bed of dung, tan, or soil, supported by walls of open brickwork. The dung 
so placed can be taken away at pleasure, and applied to the soil when it has 
undergone a proper degree of fermentation; whereas, the dung of which hot- 
beds is formed cannot be removed without destroying the bed and the crop 
on it ; and hence it is generally kept till the fermenting process is carried 
much farther than is necessary, and often so far as to be injurious. Hence, 
in gardens, wherever economy of manure is an object, common hotbeds ought 
never to be made use of, but recourse had to exterior casings, such as those 
already mentioned, or to other modes of heating. 

192. In many suburban villas, almost as much manure is lost as would 
suffice for enriching the kitchen-garden, and producing vegetables for the 
whole family. To save every particle of fluid or solid matter capable of 
becoming manure, the first step is to construct two or more large tanks for 
the liquid manure, and to form a system of tubes or guttei's for conve3'ing to 
these tanks all the soapsuds and other liquid refuse matters furnished b}'- the 
mansion and offices, including the stables, unless they are at a distance. 
Similar tanks should be formed adjoining every cottage and dwelling be- 
longing to the villa ; such as the gardener's house, gatekeeper's lodge, and 
also in the back-sheds and in the frame and reserve ground of the kitchen- 
garden. In short, no water ought to be allowed to escape from the manure 
tanks but such as is perfectly pure ; for all dirty water, with or without 
excrementitious matters, will ferment in a degree of heat not much greater 
than that of the subsoil, even in winter ; and all fermented liquids contain 
one or more of the constitutent elements of plants. Tlie second step to be 
taken with a view to saving manure is, to form a vegetable rubbish heap, on 
which all waste parts of plants and the remains of all crops, including mown 
grass when not otherwise used, clippings of hedges, summer prunings of 
trees, &c., are to be thrown as collected, left to ferment, and turned over 
occasionally. To this heap, lime, dung, or rich earth may be added, and 
the whole frequently turned over and well mixed. The third step is, to 
collect the cleanings of ponds, wells, ditches, hedge-banks, and similar earthy 
matters, and mix them with quicklime, turning the heap occasionally, as 
directed in the next section. 

Sect. II. — Inorganic Manures, 

193. Inorganic or mineral manures are chiefly, lime in a state of chalk 
or carbonate, gypsum or sulphate, marl in which carbonate of lime is mixed 
with clay, saltpetre, kelp or mineral alkali, and common salt. The organic 
manures, as we have seen, act by supplying plants with the elements of which 
they are constituted, viz., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and azote or nitrogen ; 
but the mineral manures contain none of these elements, and hence, accord 
ing to most agricultural chemists, they must act beneficiallj^ on some other 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



61 



principle. This principle may be stated to be the rendering more soluble of 
the organic matters already in the soil in most instances, and in some cases 
rendering soluble matters insoluble, so as to diminish excessive fertility, and 
prepare a reserve of the fertilising principle for future use. Quicklime, for 
example, effects the first of these objects, and slaked lime the second. 
According to some writers, inorganic manures also act specifically ; alkaline 
matters being found in all, and some sorts in many plants. 

194. Lime. This is by far the most important of all the mineral manures. 
It is applied to soil in the form of quick or hot lime, mild or slaked lime, and 
chalk or carbonate. Quicklime is procured by burning chalkstone or lime 
rock till the water and the carbonic acid gas are driven off. Immediately 
after burning, it forms what is called quicklime ; and in this state, when 
laid on the soil, having a powerful attraction for water (201), it assists in 
the conversion of woody fibre and other organic matters into the substance 
called humus, forming humate of lime, which again is rendered soluble and 
fit for supplying the food of plants by the action of the carbonic acid gas 
in the soil, or supplied to it by water or the atmosphere. 
' 195. Mild lime. When water is thrown on quicklime, it becomes what 
is called slaked, falls down into a fine white powder, and, re-absorbing 
great part of the water wliich had been driven off by burning, it becomes 
what chemists call hydrate of lime ; and soon after, from the absorption of 
carbonic acid gas, it becomes what is called mUd lime. The use of lime in 
this state is partly the same as that of caustic or quicklime ; and partly, 
also, when there is a superabundance of soluble manure, so as to cause crops 
to become too rank, to lessen the putrescence of organic matter by the for- 
mation with it of humate of lime. In short, quicklim.e may be said to 
increase the solubility of inert organic matter, and mild lime to render less 
.soluble organic matter already in a state of solubility. 

196. The application of lime to soil may also be useful in cases where 
there is not already a sufficient portion of that earth ; but, to ascertain this, 
a chemical analysis of the soil should be previously made. The smallest 
quantity of quicklime added to a soil in which little or none previously existed, 
will effect a great permanent improvement ; and the same may be said of a 
small quantity of clay added to a soil in which that ingredient did not pre- 
viously exist. (172.) 

197. Carbonate of lime, or chalk, in its native state, differs from unburnt 
limestone in being of a much softer texture, and more easily acted on either 
mechanically or by the weather. When burned, it of course becomes lime, 
and may be used either in a caustic or mild state ; but in chalky countries 
it is most commonly laid on land in its natural state, and left to pulverise 
by the influence of the weather. It is supposed to have no effect upon inert 
vegetable fibre, and to be incapable of generally uniting with humic acid ; so 
that it appears to be destitute of the two properties of caustic and mild lime, 
viz., that of rendering insoluble matter soluble, and the contrary. Its bene- 
ficial effects are attributed to its altering the texture of soil, and to its pro- 
perty of retaining water without at the same time becoming adhesive. Hence 
it may be used both on sands and clays, to render the latter more friable 
without dimmishing its retentive powers, and the former more absorbent 
without adding to its tenacity. Chalk, also, may be considered as a specific 
manure, since carbonate of lime is an ingredient in almost all the plants 
which have hitherto been analysed by chemists. 



62 



INORGANIC MANURES, CONSIDERED 



198. Marl is carbonate of lime mixed witli clay at the rate of from 
twenty to eighty per cent of carbonate, with alumina, silica, and more or 
less of the oxide of iron. Its action on the whole is similar to that of chalk, 
though it is more adapted for sandy and peaty soils than for clays. It is 
found from experience that it is injurious when spread on soU. before being 
exposed for some months to the action of the atmosphere ; though the reason 
of this has not yet been explained. 

199. Gypsum, which is sulphate of lime, is a calcareous compound which 
occasionally produces extraordinary effects as manure, though the rationale 
of its action does not appear to be thoroughly understood. All animal ma- 
nures contain more or less of sulphate of lime as one of their constituents ; 
and this mineral compound has also been found in wheat, in clover, saintfoin, 
lucern, and many other leguminous plants, and in various pasture grasses. 
Hence it may in part be considered as a specific manure, and it has been so 
treated by Grisenthwaite in his very ingenious Essay, who contends that no 
manure that does not contain gypsum is fit for wheat. It is said to have 
little efi'ect except upon light sandy, gravelly, or chalky soils. 

200. Sea shells are very abundant on some shores, and may be either burned 
into lime or laid on without burning. Immense quantities are collected on 
the shore at Whitstable, in Kent, and are laid on the soil without burning 
between Canterbury and Dover, where the soil is chiefly clayey. They are 
so much preferred to chalk or lime that they are fetched three times the 
distance. 

201. The rationale of the action of lime in its different states is thus given 
by Sir Humphry Davy. " When lime, whether freshly burned or slaked, is 
mixed with any moist fibrous vegetable matter, there is a strong action be- 
tween the lime and the vegetable matter, and they form a kind of compost 
together, of which a part is usually soluble in water. By this kind of ope- 
ration, lime renders matter which was before comparatively inert nutritive ; 
and as charcoal and oxygen abound in all vegetable matters, it becomes at 
the same time converted into carbonate of lime. Mild lime, powdered 
limestone, marls or chalks, have no action of this kind upon vegetable mat- 
ter ; by their action they prevent the too rapid decomposition of substances 
already dissolved ; but they have no tendency to form soluble matters. It 
is obvious from these circumstances that the operation of quicklime, and 
marl or chalk, depends upon principles altogether different. Quicklime, in 
being applied to land, tends to bring any hard vegetable matter that it con- 
tains into a state of more rapid decomposition and solution, so as to render it 
a proper food for plants. Chalk, and marl, or carbonate of lime, will only 
improve the texture of the soil, or its relation to absorption, acting merely 
as one of its earthy ingredients. Quicklime, when it becomes mild, operates 
in the same manner as chalk ; but in the act of becoming mild, it prepares 
soluble out of insoluble matter. It is upon this circumstance that the ope- 
ration of lime in the preparation for wheat crops depends ; and its efficacy in 
fertilising peats, and in bringing into a state of cultivation all soils abounding 
in hard roots, or dry fibres, or inert vegetable matter. The solution of the 
question, whether quicklime ought to be applied to a soil, depends upon the 
quantity of inert vegetable matter that it contams. The solution of the 
question, whether marl, mild lime, or powdered limestone, ought to be ap- 
plied, depends upon the quantity of calcareous matter already in the soil. 
All soils are improved by mild lime, and ultimately by quicklime, which do 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



63 



not effervesce with acids; and sands more than clays." (^Agricultural Che- 
mistry, 6th edit., p. 804.) 

202. In the case of suburban villas, the inost important uses of lime are, 
first, the formation of lime-water for the destruction of insects, snails, 
worms, &c. ; and secondly, the formation of lime composts to be used as 
manure. For both these purposes lime must be obtained in its caustic state. 
In preparing lime-water, a very small quantity of lime in powder v\^ill be 
found to saturate many gallons of water ; and, by letting this settle a few 
minutes till it becomes clear, the plants or the soil may be watered with it 
without leaving any coating of lime, which only takes place when the lime 
is applied in a state of mixture and solution. The causticity of the liquid, 
owing to the alkali which it contains, lacerates the tender skins of cater- 
pillars, earth-worms, snails, and slugs. 

203. Lime compost is formed of caustic lime, at the rate of from sixteen 
to twenty-four bushels of lime to three times that quantity of earth taken 
from hedge-banks, cleanings of ditches or ponds, scrapings of roads, or even 
from the surface of any soil which is somewhat different in its nature or 
texture from the soil on which the compost is to be laid. Even the sub- 
stratum of any soil, where good, ma}^ be used, and afterw^ards laid on the 
surface soil. The compost should lie from nine to twelve months, and be 
turned over in that time twice or thrice. In every part of Britain this 
manure may be formed at a moderate expense ; and though it is better 
adapted for fields than gardens, y et in many cases, and particularly where 
manure is scarce, it will be found a valuable resource. (See Jackson's Agri- 
culture, published by Chambers, p. 47.) 

204. Saltpetre, or muriate of potash, when analysed, consists of oxygen, 
nitrogen, and potassium. Saltpetre is found in almost all plants, and espe- 
cially those which are cultivated in rich soils. As a manure it sometimes 
produces extraordinary effects on grass lands and corn crops ; but its action 
is not understood, and it has been but little used in horticulture. Nitrate 
of soda produces nearly the same results as saltpetre. From some experi- 
ments with this salt lately detailed in the Journal of the English Agricultural 
Society, vol. i. pp. 418 and 428, it appears to have increased the produce 
of corn crops, but not more so than saltpetre. 

205. Common Suit, or the chloride of sodium, consists of nearly equal parts 
of chlorine and sodium ; but when dissolved in water a portion of the water 
is decomposed, its hydrogen unites with the chlorine to form muriatic acid, 
and its oxygen with the sodium to produce soda. Hence salt in a dry state 
is chlorate of soda, and dissolved in water it becomes muriate of soda. Its 
action in the soil depends on the effect which the muriate of soda has on the 
carbonate of lime ; the latter, as we have before observed, being found in 
almost all soils. By the contact of these two salts, their acids and bases are 
interchanged, and the compounds which are the result are carbonate of soda 
and muriate of lime. Hence, as chalky soils abound more in carbonate of 
soda than any others, salt is supposed to be most beneficial to them. Salt 
applied in large quantities, it is well known, destroys plants ; and hence 
it has been used in gardening, both in a dry and liquid state, to kill weeds 
and worms in gravel- walks, which it does most effectually. It has been used 
also for washing salads and other vegetables when gathered for the kitchen, 
when they are supposed to contain snails, worms, or insects. It forms a 
direct constituent of some marine plants, and plants of saline marshes or 



64 



MIXED MANURES, CONSIDERED 



Steppes ; and, applied in small quantities, it appears to hasten the decompo- 
sition of organised matter in the soil. As a manure, however, it requires to 
be applied with very great caution ; and, in gardens, is perhaps safest when 
used in walks for the purpose of killing weeds and worms. 

206. In suburban villas calcareous manures are often required for the im- 
provement of lawns and other grass lands ; and a stock of quicklime, un- 
slaked, should alvv^ays be kept in a cask, or other closed vessel, to be ready 
for use with water. Where lime is not at hand, common potash or Ame- 
rican pearlash dissolved in water, or urine especially that of cows, will have 
the same effect on insects as lime-water ; but they are more expensive. 

Sect. III. — Mixed Manures. 

Mixed Manures include coal ashes, vegetable ashes, street manure, soot, 
,and vegetable or vegeto-animal composts. 

207. Coal Ashes are of very different natures in different parts of the 
country ; the constituents of coal varying in the quantity of clay and lime, 
and also of sulphur and iron, which it contains. Many persons object en- 
tirely to coal ashes as a manure, considering them poisonous rather than 
beneficial. The portions of coal which contain iron or other metallic ores 
are converted by burning hito hard porous masses, which, when buried in 
the soil, absorb moisture, and consequently soluble organic matter ; and as 
the spongioles of the roots cannot be supposed to penetrate into cinders or 
scoria, that soluble matter must remain there till it is washed out by rains or 
set free by the disintegration of the cinder. Supposing this to be the case, 
the principal benefit to be derived from coal ashes would appear to be that 
of increasing the friability of stiff clayey soils. 

208. Vegetable Ashes are obtained by burning weeds, leaves, prunings, or 
roots of woody plants, and in general of all kinds of vegetable matter not 
readily decomposed by fermentation. The burning of vegetable substances 
must necessarily dissipate the whole of the oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen 
which they contain, together with more or less of the carbon, according to the 
degree in which the burning mass is exposed to the action of the atmosphere. 
Hence in burning w^ood for charcoal, the pile of logs is covered with earth 
or mud to prevent the production of flame, and consequent decomposition 
of the carbon, by the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere. The 
burning of vegetables, however, does not destroy the fixed saline ingredients 
which they contain ; and hence vegetable ashes, as manure, will be valuable 
as containing salts which are either of general or specific use to plants, and 
also as containing more or less carbon. If one kind of plant only were 
burnt at a time, then the ashes of that plant would form a specific manure 
for plants of the same kind ; but as a number of kinds are generally burned 
together, their ashes must contain salts of various kinds, and they may be 
considered as being useful to plants generally. Among these fishes there 
is always a large proportion of vegetable alkali (carbonate of potass) ; and 
this, when mixed with soil, combines with insoluble organic matter and ren- 
ders it soluble ; and hence vegetable ashes form a useful manure for all soils, 
.since potass is of almost universal existence in plants. It is therefore not 
only a general manure by its action on organic matter, but a specific con- 
stituent of plants. Soda, which exists but in few plants, differs from potass 
in not being a specific manure, its action being limited to increasing the 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



65 



solubility of organic matter already in the soil ; and in performing this office, 
it is found to be more efficient than potass. 

209. Soot is composed of the various volatile matters derived from the 
burning of coal or wood, together with carbon, and earths which have been 
mechanically carried up the chimney with water in the form of smoke. 
From experiment it appears that soot owes its value as a manure to the 
saline substances which it contains ; and these are chiefly the carbonate and 
sulphate of ammonia, together with a small quantity of a bituminous sub- 
stance. The fact of carbonate of soda proving useful as a manure is un- 
doubted, though it is difficult to explain in what manner it acts, unless, like 
saltpetre, it stimulates the roots. Soot when applied in gardens is generally 
strewed on the surface, and it is considered as annoying snails, slugs, and 
worms ; though by no means killing them, as is frequently supposed. Its 
effects are rarely perceptible after the crop to which it is applied ; and there- 
fore, like liquid manures, soot affords a quick return for the capital em- 
ployed in it. 

210. Street manure^ or that which is swept up in the streets of towns, 
consists of a great variety of matters, animal, vegetable, and mineral. In 
the manner towns are now kept, it is small in quantity and of little value ; 
but formerly it was among the richest of all manures. When collected in 
quantities, even though containing a large proportion of earth and coal ashes, 
it ferments powerfully, and wUl continue giving out heat throughout a 
whole summer. For this purpose it has been used in forcing- gardens as a 
substitute for tanners' bark and stable-dung ; and it has the advantage of 
not subsiding so much as those materials. Wherever it can be obtained, it 
may be applied to all soils ; and when obtained from towns still under the 
old system, it may rank next to nightsoil and bones. 

211. Composts of vegetable or vegeto-animal matter and earth are of various 
kmds. The most common in gardens is that produced by rotten leaves or 
vegetable refuse mixed with sand or with some other earth, or with stable- 
dung : composts of bones are likewise formed in this manner, and also of peat, 
where that material abounds. Peat composts have been already mentioned. 

212. Mixed manure in a liquid state consists of the urine of animals, 
soap-suds, the foul water of kitchens and other offices, waste surface or rain 
water, and drainings of dunghills. The most advantageous way of employing 
it is by applying it, after being properly diluted and fermented (182), di- 
rectly to growing crops. It may also be profitably employed by throwing 
it on heaps of vegetable matter, such as moss, leaves, straw, or any vege- 
table refuse matter whatever not containing woody matter of several years' 
growth. In this way, Jauffret, a French agriculturist, proposed to create 
immense quantities of manure by fermenting weeds and other refuse 
collected by hedge-sides, or on commons or wastes. The ferm^entation 
of such matters does not take place without the aid of animal manure 
or stable-dung ; but, when once commenced, it can be continued for an 
indefinite period by adding to the heap. If the liquid manure and the 
excrementitious matter accumulated in every large establishment, independ- 
ently altogether of the stable manure, were collected and fermented, we have 
little doubt it would suffice for all the kitchen-garden crops ; the refuse of 
these crops and the weeds of the garden being added and fermented. It is 
highly probable that every individual animal produces as much manure as 
would raise the vegetables necessary for his support, because in the nourish- 



66 



MIXED MANURES CONSIDERED. 



nient of animals, as of plants, nothing is annihilated, but merely changed : 
what escapes into the atmosphere is counterbalanced by what is absorbed 
from it ; and what is embodied in the animal during life, is restored to the 
soil at its death. 

213. Application of Manures.— Too much manure is injurious to all crops 
whatever, by increasing the proportion of watery matter, and by producing 
such an exuberance of growth as to prevent the maturation of the parts, 
the formation of blossom-buds, and the setting of fruit. It is particularly 
injurious to corn -crops ; produces more sap than can be properly elaborated 
in the leaves, and hence disease. In this case the evil is counteracted by 
the application of lime or common salt. 

214. All mineral manures ought to be emploj^ed in a dry and powdery- 
state, and if possible, when the soil is equally dry and powdery ; and all 
moist manures, when the soil is somewhat drier than the manure. Other 
circumstances being the same, spring is better than autumn for applying 
manures, because the winter might wash them away, &:c.; but universally, the 
proper time is immediately before sowing or planting the crop. Calm weather 
is better than windy weather, and bulky manure ought no sooner to be laid 
on than buried in the soil. Exhausting land of the manure which it contains 
by over-cropping, is like depriving a commercial man of his capital. 

215. In consequence of the great value of manures m increasing the 
amount of the produce of land, many ingenious persons have contrived 
mixtures which, in small bulk, they allege will produce extraordinary 
effects ; and this idea seems to have been long since indulged by some 
writers. Lord Kaimes, nearly a century ago, thought the time might come 
when the quantity of manure requisite for an acre might be carried in a 
man's coat-pocket ; a recent author speaks of " a quart of spu-it sufficient to 
manure an acre ; " and even Liebig saj^s, that " a time wUl come when 
fields will be manured with a solution of glass (silicate of potash), with the 
ashes of burned straw, and with salts of phosphoric acid prepared in chemi- 
cal manufactories, exactly as at present medicines are given for fever and 
goitre." {Organic Chemistry^ p. 188.) To those who believe in the homoeo- 
pathic hypotheses of medicine such speculations will not appear unreasonable; 
and there may be some truth in them, on the supposition that the soil to 
which these small doses of spirit, or of silicate of potash, are to be applied, 
are to act as stimulants to the organic matter already in the soU ; but to 
ordinary apprehensions it seems difficult to conceive how bulk and weight of 
produce can be raised without the application of a certain degree of bulk of 
manure. All deference, however, ought to be paid to the opinions of 
philosophers who, like Liebig, have profoundly studied the subject. {See 
the notes to this chapter in our Appendix.) 

216. All the manures mentioned in this section are easily obtained by the 
possessors of suburban villas. Soot and ashes are produced on their own 
premises ; compost may be formed by the mixture of various articles col- 
lected or procured ; liquids abound, and have only to be collected and pro- 
perly fermented ; and street manure may ui general be purchased from the 
nearest town. It cannot be too strongly impressed on the possessor of a 
country residence who wishes to make the most of it, that no particle of 
organic matter, whether animal or vegetable, and no drop of water, with 
whatever it may be discoloured, ought to be left uncollected or allowed to 
Yun to waste. 



HEAT, CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



67 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE ATMOSPHERE, CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO 
HORTICULTURE. 

217. The influeDce of the atmosphere on the geographical distribution 
of plants has been noticed in a preceding chapter (147), and we shall here 
consider the subject with reference to the culture of plants in gardens, 
taking as our guide, Daniel's Essay on Climate with regard to Horticulture, 
( Hort. Trans, vol. vii., J Darnell's Meteorological Essays^ and examining 
also what has been -written on the subject in subsequent works. Among 
the latter may be mentioned Howard's Climate of London^ Hutchison's 
Treatise on Meteorological Phenomena, Murphy's Meteorology, and two 
excellent articles on the two latter of these works in the Athenceum for 1837, 
p. 561 and 580. 

The atmosphere on every part of the globe consists of the same consti- 
tuent parts, to wit, carbonic acid gas and water in a state of vapour about 1 
part, oxygen 23, and azote or nitrogen 76, reckoning by weight. The 
aqueous vapour and carbonic acid gas are variable admixtures ; but in all 
cases they bear only a very small proportion to the other ingredients. All 
the variations, tlieretbre, which are found in the atmosphere in different 
countries, and at different times in the same country, depend upon the 
modifications impressed upon it by heat, moisture, motion, and light. 

Sect. L — Heat, considered with reference to Horticulture. 

218. Heat, like light, is found to be capable of radiation, reflection, 
transmission through transparent media, and refraction ; but it is radiated, 
reflected, transmitted, and refracted, in a different manner and degree from 
light. Thus it appears that both light and heat can be transmitted through 
either gaseous, fluid, or solid media, provided they are transparent. Any 
opaque body is to light, however, an impenetrable barrier ; but to heat, or to 
its conduction, neither opaqueness nor solidity affords resistance. On the 
contrary, heat is conducted more rapidly by solid than by fluid or gaseous 
bodies ; a fact which will be noticed in treating of artificial coverings for 
protecting plants. A solid body will obstruct the radiation of heat, as is 
familiarly exemplified in the case of the common fire-screen. The diff'usion of 
heat by conduction and radiation is what chiefly concerns the horticulturist. 

219. The conduction of heat is effected by the contact of bodies heated in 
different degrees, when the tendency to equal diffusion immediately raises 
the temperature of the one body and lowers that of the other. This takes 
place with different degrees of rapidity, according to the nature of the 
bodies in contact. If thermometers be placed on metal, stone, glass, ivory, 
and earth, all heated from the same source, we shall find that the thermo- 
meter placed on the metal will rise soonest ; next, that placed on the stone; 
next, that on the glass ; then that on the wood ; and lastly, that on the 
earth. The conducting power of bodies is generally as their density. The 
greatest of all conductors of heat are metals ; and the least so, spongy and 
light filamentous bodies. Silk, cotton, wool, hare's fur, and eider-do\\Ti, 
are extremely bad conductors of heat, and hence their value as clothing. 
{Library of Useful Knowledge, art. Heat, p. 23.) They give us a sensation 

f2 



68 



HEAT, CONSIDERED WITH 



of ^varmth, not by communicating heat to the skin, but by preventing its 
escape into the air, in consequence of their non-conducting properties. The 
power which these bodies have of stopping the transmission of heat depends 
on the air which is stagnated in their vacuities ; for when the air is expelled 
by compression, their conducting power is increased. Hence, in covering 
plants or plant structures with leaves, litter straw, mats, or other light, 
porous bodies, the less they are compressed the more effective will they be 
found in preventing the escape of heat by conduction. All tight coverings, 
whether of animals or plants, retain very little heat, when compared with 
loose coverings ; and hence mats, when drawn tightly round bushes, or 
nailed closely against trees on walls, are much less effective than when fas- 
tened over them loosely, and do not retain nearly so much heat as a covering 
of straw. Coverings of sand, ashes, or rotten tan, applied to the ground, oi 
to the roots of herbaceous plants, are, for the same reason, much less effective 
than coverings of leaves so applied ; and these, again, are much less so than 
coverings of litter or long straw. The heat of the trunks of trees is pre- 
vented from escaping to the extent it otherwise would do by their bark, 
which is a powerful non-conductor (1J:0), and the heat of the ground by a 
covering of snow, which, by its spongy, porous nature, contains a great deal 
of air. Without this covering, the herbaceous plants of the northern regions 
could not exist; nor would spring flowers, such as the aconite, snow- drop., 
crocus, daffodil, «S:c., in the climate of Scotland, come nearly so early into 
bloom. 

220. Heat is diffused amongst bodies not in contact by the process called 
radiation^ in consequence of which property a person standing near any body 
heated to a higher temperature than himself will experience a sensation of 
warmtli. The radiation of heat from any body proceeds from its surface 
in every direction in straight lines, in the same manner as the divergent rays 
of light from an illuminated body, as, for example, a lighted candle ; and 
rays of heat, like rays of light, may be reflected from polished surfaces, and 
transmitted and refracted through transparent substances, and even polarised. 
But though it be true that heat, in proceeding from a body, begins by radiat- 
ing from it at right angles and in straight lines, yet this can only be strictly 
said of heat which is radiated perpendicularly into the atmosphere. Thus, 
from a pipe of water equally heated, the heat tends to radiate at right angles 
from its surface in all directions ; yet none but those rays which proceed from 
the uppermost part of the convex surface of the pipe will preserve their per- 
pendicularity. All the other rays, from their first contact with the air, will 
be deflected upwards, being in fact carried in that direction by the heating 
effects which those rays themselves produce upon the particles of air on which 
they impinge. The property of radiation, however, is that which chiefly 
concerns the horticulturist ; and the following description of this pheno- 
mena is given by Mr, Daniell, the author of by far the best essay which 
has yet appeared on climate, as connected with horticulture. 

221. Radiation of heat is the " power of emitting it in straight lines in every 
direction, independently of contact, and may be regarded as a property 
common to all matter. Co-existing with it, in the same degrees, may be 
regarded the power of absorbing heat so emitted from other bodies. Polished 
metals, and the fibres of vegetables, may be considered as placed at the two 
extremities of the scale upon which these properties in different substances 
may be measured. If a body be so situated that it may receive just as 



REFERENCE TO HORTICITLTURE. 



69 



much radiant heat as itself projects, its temperature remains the same ; if 
the surrounding hodies emit heat of greater intensity than the same body, its 
temperature rise?, till the quantity which it receives exactly balances its 
expenditure, at which point it again becomes stationary ; and if the power 
of radiation be exerted under circumstances which prevent a return, the tem- 
perature of the body declines. Thus, if a thermometer be placed in the focus 
of a concave metallic mirror, and turned towards any clear portion of the sky, 
at any period of the day, it will fall many degrees below the temperature of 
another thermometer placed near it out of the mirror ; the power of radiation 
is exerted in both thermometers, but to the first all return of radiant heat is 
cut off, while the other receives as much from the surrounding bodies as 
itself projects. This interchange amongst bodies takes places in transparent 
media as well as in vacua ; but in the former case the effect is modified by 
the equalising powder of the medium/' This description is clear and satisfac- 
tory ; but it must not be supposed, that though the balance of temperature 
will not be disturbed from the effects of radiation when the body is completely 
enclosed, yet that it may not be so by the other law of heat, conduction. 

222. "Any portion of the surface of the globe which is fully turned towards 
the sun receives more radiant heat than it projects, and becomes heated ; 
but when, by the revolution of the axis, this portion is turned from the 
source of heat, the radiation into space still continues, and, being uncom- 
pensated, the temperature declines. In consequence of the different degrees 
in which different bodies possess this power of radiation, two contiguous 
portions of the system of the earth will become of different temperatures ; 
and if on a clear night we place a thermometer upon a grass plat, and 
another upon a gravel walk or the bare soil, we shall find the temperature 
of the former many degrees below that of the latter. The fibrous texture 
of the grass is favourable to the emission of the heat, but the dense surface 
of the gravel seems to retain and fix it. But this unequal effect will only 
be perceived when the atmosphere is unclouded, and a free passage is open 
into space ; for even a light mist will arrest the radiant matter in its course, 
and return as much to the radiating body as it emits. The intervention of 
more substantial obstacles will of course equally prevent the result, and the 
balance of temperature will not be disturbed in any substance which is not 
placed in the clear aspect of the sky. A portion of a grass plat under the 
protection of a tree or hedge will generally be found, on a clear night, to 
be eight or ten degrees warmer than surrounding unsheltered parts ; and it 
is well known to gai"deners that less dew and frost are to be found in such 
situations than in those wiiich are wholly exposed. There are many inde- 
pendent circumstances which modify the effects of this action, such as the 
state of the radiating body, its power of conducting heat, &c. If, for in- 
stance, the body be in a liquid or aeriform state, although the process may 
go on freely, as in water, the cold produced by it will not accumulate upon 
the surface, but will be dispersed by known laws throughout the mass ; and 
if a solid mass be a good radiator but a bad conductor of heat, the frigorific 
effect will be condensed upon the face which is exposed. So upon the sur- 
face of the earth absolute stillness of the atmosphere is necessary for the 
accumulation of cold upon the radiating body ; for if the air be in motion, 
it disperses and equalises the effect with a rapidity proportioned to its 
velocity." (^Ho7't. Trans, vol. vi. p. 10.) 

22t3. AU the phenomena connected with dew or hoarfrost have been ex- 



70 



HEAT, CONSIDERED WITH 



plained by Dr. Wells on these principles. The deposition of moisture is 
owing to the cold produced in bodies by radiation, which condenses the 
atmospheric vapour on their surfaces. The deposition of dew takes place 
upon vegetables, but not upon the naked soil, because the latter is a bad 
radiator as well as a bad conductor of heat. The fibres of short grass are 
particularly favourable to the formation of dew. Dr. Wells says that dew 
is " never formed upon the good conducting surfaces of metals, but is rapidly 
deposited upon the bad conducting surfaces of filamentous bodies, such as 
cotton, wool, &CC." There would appear to be some mistake in the assertion, 
that dew is never formed on metals ; for any one may prove the contrary by 
breathing on the blade of a knife. It is true dew is seldom found on bright 
surfaces, such as metals or glass, in the form of drops, as it is on rough and 
pointed objects like wool, grass, &c. ; but there can be no doubt of its exist- 
ence on these bodies, though in a less conspicuous form. W ere this not the 
case, the law of the deposition of water from air w^ould not be universal. 
This law is, that moisture, or deposition of moisture, including that modifi- 
cation of it called dew, is deposited more or less on all bodies in absolute 
contact with the air, whenever the temperature of the air is higher than that 
of the body with which it is in contact. 

224. In remarking that dew is never formed upon metals^ Mr. Daniell 
observes, " it is necessary to distinguish a secondary effect which often causes 
a deposition of moisture upon every kind of surface indiscriminately. The 
cold w^hich is produced upon the surface of the radiating body is communi- 
cated by slow degrees to the surrounding atmosphere ; and if the effect be 
great and of sufficient continuance, moisture is not only deposited upon the 
solid body, but is precipitated in the air itself ; from which it slowly sub 
sides, and settles upon everything within its range. 

225. " The formation of dew is one of the circumstances which modify 
and check the refrigerating effect of radiation ; for, as the vapour is con- 
densed, it gives out the latent heat with which it was combined in its elastic 
form, and thus, no doubt, prevents an excess of depression which might in 
many cases prove injurious to vegetation. A compensating arrangement is 
thus establislied, which, while it produces all the advantages of this gentle 
effusion of moisture, guards against injurious concentration of the cause by 
which it is produced. ' 

220. " The effects of radiation come under the consideration of the hor- 
ticulturist in two points of view : the first regards the primary influence 
upon vegetables exposed to it ; the second, the modifications produced by it 
upon the atmosphere of particular situations. To vegetables growing in the 
climates for which they were originally designed by nature, there can be no 
doubt that the action of radiation is particularly beneficial, from the depo- 
sition of moisture which it determines upon their foliage : but to tender 
plants artificially trained to resist the rigours of an unnatural situation, this 
extra degree of cold may prove highly prejudicial. It also appears probable, 
from observation, that the intensity of this action increases with the distance 
from the equator to the poles ; as the lowest depression of the thermometer 
which has been registered between the tropics, from this cause, is 12°, 
whereas in the latitude of London it not unfrequently amounts to 17°. But 
however this may be, it is certain that vegetation in this country is liable to 
be affected at night from the influence of radiation, by a temperature below 
the freezing point of water, ten months in the year ; and even in the two 



REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



71 



months, July and August, which are the only exceptions, a thermometer 
covered with wool will sometimes fall to 35o. It is, however, only low 
vegetation upon the ground which is exposed to the full rigour of this effect. 
In such a situation, the air which is evolved by the process lies upon the sur- 
face of the plants, and from its weight cannot make its escape ; but from the 
foliage of a tree or shrub it glides off and settles upon the ground." 

227. " Anything which obstructs the free aspect of the sky arrests in 
proportion the progress of this refrigeration, and the slightest covering of 
cloth or matting annihilates it altogether. Trees trained upon a wall or 
paling, or plants sown under their protection, are at once cut oflF from a 
large portion of this evil, and are still further protected if within a moderate 
distance of another opposing screen." {Ibid. vol. vi. p. 12.) 

228. Almost all the modes in practice of protecting plants are founded on 
the doctrine of radiation, and hence the gardener should keep constantly 
in his mind the fact, that all bodies placed in a medium colder than 
themselves are continually giving out their heat in straight lines, and 
that these straight lines, when the body is surrounded by air, may always 
be reflected back on the body from which they emanate by the slightest 
covering placed at a short distance from them; while, on the other 
hand, if this slight covering is applied close to the body, instead of 
reflecting back the heat, it will carry it off" by conduction : that is, the heat 
will pass through the thin covering closely applied, and be radiated from 
its surface. Hence, in covering sashes with mats, a great advantage is ob- 
tained by laying straw between the mats and the glass, or by any other 
means of keeping the mat a ffew inches above the frame. Hence also when 
the branches of trees are to be protected by mats, they will be rendered 
much more efficient if first surrounded by straw, fern, or some other light 
body which contains in its interstices a good deal of air. It should be borne 
in mind, Mr. Daniell observes, " that the radiation Is only transferred from 
the tree to the mat, and the cold of the latter will be conducted to the former 
in every point where it touches. Contact should therefore be prevented by 
hoops or other means properly applied, and the stratum of air which is 
enclosed will, by its low conducting power, eff^ectually secure the plant. 
With their foliage thus protected, and the roots well covered with litter, 
many evergreens might doubtless be brought to survive the rigour of our 
winters which are now confined to the greenhouse and conservatory." The 
practice thus recommended in 1824 is now, 1841, generally adopted in the 
management of plants on conservative walls. 

229. " The secondary effect which radiation has upon the climate of par- 
ticular situations is a point which is less frequently considered than the 
primary one which we have been investigating, but which requires perhaps 
still more attention. The utmost concentration of cold can only take place 
in a perfectly still atmosphere : a very slight motion of the air is sufficient 
to disperse it. A low mist is often formed in meadows in particular situ- 
ations, which is the consequence of the slow extension of this cold in the air, 
as before described ; the agitation of merely walking through this conden- 
sation is frequently sufficient to disperse and melt it. A valley surrounded 
by low hills is more liable to the effects of radiation than the tops and sides 
of the hills themselves ; and it is a well-known fact that dew and hoarfrost 
are always more abundant in the former than in the latter situations. It 



72 



HEAT, CONSIDERED WITH 



is not meant to include in this observation places surrounded by lofty and 
precipitous hills which obstruct the aspect of the sky, for in such the con- 
trary effect would be produced. Gentle slopes, which break the undulations 
of the air without naturally circumscribing the heavens, are most efficient 
in promoting this action ; and it is worthy of remark and consideration, that 
by walls and other fences, we may artificially combine circumstances which 
may produce the same injurious effect." 

230, " But the influence of hills upon the nightly temperature of the valleys 
which they surround is not confined to this insulation ; radiation goes on 
upon their declivities, and the air which is condensed by the cold, rolls down 
and lodges at their feet. Their sides are thus protected from the chill, and 
adouble portion falls upon what many are apt to consider the more sheltered 
situation. Experience amply confirms these theoretical considerations. It 
Is a very old remark, that the injurious effect of cold occurs chiefly in hollow 
places, and that frosts are less severe upon hills than in neighbouring plains. 
The leaves of the Vine, the Walnut-tree, and the succulent shoots of Dahlias 
and Potatoes, are often destroyed by frost in sheltered valleys, on nights 
when they are perfectly untouched upon the surrounding eminences ; and 
the difference, on the same night, between two thermometers placed in the 
two situations, in favour of the latter, has amounted to thirty degrees." 

281. " Little is in the power of the Horticulturist to effect in the way of 
exalting the powers of the climate in the open air ; except by choice of situa- 
tion with regard to the sun, and the concentration of its rays upon walls and 
other screens. The natural reverberation from these and the subjacent soil 
is, however, very effective, and few of the productions of the tropical regions 
are exposed to a greater heat than a well-trained tree upon a wall in sum- 
mer. Indeed, it would appear from experiment that the power of radiation 
from the sun, like that of radiation from the earth, increases with the dis- 
tance from the equator ; and there is a greater difference between a thermo- 
meter placed in the shade and another in the solar rays in this country, than 
in Sierra Leone or Jamaica. This energy of the sun is at times so great, 
that it often becomes necessary to shade delicate flowers from its influ- 
ence ; and 1 have already pointed out (227) a case in which it would be 
desirable to try the same precaution with the early blossom of certain fruit- 
trees. The greatest power is put forth in this country in June, while the 
greatest temperature of the air does not take place till J uly. The tempera- 
ture of summer may thus be anticipated a month in well-secured situations." 
{Ibid. p. 16.) 

282. The construction of houses for growing the plants of warm climates^ or 
for forcing, is founded chiefly on the doctrine of radiation, as well as on that 
of producing heat by combustion or fermentation. The roof and sides of a 
frame or a hothouse serve the purpose of reflecting back the heat of the 
bodies within, whether that heat is only such as the soil enclosed naturally 
affords, or whether it is generated artificially. But though the roofs of hot- 
houses reflect back great part of the heat which is radiated to them, yet a 
great part also is conducted through the glass to its outer surface, and thence 
radiated into the free ah*. To prevent this waste of heat, without diminishing 
the quantity of light transmitted through the glass, is a desideratum in hot- 
house building. In Russia double sashes are used, and while the plants 
within are in a dormant state little injury is sustained by them ; but in green- 



REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



73 



houses and botanic stoves in this country, where the plants Eire kept groAving' 
throughout the winter, this mode of saving heat would, for many purposes, 
exclude too much light. 

233. The power of man over the heat of the free atmosphere is compara- 
tively Kmited. Nevertheless, as heat is carried off from the surface of the 
ground, and from all other objects, by wind, by radiation, and by evaporation, 
it follows that heat may be saved from the wind by shelter, and in being 
radiated into the air by a partial covering of the ground, on a large scale, by 
scattered standard trees, or, on a smaller scale, by covering beds or borders 
with straw ; and it may be saved from being carried off by evaporation by 
under-draining, surface -draining, and by such a composition of the soil as 
will readily admit the infiltration of water, so as to render it at all times, 
except during rains, tolerably dry. Other modes of increasing the heat of 
the atmosphere have been mentioned (231), or will readily occur; but per- 
haps those of most practical value are shelter and adding to the dryness of 
the soil. 

234. A distinction is to be made between increasing the heat of the atmo- 
sphere and the soil^ and preventing the waste of the heat which they already 
contain. This, also, is to be effected chiefly by counteracting radiation. Mr. 
Lymburn, a scientific cultivator of great experience, has the following excel- 
lent observations on this subject: — "The great effort," he says, " should be to 
retain (if possible) the heat which was accumulated near the plants through 
the day. If water be near, it has a tendency to assume the state of vapour, 
and rob the air of its heat ; the sap of the plant may be more abundant, also, 
from this cause, and increase the expansion of the fluids by frost, which may 
end in the bursting and laceration of the vessels, and be the cause of death. 
When a clear cold night succeeds to a wet day, if the night is long and the 
atmosphere does not get cloudy, the heat radiates upwards from the earth 
and plants into tiie cold air, while the evening at first is comparatively warm. 
The cold is also greatly accelerated by the evaporation of moisture : it is 
calculated that it takes above SOQo of heat to convert water into steam ; and 
though vapour does not require so much, part of the vapour being chemically 
attracted by the atmosphere, still the consumption is great. From these 
causes the earth and plants by degrees get so cold, from having parted with 
their heat, that their temperature descends below the freezing point. In 
spring and autumn the air is comparatively warm, and the nights not so long ; 
and hence spring and autumn frosts seldom take place till near sunrise : and if 
a cloud happens to settle above any portion of the earth about that time, 
before the earth has been cooled down to the freezing point, it prevents the 
farther radiation of the heat upwards ; and hence we often find places lying 
contiguous and below the cloud to be saved from frost at one time, while at 
anotlier they will be much hurt. Where plants partially cover one another, 
they help to prevent radiation ; and when one plant is more covered with 
moisture than another, or growing more vigorously, more full of watery 
sap, and the bark more tender, from these and other causes one plant is 
often, to all appearance, unaccountably killed, while another is left unhurt. 

235. In order to protect plants from frost, we should study to have the 
plants themselves and the earth around as dry as possible towards the even- 
ing. The situation for plants liable to be hurt by spring and autumn frosts 
should be as much elevated as possible, in order to have the benefit of the 
wind in dispersing the cold heavy air and bringing forward the warmer ; in 



74 



HEAT, CONSIDERED WITH 



low situations the cold air, being heavier, collects, and not being benefited 
by the dispersion of the wind and bringing forward a warmer air, plants are 
much more liable to be hurt by slight frosts in such situations. Wherever 
it is possible, when the clearness and coldness of the air indicate a tendency 
to frost, plants that are worth the expense should be covered with the best 
non-conducting substances we can fall in with. Metals are the worst, if 
polished and bright in the colour : however, they are better non-conductors 
than when dark-coloured and rough ; wood is still better ; but, unless when 
saturated with moisture, woollen, next to furs and eider-down, is the best of 
any, from the confined air retained between the hairs of the wool. 

236. Whatever covering is used, whether straw mats, bast mats, cloth, or 
wool, or wood, they should be elevated above the surface to be covered, so as 
to contain as much confined air as possible. Confined air is one of the worst 
conductors of heat ; the covering will not radiate or give out heat till the 
confined aiu and covering are both heated above the state of the atmosphere ; 
and the transmission of heat will take place more slowly through the con- 
fined air than anything else. Thus, for very little trouble, by elevating our 
coverings, we surround our plants or plant-structures with a substance which 
is very retentive of heat, and increases the power of the covering in an 
immense degree. The heat has most tendency to ascend upwards, and this 
should be most guarded against ; but it will also escape by the sides : and to 
confine the air and heat completely, the plant or plant-structure must be 
covered all round from the external air. A perfectly air-tiglit covering 
would be with difficulty either procured or applied; but apertures in direct 
communication with the external air, may be guarded in such a manner as 
to prevent the escape of heat. Thus, if we suppose four coverings of woollen 
netting, with the meshes of 1-10 in. square open, and exactly as much space 
between the meshes closed ; then these four covers would affbrd comparatively 
little protection if placed so as the openings would be directly over each other ; 
but by alternatel}^ placing over each other the open and the closed parts, the 
egress of heated air, as well as the ingress of cold air, would be very much 
interrupted. The warm air would have to deviate three times from its 
direct upward tendency, which its greater elasticity, derived from the heat, 
imparts to it ; and the cold air would have to turn as often from tlie course 
in which, by gravitation, it would otherwise proceed downwards. The cur- 
rents of both the internal and external air would thus be impeded, and the 
interchange of temperature reduced to the very slow process resulting from 
m.ere contact. 

237. Wall- trees should have a broad coping of wood on the wall, to pre- 
vent the ascent of heat ; and woollen nets drawn down before tender peaches, 
&c., in cold nights, and carefully removed in good weather through the day, 
are a great help, when not left on in all weathers. The wall, for tender 
fruit-trees, or other tender plants, is best built of porous materials, as bricks, 
which retain the heat from the confined air better than stone ; and they 
should be built with hollow chambers for the same purpose. Where paint- 
ing is needed, white is the best colour. To prevent the bad effects of cold 
east winds in the spring, causing the sap to descend in standard fruit-trees, 
and destroying the blossom when expanded by the check it gives to the 
ascent of the sap that should nourish it, the stems and branches should be 
bound with straw ropes, and the ground mulched. 

238. Various situations should be chosen to protect tender shrubs and 



REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



75 



trees^ according to the nature of the plant. For those that spring early, and 
are apt to be nipped by spring frosts, a north border and cold soil are best to 
retard their time of starting till the danger from frost is less : for those that 
suffer from want of the wood being ripened sufficiently, as many American 
plants which have a warmer summer in their native situation to ripen the 
M^ood, as also for those that suffer by autumn frosts before the wood is 
ripened, a south exposure and warm dry early soil are best : in dry soils 
there is not so much wood made, but that which is made is more easily 
ripened ; and the more sun, the more likelihood that the wood will be 
ripened before frost sets in. In some late wet autumns, some of the hardiest 
of our trees have been killed : transplanted Birch, after being some years 
transplanted ; Oaks, that were apparently sound, dying down half their 
length in the ensuing spring ; and seedling American Oaks dying off in the 
ensuing summer, after having begun to grow ; thus showing that even the 
hardiest of our trees may be affected, from their wood not being sufficiently 
ripened in a cold wet autumn. 

289. The presence of a stream or river is generally allowed to increase 
the tendency to slight frosts in spring and autumn. The surface of the 
water ^ as it condenses by cold, descends to the bottom, and a warm stratum 
succeeds to the surface ; and so far the tendency is towards heating rather 
than cooling the air : but the great evaporation that takes place througli the 
day, and early in the evening, robs the air of so much caloric, that fields 
situated near shallow rivers, streams, or bogs, have generally been found 
most liable to frost ; near the sea, or near great bodies of deep water, the 
first -mentioned effect of a succession of warmer strata to the surface pre- 
vails, and we have less tendency to freezing. 

240. Watering in the morning early, if the frost has not penetrated to the 
juices of the plant, may, by washing off the cold dew, prevent the frost 
from penetrating ; and covering from the sun may save a plant partially hurt 
from the excessive change of temperature, if a bright sunny day succeed the 
frosty night : but no power on earth can recover the plant if the juices have 
been exposed by freezing till the vessels are burst, which may be known by 
the change of colour in the leaves by the suffusion of the sap. If some of 
the most tender leaves only are hurt on the young growths, the plant may 
survive ; if the wood is generally young and succulent, as in seedlings, 
Dahlias, &c., the whole plant generally perishes, unless where there is an 
old ripened root or wood to renew vegetation. Some plants, as Beech, that 
throw out or evolve most of their young buds in spring, are apt to perish, 
even though some years old, before the latest buds can spring : the Oak, 
Ash, c%c., that have always spare buds, are not so apt to perish." (Gard. 
Mag. vol. xvi. p. 430.) 

241. The general conclusions to be drawn from the observations contained 
in this section are : 1, that the heat of the soil and of the free atmosphere 
may be increased by diminishing evaporation, so as to receive a greater ad- 
vantage from the rays of the sun ; and 2, that it may be preserved by 
checking radiation. The means for diminishing evaporation arc draining, 
improving tlie constituent parts of the soil, and shelter from cold winds ; and 
the means of diminishing radiation are simply coverings placed over the soil, 
or the plant about which the heat is to be retained. 



76 



ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE, CONSIDERED 



Sect. II. — Atmospheric Moisture, considered with reference to Horticulture. 

242. The existence of water in air, even when the latter is in its driest, 
coldest, and purest state, is easily proved ; and the quantity of aqueous 
vapour which it holds in suspension has been ascertained by experiment. It 
varies with the temperature, increasing as the heat is greater, in something 
like a geometrical ratio. " At 50'' Fahr. air contains about 1-50 of its 
volume of vapour ; and as the specific gravity of vapour is to that of aii- 
nearly as 10 to 15, this is about 1-75 of its weight. At 100^, and supposing 
that there is a free communication with w^ater, it contains about 1-14 part 
in volume, or 1-21 in weight." (Davys Ag. Chem. 6th ed. p. 198.) V^ater 
is also held in the atmosphere in a grosser form than that of elastic vapour ; 
for example, as mist, fog, or clouds, which three forms only differ in their 
appearances, and not in their nature. Mists are clouds formed near the surface 
of the ground ; and fogs are only more dense mists, or, perhaps, mists diffused 
to a greater height in the atmosphere. Mists are of a floating nature, and 
the air is often seen clear above and below them ; but fogs are generally more 
dense, and they pervade the atmosphere to a greater extent. It will be found 
afterwards that it is of some importance to bear in mind the distinction between 
water held in suspension in the atmosphere in the state of invisible elastic 
vapour, and held in suspension in the state of steam, mist, or fog : in these 
latter states it is frequently found in greenhouses in the winter season, and 
in frames and pits, where the heat is communicated through the moist soil by 
a bed of fermenting dung laid below it. 

243. To measure the quantity of elastic vapour in the atmosphere, Htj- 
grometers have been invented, and the degree of moisture is indicated in 
these instruments by what is called the dew-point. The best hygrometer 
is that of Daniell ; but as some nicety is required in its use, a substi- 
tute has been found in two common thermometers. The mode of ren- 
dering these a substitute for a hygrometer is tlius explained by Mr. 
Wailes: — "The dew-point is that degree of temperature, in any place, 
at which moisture is deposited from tlie surrounding atmosphere upon 
any object of that particular temperature ; and it depends, of course, upon 
the humidity of the air. If, tlierefore, the air is very moist, the slightest 
depression of the heat of the body in it will cause dew to form ; and, on the 
contrary, if very dry, it will require a considerable fall of temperature to 
produce that result. Hence it is that the cold produced by evaporation of a 
liquid will be proportioned to the hygrometric state of the surrounding 
medium ; and by measuring that degree of cold, we readily ascertain the 
degree of humidity. The common thermometer is the best instrument for 
the purpose of showing the temperature ; and we have only to keep its bulb 
wet with some evaporating liquid of the same temperature as the medium 
ii; is suspended in, to measure the degree of cold produced by such evapo- 
ration, and thereby to find the dew-point." (Gard. Mag. vol. xv. p. 506.) 
Two thermometers being obtained and placed together, one must have the 
bulb dry to mark the temperature, and the other the bulb wet to indicate 
the cold produced. The bulbs of both thermometers should be covered with 
a fold of white silk or muslin, in order that both may be on a par, with 
respect to the reception of heat from the atmosphere in which they are 
placed, and pure water must be supplied to one of them from a phial or 
other vessel placed near it, by a thread of floss silk acting as a siphon. 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



77 



The cover of the moistened bulb and the silk thread must be renewed 
occasionally. The greater the difference between the heat indicated by the 
moistened thermometer and the dry one, the greater will be the want of 
atmospheric moisture. A table, with explanatory observations, will be found 
in our Appendix. Mason's hygrometer, which Mr. Newman informs us was 
in use upwards of thirty years ago by Sir H. Davy and others, (tliougli 
recently brought into notice by Mason,) contains two common thermometers 
mounted side by side, with a glass fountain for water fixed between them. 
It is a very neat instrument ; but the mode of using two thermometer? above 
described is sufficient for all ordinary purposes. Still though the liygrometric 
state of the air may be known by a dry and a moistened thermometer, such 
as that bearing the name of Mason, the latter showing a depression corre- 
sponding with the rapidity of evaporation at the time, yet it is allowed by all 
who have studied the subject maturely, that the results are not so much to 
be depended on as when obtained by means of Daniell's hygrometer. 

244. Having described the means which may be resorted to in order to 
ascertain the liygrometric state of the atmosphere, v/e shall now give an 
example of the utility of that knowledge for horticultural purposes. W e 
shall suppose that the grape is to be forced in a vinery ; and we shall first 
imagine the plant growing under the most favourable circumstances in its 
native country, at the time of its flowering; enjoying a temperature of 70^ or 
80^ through the day, with 8° or 10° of dryness, according to the hygrometer 
of Mason or Daniell. At night, whilst the air has still a genial warmth, it is 
also charged with a refreshing moisture, or, in other words, it is in a state of 
saturation. The leaves expand, and the shoots become rapidly extended. 
The conditions under which this takes place, in the native country of the 
grape, we would wish to imitate in its artificial culture in our vineries. In 
a vinery we can, even in cold weather, command heat, and the degree of 
dryness through the day will not be much in excess ; but when night comes, 
although we can still keep up the heat, the moisture is diminished instead of 
being increased. More fire-heat being required, the air in contact with the 
hot flues, or hot- water pipes, ascends upwards in consequence of its increasing 
elasticity, till it reaches the cold glass ; the latter condenses the vapour which 
the air contains, just as the refrigerator of a still condenses, by its coldness, 
the spirituous or other vapour contained in the worm ; and the condensed 
vapour may be seen trickling down the glass roof. The portions of air thus 
successively drained of moisture being also cooled by contact with the glass, 
become specifically heavier, sink and give place to a fresh supply of warmer 
air, which in its turn descends^ likewise deprived of its moisture. Herein 
we have discovered the source of an evil, the amount of which may be accu- 
rately ascertained by means of the hygrometer ; and it will sometimes, under 
such circumstances as are stated, indicate as much as 20° of dryness, or the 
double of what the vine naturally had in the day, instead of being in the 
natural state of saturation at night. 

245. The amount of evaporation from the soil, and of exhalation from the 
foliage of the vegetable kingdom," Mr. Daniell observes, " depends upon two 
circumstances, — the saturation of the air with moisture, and the velocity 
of its motion. They are in inverse proportion to the former, and in direct 
proportion to the latter. When the air is dry, vapour ascends in it with 
great rapidity from every surface capable of affbrding it ; and the energy of 



78 



ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE, CONSIDERED 



this action is greatly promoted by wind, which removes it from the exhaling 
body as fast as it is formed, and prevents that accumulation which would 
otherwise arrest the process." Over the state of saturation the horticulturist 
has little or no control in the open air ; but over its velocity he has some com- 
mand. He can break the force of the blast by artificial means, such as vralls, 
palings, hedges, or other screens ; or he may find natural shelter m situations 
upon the acclivities of hills. Excessive exhalation is very injurious to many 
of the processes of vegetation, and no small proportion of what is commonly 
called blight may be attributed to this cause. Evaporation increases in a 
prodigiously rapid ratio with the velocity of the wind, and anything which 
retards the motion of the latter is very efficacious in diminishmg the amount 
of the former : the same surface which, in a calm state of the air, would 
exhale 100 parts of moisture, would yield 125 in a moderate breeze, and 
] 50 in a high wdnd. The dryness of the atmospliere in spring renders the 
effect most injurious to the tender shoots of this season of the year, and 
the easterly winds especially are most to be opposed in their course. The 
moisture of the air flowing from any point between N.E. and S.E. inclusive, 
is to that of the air from the other quarter of the compass in the proportion 
of 814 to 907, upon an average of the whole year : and it is no uncommon 
thing in spring for the dew-point to be more than 20 degrees below the 
temperature of the atmosphere in the shade, and the difference has even 
amounted to 80 degrees. The effect of such a degree of dryness is parching 
in the extreme, and if accompanied with wind is destructive to the blossoms 
of tender plants. The use of high walls, especially upon the northern and 
eastern sides of a garden, in checking this evil, cannot be doubtful ; and in 
the case of tender fruit-trees, such screens should not be too far apart. 

246. When trees are trained upon a wall with a southern aspect, they 
have the advantage of a greatly exalted temperature ; but this temperature, 
in spring, differs from the warmth of a more advanced period of the year, or 
of a more southern climate, in not being accompanied by an increase of 
moisture. In this extremely dry state of the atmosphere, the enormous 
exhalations from the blossoms of tender fruit-trees which must thus be in- 
duced cannot fail of being extremely detrimental ; the effect of shading 
the plants from the direct rays of the sun should therefore be ascertained. 
The state of the weather referred to often occurs in April, May, and June, 
but seldom lasts many hours. Great mischief, however, may arise in a very 
small interval of time, and the disadvantage of a partial loss of light cannot 
be put in comparison with the probable good effect of shading, by mats or 
canvas, at the distance of a foot or two from the wall." (Idem.) 

247. Mr. Daniell kept a register of the weather, and has seen, in the 
month of May, the thermometer in the sun at 101°, while the dew-point was 
only 34° : the state of saturation of the air, upon a south wall, consequently, 
only amounted to 120°; a state of dryness which is certainly not surpassed by 
an African harmattan. The shelter of a mat on such occasions would often 
prevent the sudden injury which so frequently arises at this period of the 
year." With great submission to Mr. Daniell, who must necessarily know 
so much more of the subject than we can do, we cannot help thinking that 
this statement must be somewhat exaggerated. In this country we certainly 
have the sun frequently sufficiently powerful in summer to raise the ther- 
mometer in the free air, at a distance from the wall, to 10J°, whilst the air 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



79 



in the shade may, perhaps, be only 60^, and the dew-point 50°. We should 
in this case say, that the degree of dryness was 10°, and not 51°, as would 
be the result of subtracting 50° from 101°, as Mr. Daniell has done 30° from 
150°. Supposing a screen were put so as to intercept the sun's rays from the 
thermometer, the latter would soon fall, and it would be found that the tem- 
perature of the air was really not 101", and therefore that the latter number 
should not have been taken for the purposes of giving the difference or degree 
of dryness. 

248. Some of the present practices of gardening," Mr. Daniell continues, 
" are founded upon experience of similar effects ; and it is well known that 
cuttings of plants succeed best in a border with a northern aspect protected 
from the wind ; or if otherwise situated, they require to be screened from 
the force of the noon-day sun. If these precautions be unattended to, 
they speedily droop and die. For the same reason, the autumn is selected 
for placing them in the ground^ as well as for transplanting trees ; the 
atmosphere at that season being saturated with moisture, is not found to 
exhaust the plant before it has become rooted in the soil. 

249. Over the absolute state of vapour in the air we are wdioUy 
powerless ; and by no system of watering can we affect the dew-point in the 
free atmosphere. This is determined in the upper regions ; it is only, 
therefore, by these indirect methods, and by the selection of proper seasons, 
that we can preserve the more tender shoots of the vegetable kingdom from 
the injurious effects of excessive exhalation." (Hort. Ti-ans.^ vol. vi. p. 7.) 

250. Over ram, we may be said to have little influence ; but though we 
cannot prevent rain falling from the clouds, we can prevent it from falling 
upon particular plants or objects. By copings, we can protect fruit trees 
against walls from perpendicular rain, and thus preserve the bloom on the 
surface of fruit which would otherwise be washed off by it. The roofs of 
plant-structures of every kind, and even the surface of the ground, may be 
protected from rain by thatching or covering with any body that will caiTy 
off the rain at particular points, or channels, whence it may be conveyed 
away in underground drains. By these and other means the soil of a garden 
in a wet climate may be kept much drier, and consequently warmer, than 
it otherwise would be. Some situations are more liable to rain than others, 
such as the vicinity of woods and hills, and places exposed to the Western 
Ocean generally. Those, on the other hand, which are exposed to the 
Eastern Ocean have rains less frequently ; but these rains have a better effect 
on vegetation, because the soil, from the less frequency of rain, being gene- 
rally drier, is warmer to receive them. 

251. Though we have little or no power over the moisture of the free 
atmosphere^ we may be said to have the perfect command of the atmospheric 
moisture of hothouses. Till within the last twenty or thirty years the prin- 
cipal points attended to in the atmosphere of hothouses were heat and light ; 
but meteorological and chemical researches having proved, as we have seen 
(242 and 253), that with every increase of temperat^ire in the open air 
there is always an increase of aqueous vapour, this condition began to 
be imitated in hothouses in which tropical plants were cultivated. " Capt. 
Sabine, in his meteorological researches between the tropics, rarely found, 
at the hottest period of the day, so great a difference as 10 degrees on the 
temperature of the air and the dew-point ; making the degree of saturation 
about 730, but most frequently 5 degrees, or 850; and the mean satura- 



80 



ATMOSPHERIC 3I0ISTURE, CONSIDERED 



lion of the air could not have exceeded 910." If the h}^grometer were cou-- 
sulted in hothouses as commonly managed, Mr. Daniell observes, it would 
be no uncommon thing- to find in them a difference of 20^ between the point 
of condensation and the air, or a degree of moisture falling short of 500." 
The causes of the dryness of our artificial climates has been admirably 
pointed out by Mr. Rogers. 

252. The causes whose constant operation renders our artificial climates 
unnaturaUii dry are principally^ two : the condensation of moisture on the 
glass, and the escape of heated and damp air through the crevices of the 
building, the space which it occupied being constantly supplied by dry ex- 
ternal air. A third drain of moisture formerly existed in the absorbing surfaces 
of brick flues, w^hich drank up the moisture of the air in contact with 
them, and carried it off" wuth the smoke into the outer air. The very general 
use of hot water in iron pipes has removed this nuisance, and we have now 
only to contend with the two first mentioned. 

253. Some idea of the drain of moisture by the escape of heated air may 
be formed from the following considerations. The capacity of air for moisture, 
that is to say, the quantit}'^ of water which a cubic foot of air will hold in 
invisible solution, depends upon its temperature, and increases with it in a 
rapid ratio. It is doubled betw^een 44° and 66°. The consequence is, that 
every cubic foot of air which escapes at the latter temperature carries 
off with it twice as much moisture as it brought in. Where the difference 
of temperature is greater, the drain becomes greater also : air entering at 
44^, and escaping at 80°, carries off^ three times as much as it brought in ; 
escaping at 90°, four times. Now^ the escape of air from our best glazed 
buildings is considerable at all times, even when the lights are closed ; and 
if the glazing be defective, and the laps be not puttied, it is very great in- 
deed. The amount of moisture thus abstracted cannot be very easily esti- 
mated, varying exceedingly according to the height and construction of the 
building heated. 

254. There exists, however, another drain of moisture^ constantly 
aff^ecting all hothouses, however perfectly constructed, and however cau- 
tiously ventilated : viz., the condensation on the glass. In this case the ex- 
penditure is capable of pretty accurate calculation. It has been ascertained 
by experiment, that each square foot of glass will cool 1^ cubic foot of air 
as many degrees per minute as the temperature of mner air exceeds that of 
outer air ; that is to say, if the temperature of outer air be 44°, and of the 
house 66°, for every square foot of glass 1^ cubic feet of air will be cooled 
22° per minute ; and the moisture which this air held in solution, in virtue 
of its 22° of heat, will be deposited on the glass, and will either drain away 
out of the house or fall in drip. The greater the difference between the 
temperature of internal and external air, the greater will be the amount of 
condensation ; and be it observed, that the capacity of air for moisture does 
not increase simply in the arithmetical ratio of its temperature, but by a 
scale considerably more rapid, so that the expenditure of moisture at high 
temperatures is much greater than at low temperatures, for equal diff^erences 
betw^een internal and external air." (^Gard. Mag. vol. xvi. p. 282.) 

255. This dryness of the atmosphere of hothouses Mr. Daniell has shown 
to be frequently accompanied by an injurious degree of cold to the roots of 
plants. " The danger of overwatering most of the plants, especially at par- 
ticular periods of their growth, is in general ver}' justly appreciated ; and in 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



81 



consequence the earth at their roots is kept in a state comparatively dry ; 
the only supply of moisture being commonly derived from the pots and the 
exhalations of the leaves, is not enough to saturate the air, and the conse- 
quence is a prodigious power of evaporation. This is injurious to the plants 
in two ways : in the first place, if the pots be at all moist, and not protected 
by tan or other litter, it produces a considerable degree of cold upon their 
surface, and communicates a chill to the tender fibres with which they are 
lined. The danger of such a chill is carefully guarded against in the case 
of watering, for it is one of the commonest precautions not to use any water 
of a temperature at all inferior to that of the hot air of the house ; inattention 
to this point is quickly followed by disastrous consequences. The danger is 
quite as great from a moist flower-pot placed in a very dry atmosphere. 

256. " The custom of lowering the temperature of fluids in hot climates, by 
placing them in coolers of wet porous earthenware^ is well known, and the 
common garden pot is as good a cooler for this purpose as can be made. 
Under the common circumstances of the atmosphere of a hothouse, a depres- 
sion of temperature, amounting to fifteen or twenty degrees, may easily be 
produced upon such an evaporating surface. But the greatest mischief will 
arise from the increased exhalations of the plants so circumstanced, and the 
consequent exhaustion of the powers of vegetation. Some idea may be 
formed of the prodigiously increased drain upon the functions of a plant 
arising from an increase of dryness in the air, from the following considera- 
tion. If we suppose the amount of its perspiration, in a given time, to be 
57 grains, the temperature of the air being 75°, and the dew-point 70°, or the 
saturation of the air being 849, the amount would be increased to 120 grains 
in the same time if the dew-point were to remain stationary, and the tem- 
perature were to rise to 80° ; or, in other words, if the saturation of the air 
were to fall to 726, 

257. " The cause why plants in living rooms do not thrive so well as those 
which are kept in plant structures, is chiefly owing to the extreme dryness 
of the air, while a constant drain upon the leaves and the soil of the pots is 
maintained for moisture. Hence the fibres in the inside of the pots are alter- 
nately moistened and dried, and cooled and heated, and the leaves are deprived 
of their water by evaporation instead of by perspiration. 

258. '* Besides the power of transpiration, the leaves of vegetables exercise 
also an absorbent function^ which must be no less disarranged by any defi- 
ciency of moisture. Some plants derive the greatest portion of their nutri- 
ment from the vaporous atmosphere, and all are more or less dependent 
upon the same source. 

259. " These considerations must be sufficient," Mr. Daniell imagines, 
" to place in a strong light the necessity of a strict attention to the atmosphere 
of vapour in our artificial climates, and to enforce as absolute an imitation 
as possible of the example of nature. The means of effecting this is the next 
object of our inquiry." 

260. " Tropical plants require to be watered at the root with great caution, 
and it is impossible that a sufficient supply of vapour can be kept up from 
this source alone. There can, however, be no difficulty in keeping the floor 
of the house and the flues contmually wet, and an atmosphere of great elas- 
ticity may thus be maintained in a way perfectly analogous to the natural 
process. Where steam is employed as the means of communicating heat, an 
occasional injection of it into the air may also be had recourse to : but this 

G 



82 



ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE CONSIDERED. 



method would require much attention on the part of the superintendant, 
whereas the first cannot easily be carried to excess." It is true tiiat damp 
air or floating moisture of long continuance would also be detrimental to 
the health of the plants, for it is absolutely necessary that the process of 
transpiration should proceed ; but there is no danger that the liigh tem- 
perature of the hothouse should ever attain the point of saturation by 
spontaneous evaporation. The temperature of the external air will always 
keep down the force of the vapour ; for as in the natural atmosphere 
the dew-point at the surface of the earth is regulated by the cold of the 
upper regions, so in a house the point of deposition is governed by the 
temperature of the glass Avith which it is in contact. In a well-ventilated 
hothouse, by watering the floor in summer, we may bring the dew-point 
within four or five degrees of the temperature of the air, and the glass will 
be perfectly free from moisture ; by closing the ventilators we shall probably 
raise the heat ten or fifteen degrees, but the degree of saturation will remain 
nearly the same, and a copious dew will quickly form upon the glass, and 
wall shortly run down in streams. A process of distillation is thus established, 
which prevents the vapour from attaining the full elasticity of the tempera- 
ture. This action is beneficial within certam limits, and at particular seasons 
of the year ; but Avhen the external air is very cold, or radiation proceeds 
very rapidly, it may become excessive and prejudicial. It is a well-known 
fact, but one which I believe has never yet been properly explained, that by 
attempting to keep up m a hothouse the same degree of heat at night as 
during the day, the plants become scorched ; from what has been premised 
it will be evident that this is owing to the low temperature of the glass, and 
the consequent low^ dew-point in the house, wliich occasions a degree of 
dryness that quickly exhausts the juices." Much of this evil might be 
prevented by such simple and cheap means as an external covering of mats 
or canvass ; or by still slower conductors of heat, such as straw mats, or 
" thatched hurdles the latter, from the direction of the straws, throwing 
off the rain, and, from their tubular construction, retaining a large proportion 
of stagnated air, and hence forming an excellent non-conductor. 

261. The heat of the glass of a hothouse at night cannot exceed the mean 
of the external and internal air, and taking these at 80° and 40°, 20° of 
dryness are kept up in the interior, or a degree of saturation not exceeding 
528. To this, in a clear night, we may add at least 6° for the effects of radia- 
tion, to which the glass is particularly exposed, which w^ould reduce the 
saturation to 4340, and this is a degree of drought which must be nearly 
destructive. It will be allowed that the case which I have selected is by no 
means extreme, and it is one which is liable to occur even in the summer 
months. Now, by an external covering of mats, &c., the eff^ects of radiation 
would be at once annihilated, and a thin stratum of air w^ould be kept in 
contact with the glass, which w^ould become warmed, and consequently tend 
to prevent the dissipation of the heat. But no means w^ould of course be so 
effective as double glass, including a stratum of air. Indeed, such a precau- 
tion in winter seems almost essential to any great degree of perfection in this 
branch of Horticulture. When it is considered, that a temperature at night of 
20° is of no very unfrequent occurrence in this country, the saturation of the 
air may, upon such occasions, fall to 120°; and such an evil can only at pre- 
sent be guarded against by diminishing the interior heat in proportion. But, 
by materially lowering the temperature, we communicate a check which is 



AGITATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE CONSIDERED. 



83 



totally inconsistent with the welfare of tropical vegetation. The chill which 
is instantaneously communicated to the glass by a fall of rain and snow, and 
the consequent evaporation from its surface, must also precipitate the internal 
vapour, and dry the included air to a very considerable amount, and the 
effect should be closely watched." (Hort. Trans., vol. vi. p. 28.) 

262. " The skilful halancbig of the tempe^'ature and moisture oi the air," says 
Dr. Lindley, "in cultivating different kinds of plants, and the just adapta- 
tion of them to the various seasons of growth, constitute the most complicated 
and difficult part of a gardener's art. There is some danger in laying down 
any general rules with respect to this subject, so much depends upon the 
peculiar habits of species, of which the modifications are endless. It may, 
however, I think, be safely stated, that the following rules deserve especial 
attention : — 

(1.) Most moisture in the air is demanded by plants when they first begin 
to grow, and least when their periodical growth is completed. 

(2.) The quantity of atmospheric moisture required by plants is, ccEteris 
paribus, in inverse proportion to the distance from the equator of the coun- 
tries which they naturally inhabit. 

(3.) Plants with aiuiual stems require more than those with ligneous 
stems. 

(4.) The amount of moisture in the air most suitable to plants at rest, is 
in inverse proportion to the quantity of aqueous matter they at that time 
contain. Hence the dryness of the air required by succulent plants when 
at rest." (Theory ofHort., p. 153.) 

Sect. III. — The Agitation of the Atmosphere, considered with reference to 
Horticulture. 

263. The motion of the atmosphere, known as wind, and varying in grada- 
tion from the gentlest breeze to the most furious tempest, is, to a certain 
extent, under the control of the horticulturist. He cannot, indeed, agitate 
the air at pleasure, but he can lessen the agitation, when it is produced by 
nature, by shelter ; and he can take advantage of it when it is wanted, by 
exposure ; and, in hothouses, he can even create agitation. The use of wind 
in the economy of nature seems to be to carry off impure exhalations from 
particular spots, and to equalize in the atmos]3here the diffusion of gaseous 
matters, and of moisture and temperature. The free action of the wind on 
the surface of the ground assists in drying it when moist, because air has a 
great capacity for water ; and it promotes the vigour of plants, and especially 
of trees, by the motion which it produces in their stems, branches, and leaves. 
In some cases it may do good by carrying off insects, and in others injury 
by bringing them. The fact that the motion of the stems and leaves of trees 
by wind increases their diameter, is doubted by some, though according to 
others it is easily proved by observing what takes place in fruit-trees trained 
against walls, as compared with the same species growing as standards. If, 

I say those who are of the latter opinion, the deposition of woody matter in the 
j -stems and branches depended on the number and exposure to the sun of the 
i leaves, then wall-trees must necessarily have a thicker stem than standard- 
trees ; but as the contrary is the case, and as the only difference in the circum- 
stances in which standard and wall-trees are placed is, that the standards are 
subject to be jjut in motion by the wind, to that cause we must attribute the 
, greater thickness of their stems and branches. It is added, that tyijig the 

G 2 



84 



AGITATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE, 



stems of transplanted trees firmly to stakes impedes the growth of that part 
of theu- stems which is below the tie ; and that trees, after being fixed two 
or three years in this way, have their stems rapidly increased in thickness 
when set at liberty. De CandoUe mentions a tree, which had been tied up 
in such a manner that it could only move from north to south, which at last 
formed a trunk the horizontal section of which was elliptic. The effect of 
motion on plants generally, he considers to be increased evaporation, and a 
more rapid movement of the descending sap. (^Phys. Vegefale, t. iii. p. 1178.) 

264. By greatly increasing the perspiration of the leaves and other parts 
of plants, wind renders them less watery ; and, when this is not carried to an 
injurious extent, plants are by that means rendered firmer, drier, and better 
adapted for being packed and sent to a distance. Hence greenhouse plants 
grown in pits, where the atmosphere is continually moist, are less adapted 
for being sent to a distance than such as have been grown in open, airy green- 
houses ; and such as have been grown in houses heated by brick flues, are 
better than those which have been grown in houses heated by hot water. 
In like manner, trees grown in nurseries, situated on high dry situations, 
exposed to the wind, must necessarily have their wood harder and better 
ripened, than such as are grown in moist sheltered valleys. . The uses of 
wind in the open air may be reduced to that of drying surfaces, and that of 
putting plants in motion ; and the evils attending wind result from these two 
properties being carried to an excess. All the advantages to be obtained 
from wind in the open air in horticulture are to be obtained by exposure ; 
and all the disadvantages are to be counteracted by shelter. In plant struc- 
tures the imitation of wind, by the agitation of the air, will have the same 
effect as in the external atmosphere, but in a diminished degree. It is also 
of use, by rendering air at a high temperature more agreeable to the human 
feelings than when it is in a stagnant state ; though some (268) consider that 
this is to be principally attributed to the air being saturated or nearly so 
with moisture. 

265. Shelter, as every gardener knows, is produced by means of walls, 
hedges, plantations, and other screens, placed at right angles to the direction 
of the wind ; but the force of the wind is most powerfully reduced, not by 
opposing a strong barrier, such as a wall, but by an elastic, partially open, 
body, such as a hedge or a thin plantation. The most effectual mode of 
sheltering any territorial surface, whether level or hill}^, is by scattering 
over it single trees. In this way, a park or pleasure-ground in the most 
exposed situation may be sheltered in every part of its surface. In this way 
also an orchard or plantation of fruit-trees, the trees l)eing equally distributed 
over the ground, produces its own shelter ; but as a kitchen-garden, if planted 
with standard fruit-trees so as to produce shelter, would be unfit for the 
culture of culinary vegetables, the best mode of sheltering it is by crossing 
it with walls and hedges at such distances as may produce the desired shelter 
in the given situations. A very efficient shelter for culinary vegetables may 
be produced by sticking in branches of young trees, four or five feet in length, 
like pea-sticks, all over the surface on which they are gro^^^l ; or by inter- 
secting the surface with lines of wicker-work hurdles, which could be put 
down and taken away at pleasure. By throwing the compartments of a 
kitchen- garden mto squares of ten or twelve feet on the side, by wicker- 
work hurdles, an effective shelter would be produced ; and by covering these 
squares with netting, resting on the hurdles, a great deal of the heat radiating 
from the ground would be returned to it. Hedges of thorn, hornbeam, or 



CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



85 



other plants, may be made to grow on a base of two feet, and trained so as 
to taper on the sides regularly to a top not thicker than an inch, at a height 
of six or eight feet from the ground. Such hedges would fomi an elegant 
and most effective shelter, provided they were at all times neatly kept. The 
subject of shelter and exposure, however, in the open air is so well under- 
stood, that any further observations seem unnecessary. 

266. The agitation of the air in plant structures has only lately been at- 
tempted ; but, as a substitute for this, a partial renewal of the air, by opening 
the sashes or ventilators of such structures, has long been in practice. This, 
under many circumstances, particularly ui houses for tropical plants and for 
forcing fruits, is very injurious to the plants, though it has been found impos- 
sible to dispense with it to a certain extent. The injuries sustained by the 
admission of the external air into a hothouse are greater or less according 
to the difference of temperature, and, consequently, as we have seen (252), 
of moisture. When the external air enters a hothouse in which the air is 
at a high temperature, it rushes in with considerable velocity, driving out by 
the pressure of the atmosphere the hot and vaporous au' by which the plants 
are suiTounded, and becoming heated and charged with moisture, at the 
expense of the earth in the pots and the foliage of the plants (270). 

267. The only complete remedy for this evil is to lieat the air before it is 
admitted among the plants, by causing it to pass through a system of heated 
tubes ; and to saturate the heated air, as it passes through those tubes, with 
moisture, by placing among them a number of vessels of water. As this 
mode, however, is somewhat difficult and expensive in the attainment, a 
better practice is to put the air of the house in motion, admitting to it only 
occasionally a small portion of the external air. This is done in a very 
satisfactory manner by the mode of heating recently introduced by Mr. Penn. 
By this mode the air is continually circulating from one side of the house to 
the other, ascending on one side and 
descending on the other, from back 
to front ; one half of every revo- 
lution being among the plants, and 
the other half through a drain or 
tunnel under the floor, the bottom 
of which is covered with water, 
which, by the heated air passing 
over it, is kept at the same tem- 
perature as that of the house. Fig. 
2 is the section of a house heated 
in Mr. Penn's manner, in which a Fig. 2. Section of a Hothouse heated hy not water 
is the chamber contaming the heat- according to Mr. Penn's manner. 

ing pipes ; h a small opening in the front wall for occasionally admitting fresh 
air ; c the drain from back to front, having the bottom covered with Avater, 
through which drain the air passes, as shown by the direction of the 
arrows in the figure. 

268. A sensible effect on the human feelings, produced by the atmosphere 
of hothouses heated according to Mr. Penn's principle, is, that a high tem- 
perature, say of 80° or 90°, can be breathed in as agreeably, and for as long a 
period, as one of 60° or 70° not in motion. This result is partly attributed to 
the motion given to the au' ; since, in the hottest days of summer, the heat 
which would be oppressive in still air, is rendered not only bearable but 
even agreeable, if the air is put in motion by a breeze. In like manner the 




86 



AGITATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE, 



absence of heat is much more severely felt when the air is in motion, than 
when it is at rest. Captain Parry and his companions, when in the Polar 
regions, could endure a degree of cold when the air was still, that, when it 
was put into motion, they found to be quite intolerable. It is certain, how- 
ever, that a part of the agreeable effect produced by the motion of the air in 
Mr. Penn's hothouses is owing to the moisture which it contains ; for the 
human feelings in a hothouse heated to 80°, in which no attempt has been 
made to saturate the air with moisture, are much less agreeable than in one 
at the same temperature in which the paths are kept moist with water. 
Every one must be aware of this who has felt the heat of a stove heated by 
brick flues, as compared with one heated by hot water ; for though no water 
may escape from the pipes to moisten the air, yet no moisture is absorbed by 
them from the air of the house. In a house heated by flues, on the contrary, 
the clay of the bricks in the flue covers, and the lime by which the sides of 
the flues are plastered, having, as we have seen (155 and 156), a great che- 
mical attraction for water, abstract it from the air of the house, and give it 
that peculiar dryness which is so unpleasant to the skin, and so oppressive 
to the lungs. Alluding to this dry heat, Mr. Daniell says : — • 

269. " To the human feelings the impression of an atmosphere saturated 
with moisture is very diff'erent from one heated to the same degree without 
this precaution ; and any one coming out of a house heated in the common 
Avay, into one well charged with vapour, cannot fail to be struck with the 
diff^erence. Those who are used to hot climates have declared that the feel 
and smell of the latter exactly assimilate to those of the tropical regions." 

270. The excellence, Mr. Rogers observes, "of Jfr. Penn's method of 
warming and ventilating buildings appears to consist in the very uniform 
degree of moisture which it produces in the atmosphere. The heated air 
which enters the hothouse has already received a dose of moisture nearly 
sufficient to saturate it, and has not to seek its moisture among the plants, as 
is generally the case. In most plant houses the pipes are placed under the 
front shelves, at a considerable distance from the floor, and the atmosphere 
is moistened by syringing the plants, or throwing water on the floor and 
shelves. How greatly the state of an atmosphere so produced diffx^rs from 
that of Mr. Penn's houses, a little consideration of the annexed sketch will 
show. It is the section of a house heated by pipes under the front shelves ; 
and it must be borne in mind that the capacity of air for moisture varies 
with its temperature, so that air which was saturated at 56°, becomes very 
dry when heated to 70°. 

271. The sketch fig. 3 is the 
section of a house heated hy pipes in 
the ordinary manner^ under the front 
shelves. The arrows (numbered) 
indicate the course of the current 
of air. At No. 1 the air comes 
heated from the pipes p^ and ex- 
tremely thirsty; at No. 2 it find.s 
moisture among the plants, and 
rising from the damp and warm 
shelf (slate, of course) ; at No. 8 it 

has parted with some of its heat ; it Fig. 3. Section of a Hothouse heated 

is now supersaturated, and is parting ordinary manner. 




hot water 



CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



87 



with the moisture deposited on the glass ; at No. 4 it is in the same state ; at 
No. 5 it has ceased to lose heat or moisture ; at No. 6 and 7 the same ; at 
No, 8 it again comes within the influence of the pipes, and is heated, becoming 
again very dry. Now the air which descends to the floor (8) in the first 
place, is a small and feeble current, and secondly, is nearly saturated, so 
that it can take up little moisture ; and what little it does get is because the 
floor, being slightly warmed by the radiation of the pipes, warms, and at 
the same time moistens, the air ; but, nevertheless, the air at No. 1, in which 
air a visitor walks, is anything rather than saturated. My belief is, that air 
nearly saturated is always agreeable to the feelings. Dry air, which is ab- 
sorbing moisture, is anything but agreeable ; hence the unpleasant sen- 
sation in orchidaceous houses. Now it is unnecessary to show how Mr. 
Penn's plan obviates all these defects, and produces a uniformly saturated 
atmosphere which must be wholesome alike to plants and men." (Gard. 
Mag. vol. xvi. p. 273.) Corbett's mode of heating, by circulating water in 
open gutters (which can be closed at pleasure), is said to keep the air of 
those houses in which it is employed more effectually saturated with mois- 
ture than any other mode. {See Gard. Mag. 1841, p. 57, and Gard. Gaz. 
184], Jan. 23.) 

272. Though too much moisture can scarcely be admitted into the at- 
mosphere of plant structures kept at a high temperature, yet this is not the 
case with houses in which the degree of heat is not much greater than that 
of the open air ; for example, Greenhouses. In these houses the object of 
the gardener is frequently more to exclude frost than to increase the heat 
already there ; and consequently, when the thermometer in the open air 
ranges between 40° and 50°, no fire heat is required. In this case, however, 
if the air is not agitated by some artificial process, it becomes surcharged with 
moisture or damp, not in a state of elastic vapour, but as steam or fog. This 
excess is favourable to the growth of mould or fungi on the surface of the 
soil in the pots ; and being, from the excess of water, unfavourable for the 
respiration of the leaves, it occasions them to decay and drop off. In cases 
of this kind, it is more desirable to introduce dry air than moist air ; but as 
the air of the external atmosphere is generally not drier than that of the 
house, it is found desirable to employ heat so as to raise the temperature of 
the house, and this raised temperature having an increased capacity for 
heat, the water which was before in a state of mixture with the air is now 
changed into elastic vapour ; the consequence is, that the air of the house 
becomes dried, the growth of fungi checked, and the leaves of the plants no 
longer decay and drop off. Some persons are of opinion that Mr. Penn's system 
of circulating the air is only applicable to houses where fire heat is constantly 
used, and that for greenhouses and conservatories it is nearly useless. An 
experienced and scientific gardener, however, is of a directly contrary opinion. 
" In addition to its use in forcing-houses, where it may be deemed indispen- 
sable," he says, " I would adopt it in the greenhouse in preference to all 
other modes of heating. Greenhouse plants invariably do well while w^e can 
admit plenty of air, or while we can maintain a current to counteract the 
effects of damp. But there are sometimes months together that we cannot 
open a sash to effect this, without admitting air injuriously cold, or saturated 
with moisture ; it is then we are doomed to see many of our tender favourites 
pine, droop, and die ; and then that the advantage of an independent atmo- 



88 



AGITATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE CONSIDERED. 



sphere, circulating at pleasure, and of any desired quality of heat and mois- 
ture, becomes of incalculable value. Admitting damp to be the greatest 
enemy that tender plants have to encounter during winter ; that a current 
of air dispels that damp as effectually, and much more safely, than fire heat 
(the least excess of which is always hurtful and often fatal), the conclusion 
is, that plants in a damp state are really more benefited by the application 
of fire heat, from the commotion it creates in the air, than from any trifling 
addition it may make to the temperature. Hence the great utility of Mr. 
Penn's apparatus, with which the same quantity of fuel will create a tenfold 
current, giving at all times the power of maintaming sufficient heat to keep 
plants in a state of health without the possibility of injuring them. Some 
persons suppose that plants will thrive better in a lower circulating medium 
than they will do to a higher stagnated one (that is, that they will do as 
well in a current of air heated to 60°, as they would where it is stagnated 
and heated to 70*^) ; then I reply that we know that plants of a more hardy 
nature will bear much more heat with the air in a state of circulation than 
they will when it is stagnant. Therefore, with an atmosphere so truly 
under our control as that produced by Mr. Penn, we may reasonably ex- 
pect an approximation in the habits of plants, that will render the division 
of structures, however desirable under any circumstances, less a matter of 
absolute necessity than it has hitherto been. It is, I think, not improbable 
that this may be the case to an extent that will render greenhouse grapes 
equal to the present forced fruit." {^Gard. Mag. vol. vi. 2d series, p. 641.) 

273. Pits and cucumber frames, which are kept at a high temperature 
during winter, frequently have the air within surcharged with moisture to 
such a degree at that season as to endanger the health of the plants. The 
ordinary remedj'' for this evil is to admit a portion of the external air during 
bright sunshine ; but a safer mode, if it can be adopted, is to admit the ex- 
ternal air through tubes heated by being bedded in dung or tan, or by being 
placed in contact with the flues or hot- water pipes by which the pit is heated. 
By this means, the admitted air has its capacity for moisture greatly in- 
creased, and it will absorb and change the steam contained in the atmosphere 
of the pit, and the dew-drops on the glass and frame work, into elastic invisible 
vapour. Where hot water is used as the sole means of heating pits, if Mr. 
Penn s system be adopted, the air will be kept constantly in motion, and 
very little danger will arise from the damp, as will be hereafter shown 
when we come to treat of the construction of pits. 

274. In all plant structures change of air and ventilation are least ne- 
cessar}'- when the plants are beginning to grow, and most so when they are 
coming to maturity. The reason is, that at this latter period plants are 
more abundantly covered with leaves than at any other ; and these leaves 
being fully expanded, more air is required to enable them to perform their 
respiratory functions. It is also found that increased ventilation and a drier 
air are of great advantage to the maturation of the fruit ; but by dryness of 
the air must be here understood, not so much the absence of invisible elastic 
vapour, as of steam, or watery exhalations not held in a state of combi- 
nation. " When grapes begin to colour," says Mr. Duncan, a scientific and 
experienced gardener, " it is of as much importance to obtain a dry atmo- 
sphere, as it was, previously, to have a moist one ; because the change 
efl^ected in grapes while ripening is produced under the full influence of 
light, heat, and dryness : and it is well known that grapes grown in dry 



LIGHT CONSIDERED, WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 89 

heat, in properly managed houses, acquire a flavour superior to those grown 
in plant-houses where the air is kept moist for the sake of the plants." 
In corroboration of this, the same gardener mentions an instance in 
which, " in forcing an old house of vines, a continual current of air was 
admitted at the end w^here the fire entered, in order to maintain the tem- 
perature at both ends of the house nearly alike. At the end of the 
house where so nmch air was admitted, invariably, till the present year, the 
most abundant, finest, and best-coloured grapes have been produced ; but in 
the present year the case has been materially different, in consequence of 
one of Dr. Arnot's stoves being placed at the other end of the house, by 
which the necessity of admitting air at the usual place, and to the usual 
extent, became unnecessary. The difference in the colour and quality of 
the grapes between the two ends of the house is now inappreciable." {Gard. 
Mag., vol. i., third series, p. 25.) It will be observed, that in this case the 
air was heated before entering the house, which the writer represents as 
essentially necessary. " Good grape-growers," Mr. Duncan adds, " seldom 
admit a current of air directly from the atmosphere, except in extremely 
warm weather, and, even then, never through a doorway, unless it be situ- 
ated at the back of the house, where the temperature is in general higher 
than in front : to admit au' in front, unless in very mild weather, would be 
most injurious to the plants." 

275. It is certain that, in all countries, the climate during the growing sea- 
son is moist, and at the ripening season comparatively dry ; and hence the 
practice of withholding water from fruit-bearing plants under glass, when 
the fruit is ripening, is in direct imitation of nature. It is also natural to 
suppose, that in the ripening season in the open air, when the surface of the 
soil is dry, the atmosphere over it will be less saturated with vapour than 
when the soil is moist ; and, hence, the recommendation of dry air for the 
maturation of fruits is also natural. The effect of this air must be greatly 
to increase the perspiration of the leaves, which is probably favourable to 
the increased action of solar light, in the production of the saccharine mat- 
ter, and the peculiar odoriferous properties, of fruits. Where growth, and 
not the maturation of fruit, is the object, more water in the leaves appears 
necessary, probably to aid in the production of carbon. 

276. It will be obvious, from the foregoing remarks, that the mode of 
admitting air to hothouses, by a range of ventilators in front, and a corre- 
spondent range at the back, must be highly injurious to the plants in the 
winter season; and, indeed, more or less so at all seasons, when there is 
much difference between the temperature of the open air and that of the 
house to be ventilated. 

277. Indeed, cultivators may lay it down as a general principle, that 
neither water nor air ought to be given to plants at a much lower tempera- 
ture than that of the soil in which they grow, or the air by which they are 
surrounded. 

Sect. IV. — Light, considered with reference to Horticulture. 

278. Light, as we have seen (143), is one of the most important agents 
in the growth of plants. It is to light they owe their green colour, and 
the maturation of their fruits. "V^Tien plants are grown in situations where 
they obtain no light, as in dark cellars, instead of that beautiful variety of 
colours, and of properties, which they present when grown exposed to the 



90 



LIGHT, CONSIDERED WITH 



air and the sun, they consist only of a colourless, inodorous, insipid mass ; 
so much so, that when they are dried and burned they do not give out flame. 
The carbon contained in all plants, and which of course is in greatest abun- 
dance in such as have woody stems, is entirely the result of the action of 
light on the leaves, by which plants are enabled to decompose carbonic acid, 
and thus to fix its carbon in their structure and expel its oxygen. {Dec. 
Phys. vol. i. p. 47.) Fruits before they are ripe are acid ; that is, their hy- 
drogen and carbon are combined with an excess of oxygen ; but they are 
rendered saccharine by the action of light, which occasions the evolution of 
the oxygen, and the fixation of carbon, by which the vegetable acid is con- 
verted into sugar. In a word, no plant, nor any part of a plant, can be 
brought to perfection without light ; but it deserves also to be remarked, that, 
in the cultivation of plants for the use of man, it is sometimes not desirable 
to bring all the parts of a plant to perfection ; and, in these cases, the absence 
of light is as necessary as its presence is in others. For example, in the 
case of the Celery and other plants, the stalks of w^hich, when rendered 
green by light, are disagreeable to the taste and even poisonous ; but which, 
by excluding the light, are rendered wholesome and agreeable : the same 
may be said of the tubers of the Potato, and of the stalks and leaves of 
Cardoons, Endive, &c. 

279. Lights to a certain extent, follows the same laws as heat. It is re- 
ceived by radiation from the sun, reflected by smooth surfaces, transmitted 
and refracted by transparent substances, such as water and glass ; concen- 
trated by reflection from concave surfaces, and dispersed by reflection from 
surfaces which are convex. All these properties of light are rendered more 
or less available in horticulture. Light, however, differs from heat in the 
impossibility of retaining it after the absence of the sun ; whereas heat can 
be retained by enclosing heated bodies in non-conducting mediums, and by 
reflecting it back to the surfaces from which it is radiated (218). 

280. The radiation of light is greatest when the radiating rays strike the 
surface at a right angle, and least when the angle is most oblique : because, 
in the former case, the rays are reflected on every side, and consequently 
the surrounding objects are illuminated proportionately ; and in the latter 
case the greater number of rays pass off at one side, and illuminate less 
efl^&ctively the surrounding medium. The reflected rays are always returned 
from the surface on which they radiate, at an angle equal to the angle 
of incidence ; if the reflecting surface be a plane, the reflected rays will 
be parallel to each other : if the surface be convex, they will be diver- 
gent, and consequently dispersed ; and, if it is concave, they w 'lW be con- 
vergent, and hence concentrated. Smooth and shining surfaces reflect most 
light, and rongh and dark surfaces least ; and, with respect to colour, white 
reflects almost all the rays of light which fall on it, and black absorbs them all. 

281. When light falls on a transparent medium, a portion of the rays is 
transmitted through it, and a portion is reflected from its surface. The 
latter portion follows the same laws as the light which is reflected from 
opaque surfaces ; and the portion which passes through it is refracted — that 
is, it leaves the transparent medium at a different angle from that in which 
it fell upon it ; and by this change the light is also weakened, so as at a 
very short distance from the surface of the transmitting medium, as of 
glass for example, to be dispersed and transfused in the atmosphere, in 
which state, in hothouses, it has no longer the same power on the vital energies 



REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



91 



of plants. We are not aware that the cause of the inefficiency of light, 
after it has passed through glass and reached a certain distance, has been 
fully explained ; hut the fact is well known to gardeners, who, in hothouses, 
invariably place the plants they wish to thrive best at the shortest distance 
from the glass. As the quantity of light which passes through glass at the 
roof of hothouses is, all other circumstances being the same, greatest when 
the plane of the roof is at right angles to the plane of the sun's rays ; 
hence, the slope of the roof is, or ought to be, adjusted to the direction of the 
sun's rays at that season of the year when its light is most wanted. As in 
houses for early forcing, the greatest deficiency of solar light is in the winter 
season, when the sun is low, so the roofs of such houses are made steep, in 
order that the sun's rays may be received at a larger angle. Summer forcing 
houses, on the other hand, have less steep roofs, so as to receive most benefit 
from the sun in April, May, and June, when forced fruits are ripening. A 
greenhouse, in which no fruit is ripened, but in which abundance of light 
is required all the year, has commonly perpendicular glass to receive a maxi- 
mum of light during winter ; and a sloping roof of glass at an angle of 45°; 
which is found favourable for the admission of light at every season, as well 
as for throwing off rain, &c. This subject, however, will receive more 
attention when we come to treat of the construction of hothouses, 

282. The light of the sun, after it has passed through the clouds, is 
refracted^ to a certain extent, in the same manner as when it passes through 
glass or water; and if plants were kept constantly under a cloud, but at 
some distance from it, and if the space in which they grew were enclosed 
by clouds on every side, we believe the effect on the plants thus enclosed 
would not be materially different from that produced by an enclosure of 
glass. In the open air, however, clouds are not stationary ; and even where 
a succession of clouds covers growing plants for several days together, the 
space on which the plants grow is open on every side for the access of re- 
flected and transfused light. This prevents the etiolation and want of colour 
which are found in plants in the back parts of hothouses having shed-roofs ; 
but which are never found in nature, even on the north side of walls, except to 
a very small extent. Hence plant structures M'hich are enclosed by glass on 
every side, and which are circular in the plan, are more likely to produce 
an equalization in the growth and appearance of the plants within, than 
such as have glass on one side, and a wall or opaque body on the other. 

283. As an isolated body, such as a cone or small hill, dkpei'ses light 
most extensively when the sun shines, so when the sun is obscured by clouds 
the same body receives most of the reflected light transfused in the atmo- 
sphere, because it is exposed to the atmosphere on every side. For the 
same reason the summits of all bodies in the free atmosphere receive more 
light than their sides ; and hence the trees in dense forests, and the thickly- 
standing corn plants in cultivated fields, continue to grow and thrive though 
they receive little benefit from light, except from that which strikes on the 
tops of the plants. Hence the great importance of perpendicular light to 
plants under glass, and the advantages of conical, domical, angular, or 
ridge and furrow roofs, to plant structures ; because they receive from the 
atmosphere the transfused light on every side. Hence also, if only a certain 
quantity of glass were to be allowed for the construction of a plant house, 
the most beneficial application of it would be in the roof. In the construction 
of conservatories about sixty years ago, it was customary to have opaque 



92 LIGHT, CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 

roofs ; and, even about the beginning of the present century, half the roof on 
the south side of conservatories, as for example at Southgate Lodge, was 
frequently formed of glass, and the remaining half, on the north side, was 
opaque as before : but this remaining half was placed at such an angle as to 
allow the rays of the sun when highest in the firmament, and consequently 
whenever it shone throughout the year, to reach the back wall. This, it 
was thought by the architects of those days — Mr. Nash, for example, who 
introduced this practice — would answer every purpose of a roof entirely of 
glass, and at the same time would be warmer and more economical. It was 
soon found, however, that not only the plants on the back wall, but all 
those that were deprived of perpendicular light, did not thrive much better 
than in opaque-roofed conservatories. 

284. From what has just been observed, the necessity of perpendicular 
light will, we trust, be strongly impressed on the mind of our readers ; and, 
also, the necessity, when plants in hothouses are intended to look well on 
every side, of having every side of the hothouse of glass. A third axiom to 
be kept in mind is, that a convex glass roof, or one with an irregular surface, 
is, all other circumstances being alike, preferable to a roof in which the glass 
is all in one plane. 

285. Though art has little power in increasing the quantity or mtensity 
of light, whether direct from the sun or transfused in the atmosphere, yet it 
possesses a considerable degree of power in increasing the efficiency on plants 
of such light as may be transfused in the atmosphere. Thus, by spreading 
out the branches of a tree against a wall exposed to the south, much more 
light as well as heat is brought to act upon the leaves, than if the tree were 
a standard in the free air ; because, in the latter case, there would be neither 
the benefit of the reflection of the wall, nor that resulting from the circum- 
stance of every leaf being exposed to the direct influence of the sun's rays 
when it shone. In like manner, herbaceous plants or shrubs may be planted 
or trained on surfaces sloping to the south; and on surfaces elevated and freely 
exposed rather than in low and confined situations, in which light is obscured 
by surrounding objects or by aqueous vapour. The light thrown on the 
leaves of a plant in the open air may be increased by surrounding it on the 
north, and part of the east and west sides, by a wall or other upright surface 
painted white, or covered with glazed tiles or tinned iron. Practically, how- 
ever, the grand means of increasing the efficiency of such light as there may 
be m any given situation on plants, is by training them against walls, espa- 
liers, or on the surface of the ground ; or, for those that cannot be conveniently 
so trained, by removing all other plants and objects which are so near them 
as either to obstruct the sun's rays or to interfere with circumambient radia- 
tion. To insure the full eff^ect of the radiation of transfused light upon a 
plant, it ought to have a free space around it, in width on every side at least 
equal to its ovm height. No timber tree, which has not at least this space, 
can receive from light the full influence w^hich it ought to have on its hori- 
zontal branches; and hence (278) the trees in dense forests must necessarily 
produce timber inferior in bulk to those of the same kinds, in the same 
climate and soil, which are grown as single trees in parks, or in hedge-rows. 

286. In plant-structures a due proportion between light and heat ought, as 
much as possible, to be preserved, because this is always the case in nature, 
where both depend on the sun. It is not in our power to increase the natu- 
ral light of the atmosphere ; for the great disadvantage to which horticulture 



WORMS, SNAILS, SLUGS, &C,, CONSIDERED. 



93 



is subject in this climate, as Mr. Daniell has observed, is the uncertainty of 
clear weather ; but artificial warmth can be supplied or withheld at pleasure. 
" After trying everything that I had seen recommended for the shrivelling of 
grapes," says an experienced scientific gardener, " and feeling fully convinced 
in my own mind, that want of light was one of the causes of this evil, I 
thought I would try what eflPect proportioning the heat to the light would 
do. This I did, and after several years' practice, I can assert that the 
success has been beyond my expectation." {Gard. Mag.^ vol. vi., second 
series^ p. 589.) 

287. The absence of light, as we have before mentioned (278), is necessary 
to render certain bitter or unwholesome parts of plants fit for culinary pur- 
poses ; and the diminution of light is frequently had recourse to, when the 
habitation of plants which grow in shady places is to be imitated, and when 
the perspiration from the leaves of plants is to be diminished. In all cases 
of rooting plants from cuttings which have the leaves on, the diminution of 
perspiration, by shading them from the direct rays of the sun, is necessary, 
till the cuttings have taken root ; and this is also more or less the case w^ith 
all rooted plants which are removed with the leaves on, for some days 
after transplanting. When plants are in a dormant state, and without leaves, 
no light is requisite to maintain them in a healthy state ; and even such 
evergreens as are in a state of comparative rest require very little. Hence 
Orange-trees and other greenhouse evergreens, may be kept through the 
w^inter in an opaque-roofed conservatory ; and deciduous plants, w^hich have 
lost their leaves, may be kept through winter in houses or in cellars into 
which no light is admitted. Plants which grow naturally in the shade (122) 
are not here taken into consideration. 



CHAPTER V. 

WORMS, SNAILS, SLUGS, INSECTS, REPTILES, BIRDS, &c., 

CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 

288. The natural uses of plants are for the support of animals, and hence 
every plant, whether in a wild state or in cultivation, is more or less liable 
to their attacks. The most universal enemies to plants in British gardens 
are bisects, snails, slugs, and earth-worms ; but they are also subject to be 
devoured or injured by reptiles, birds, and some quadrupeds. In consequence 
of the introduction of new species and varieties of plants, the refinements of 
garden cultivation in forcing-houses, and the cultivation of tropical plants in 
stoves, the attacks of ordinary insects have been more severely felt, and 
several new species have been introduced. Hence, to prevent the increase of 
insects and other garden vermin, or to destroy them after they have com- 
menced their attacks, has become an important element in garden- culture. 

289. Till about the end of the last century very little attention was paid 
to garden vermin by horticultural writers. Birds were considered to be the 
chief enemies of gardeners, and they were directed to be scared away or shot 

h 



94 



THE EARTH-WORM, CONSIDERED 



at, on account of the injury they did to the rising seeds, or the ripe fruit 
which they ate or destroyed. The injuries done by insects of whatever kind 
then passed under the general term of blight. The scientific study of insects 
had then made little or no progress in this country ; and it does not appear 
to have been then known that birds, though injurious to gardens to a limited 
extent, are yet on the whole, by living in great part on insects, slugs, worms, 
&c., the gardener's best friends. Neither does the use of certain reptiles, 
such as the frog and toad, and even of quadrupeds, such as the weazel, appear 
to have been understood in gardens by the gardeners of the past generation. 
In the present day, however, this branch of garden management, like every 
other, has been subjected to scientific inquiry, and the object of this chapter 
is to generalize the results ; leaving details relative to particular species of 
garden vermin till we come to treat of the plants by which they are chiefly 
affected. The order which we shall follow will be that of w^orms, slugs, 
snails, insects, reptiles, birds, and quadrupeds. 

Sect. I. — The Earth-Worm, considered with reference to Horticulture^ 

290. humhricus terrestris L., the common earth-worm, has a long cylin- 
drical contractile body without eyes, tentacula, or any external appendages ; 
the head being only distinguishable from the posterior extremities by being 
more narrow, and pointed. The mouth is a small orifice at one extremity, 
formed by two lips, of which the upper one is the larger and more pro- 
jecting. The alimentary canal extends from the mouth to the opposite 
extremity, where it ends in the vent. The stomach is composed of two 
pouches, of which the first is membranous, and may be compared to a crop ; 
while the second is muscular, and is analogous to a gizzard. About one 
third of its length from the mouth there is a sort of belt (clitellum) en- 
circling the body, consisting of from six to nine rings, which are more 
prominent and fleshy than the others, and which indicate the position of 
the organs required for the reproduction of the species. The worm being 
hermaphrodite, it follows that every individual is furnished with a similar 
belt. The earth-worm has a well- developed ganglionated nervous system, 
but it appears that it has only the senses of taste and touch ; the latter it 
possesses to an exquisite degree, as every one must have observed when ap- 
proaching a worm half-extended from its hole. The worm is sensibly alive 
to every influence of the season and of the atmosphere ; burrowing in 
winter to the depth of three or four feet when the cold is at the greatest, 
and equally deep during the greatest heats of summer. On the approach of 
rain or of thaw, it comes up close to the surface ; moderate rains being agree- 
able to the worms, but standing pools of water over their holes drowning 
them. The taste of the worm is probably much less acute than its touch, 
since it is doomed to feed upon the soil in which it burrows, swallowing the 
earth mixed with all its decaying organised remains, from which its mitri- 
ment is extracted. W orms often draw into their holes blades of grass, 
straws, fallen leaves, &c. ; but these are scarcely for the purpose of food, 
though they have been found occasionally in the stomach, as well as small 
stones or gravel. 

291. Whether worms breed oftener than once a year is uncertain. They 
either produce their young already hatched, or lay eggs. The eggs are 



WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



95 




placed at a considerable depth in the soil, and in clusters ; they are produced 
at every season of the year, but chiefly in spring ; and 
those laid at this season are hatched in June and July. 
The eggs, when of full size, are as large as a pea, elliptical, 
with a tubular aperture at one end, through which, the 
young escape, there being more than one worm produced 
by each egg. In fig. 4, a is an egg before the embryo is 
visible : h the same egg with the embryo coiled up : and c 

Fig. 4. Eggs of the com- , ' • ?u ^ • xt^i, 

mon earth-worm in ^'^^ embryo worni m the act 01 escapmg. vv hen worms 
different stages. are newly hatched from the egg, they are about an inch in 
length ; but when they are produced alive, their length is not more than 
four lines, and they do not attain the size of those that are born from the 
egg for four months. Young worms do not gain their full size till after a 
year. 

292. The popular belief, that if the earth-worm is cut info a number of 
pieces, every portion will in time become a perfect individual, is only 
true to a limited extent. The worm has the power of reproducing any part 
of the body cut off behind the belt ; but if it is cut through in the middle 
of the belt, or between the belt and the mouth, the worm is killed. If the 
body is divided into two halves, the anterior containing the belt will repro- 
duce a new tail ; but from the posterior portion a perfect worm is never 
evolved, although it continues to live for a month or two, and grows in 
some degree. If the division is made into three parts, the middle and hinder 
ones die after some weeks' struggle for existence and some efforts at repara- 
tion. The mouth and lips are perfectly reproduced, provided the cerebral 
ganglions have not been included in the section. The natural history of the 
worm is extremely interesting, and will be found in detail in an article in 
the Gardeners Magazine for 1841, from which this section is abridged. 

293. The natural uses of the worm appear to be to serve as nourish- 
ment to moles, hedgehogs, frogs, toads, snakes, lizards, birds, fishes, and 
some kinds of insects. It is also said by naturalists that worms are useful to 
plants by penetrating the soil, loosening it, rendering it permeable to air and 
water, and even adding to the depth of the soil by bringing up their worm- 
casts to the surface. Soil is not loosened by boring through it, but rather 
rendered firmer in the parts not bored through ; and so far from surface 
soil being rendered permeable by water in consequence of the bores of worms, 
it is rendered less so, the worm-casts deposited on the orifices of the bores 
always being water-tight ; so much so, indeed, that when lawns where worms 
abound are to be watered by lime-water in order to destroy them, the first 
step is to brush away the worm-casts with a long flexible rod, or remove 
them by a rake, in order to let water enter the bores ; it having been found 
from experience, that, when this operation is neglected, the lime-water sinks 
into the soil without producing much eff'ect. With impervious loamy sub- 
soils, resting on gravel, the case is otherwise ; and under such circumstances 
worms may be useful, by permitting the escape of water where it would 
otherwise be retained. The surface orifices of some burrows may also be 
left open, or perhaps partially closed ; but this is not the case, as far as we 
are aware, except during those periods in the night, or in dull moist 
weather, when the worms have partially left their holes. With respect to 
worms adding to the depth of the soil (an opinion first promulgated, we 

H 2 



96 



SNAILS AND SLUGS, CONSIDERED 



believe, by Mr. Charles Darwin), we believe it to be entirely a delusion, as 
we have endeavoured to show in the Gardener s Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 95. 

294. The injury done by worms in gardens we hold to be very consider- 
able. By their casts they disfigure walks and lawns, and by cutting through 
the roots they injure more or less all plants whatever, and particularly 
those which are weak, (to which worms always attach themselves more than 
to healthy plants,) and plants in pots. Seedlings of all kinds are much in- 
jured by them, because when the point of the taproot is cut through the 
seedling has no other resource, and, unless it be vigorous enough to throw 
out lateral roots, it dies. 

295. To destroy worms is fortunately a very simple process; for such 
is the tenderness of their skin, that watering them with any caustic or 
bitter liquid deprives them of life in a few minutes. The cheapest caustic 
liquid is lime-water, which is made by dissolving quicklime, at the rate 
of half a pound of lime to twelve pints of water, and letting it stand 
a few minutes to clear. Before pouring it on the soil from a watering- 
pot with a rose on, the worm- casts ought to be removed, and the effects 
of the water will soon become obvious by the worms rising to the surface, 
writhing about there, and in a few minutes dying. To hasten their 
death, some more lime-water should be poured on them after they come 
to the surface. The quantity of lime-water required will depend partly 
on the depth of the soil and the number of worm-casts in a given space, 
and partly on the state of the weather. Least will be required in shal- 
low soils moderately dry, and most in deep soils either very wet or very 
dry. Where lime is not at hand, potash, soda, or urine, may be used ; and 
a decoction of the leaves of ^Valnut-trees, of those of Hemp, Tobacco, or 
Potatoes, after being partially dried and fermented, will have the same effect. 
Hand-picking may also be resorted to ; but this requires to be performed 
in the night-time, when the worms are on the surface of the ground, or im- 
mediately after rain. Worms in pots may either be removed by striking 
the sides of the pots, which will disturb the worms and cause them to rise 
above the surface ; or by turning out the ball on one hand, and picking off 
the worms, which seldom fail to come to the outside. 

296. To prevent worms from entering pots, a small cap {fig. 5, of the 

natural size) has been invented by JMr. 
Barron, which, when placed over the hole 
in the bottom of the pot, will permit the 
escape of water and effectually prevent the 
entrance of worms. It has been in use at 
the gardens at Elvaston Castle for several 

Fig. 5, Cap for covering the holes in years. 
the bottoms of pots. 

Sect. II. — Snails and Slugs, considered with reference to Horticulture. 

297- The only snail which interests the gardener is the Helix aspersa of 
naturalists ; for that which they have named the garden snail (H. hortensis) 
is rather a field than a garden species. The former is much the larger of the 
two, and has a dull shell marked with three faint mottled brownish bands, 
and a white rim round the aperture ; while the shell of the latter is glossy, 
distinctly banded with vivid colours, and the oral rim is brown. 




WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



97 



298. The slugs which frequent the garden are the JLiniax agrestis, L, 
cmereus, and L. ater. The L. agrestis, the commonest, is of a greyish 
colour, and from one to two inches long ; the L. cinereus is, on the con- 
trary, from three to five inches in length, of a greyish or dusky colour, 
with darker spots and stripes ; and the L. ater is easily known by the jet 
black and wrinkled skin of its back. 

299. Both snails and slugs are furnished with tentacula placed in front 
of the head, and which, by a singular process, can be drawn entirely within 
it. The mouth is armed above with a semi-lunar horny jaw, having its 
outer or cutting edge furnished w^ith one or several serratures. On the right 
side or neck of the snail and slug there are three apertures, that nearest 
the head being the respiratory orifice, the next the anus, and the third the 
exit for the organs of generation. Snails and slugs crawl on the flat sole 
which constitutes their foot and belly, and which is very muscular : but 
progression is principally performed by a pair of muscles which extend from 
the tail to the fore part of the belly, running along the middle of the foot. 

800. Snails and slugs are hermaphrodite and oviparous. They deposit 
their eggs under clods of earth, loose stones, or in the ground, in which the 
parent digs, with its foot, a circular hole about an inch deep. The eggs 
vary from twelve to thirty in number ; they are white, oval or round, 
about the size of a common shot, with a smooth soft skin, which is entirely 
membranous in the slug, but in the snail contains innumerable minute cal- 
careous grains, always in a crystalline state, and usually of a rhomboid 
figure. They are, in ordinary seasons, hatched in about three weeks after 
being laid ; but the time is regulated much by temperature, so that in cold 
seasons it is greatly retarded. The young issue from the egg in the likeness 
of theu" parents, active and furnished with every organ ; and the young 
snails have even then a shell fitting then- size and strength. The length of 
life of the snail or slug cannot be determined. The shell of the snail is 
usually completed befoie the termination of the second year, when the 
animal may have been said to have reached maturity. The snail and the 
slug are very patient of injury, often recovering from severe wounds ; repairing 
their broken shells, and reproducing such parts of their bodies, posterior to 
the neck, as may have been cut away. In winter, snails and slugs retire 
under stones, clods, or into the crevices of walls : the slugs become merely 
less active than usual, but the snails hybernate ; and to protect them from 
annoyance during this dead sleep of a winter s continuance, they seal up the 
apertures of their shells with a horny membrane. (Abridged from an article 
in Gard. Mag. for 1841.) 

301. The natural uses of the snail appear to be to serve as food for rep- 
tiles, birds, and the smaller quadrupeds, such as foxes, badgers, weazels, 
hedgehogs, &c. The blackbird and thrush are remarkably fond of them, 
and may be seen and heard flying off" with snails in their bills, and after- 
wards lighting on trees, and breaking the shells against the branches. 
There is some apparent reason for supposing that the worm is more useful 
than injurious to plants, but none that we know of in favour of the snail 
being useful either to gardeners or farmers. 

302. The snail retires under the cover of foliage or some other pro- 
tection from the sun and dry air during the day, and comes abroad to feed 
during the night, after ram, or when the weather is cloudy. It selects in 
preference tender seedling plants, or the leaves of maturer plants which 



98 



SNAILS AND SLUGS, CONSIDERED. 



have become tender and somewhat sweet by incipient decay. Snails are 
very fond of greasy matter ; and where a snail has been killed by crushing, 
its remains are preyed on by living snails, which crowd to it in numbers. 
About the end of autumn, when the weather begins to grow cold, the snail 
retires into sheltered places, where it will be protected from the weather 
during winter. Where there are evergreens, such as the Box or the Ivy, it 
resorts to them ; or if these be wanting, it will retire under loose stones, or 
rubbish of any kind, such as branches, spray, leaves, or litter ; and if no 
other covering is at hand, it has a power of burying itself in any soil not too 
hard on the surface. Whatever has been said of the habits of the snail will 
apply to those of the slug ; and the uses and the natural enemies of the 
two animals are exactly the same. 

303. To destroy snails in gardens, the only effectual mode is hand-picking, 
either in the evening, early in the morning, or immediately after rain. 
Empty flower-pots reversed and distributed over the surface, if an opening 
under the rim is left on one side by making a small depression in the soil, 
will attract a great number of snails ; and the more so if some greased cab- 
bage-leaves or slices of turnip, carrot, &c., be placed under the pots. In 
the course of the autumn, winter, and early in spring, all their hiding- 
places should be searched, and the animals taken out and destroyed by 
crushing, or by giving them to swine, which are said to be very fond of 
them. Hedgehogs and weazels, being their natural enemies, may be kept in 
gardens, and poultry which do not scratch, such as the turkey, duck, &c., 
may be admitted occasionally ; though no mode of subduing the snail but 
hand-picking is to be depended on. 

304. To destroy slugs in gardens, less labour is required than in destroying 
snails ; because, their bodies being comparatively unprotected, they are liable 
to be operated on by any caustic or bitter liquid as readily as worms. 
Cabbage-leaves m a state of incipient decay, with the side which is to be 
placed next the soil rubbed over with greasy matter of any kind, or even 
with the bruised bodies of recently-killed slugs, distributed over any surface, 
will attract them in great numbers during the night ; and if the leaves are 
examined every morning, and the slugs which are found destroyed, the 
piece of ground so treated will soon be freed from them. Pea-haulm being 
very sweet when in a state of incipient decay, forms a powerful attraction 
to slugs ; and if handfuls of it are distributed over a piece of ground in the 
same manner as cabbage-leaves, the little heaps of haulm may be examined 
every morning, and the slugs shaken from them and then destroyed by 
watering with lime-water. Thin slices of turnip or potatoe placed under 
inverted empty flower-pots form an excellent attraction, as do the dead 
bodies of slugs themselves, some parts or the whole of which are greedily 
devoured by the living animals. Where slugs are very abundant in a soil 
not covered with plants so large as to shelter them, as for example with 
rising seedlings, the slugs may be destroyed by watering the soil thoroughly 
with lime-water, or tobacco-water, late in the evening or early in the 
morning. Abundance of water should be applied, in order that it may sink 
into the soil, which the slugs penetrate a foot or more in depth, according to 
its state of pulverization. Quicklime has been laid round plants to protect 
them from snails and slugs ; but it soon becomes mild and of no use as a 
protection. Coal-ashes and sawdust annoy slugs by sticking to their foot, 
but they will not be deterred by this annoyance so effectually as to starve 



NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 



99 



for want of food. Soot is also a great annoyance to slugs ; but to keep tliem 
from a plant, it requires to be frequently and liberally renewed. " A stout, 
coarse, liorse-liaii" line, such as is used for hanging clothes out to dry, coiled 
round the stems of wall-fruit trees, and stretched along the wall, will operate 
as a protection to the fruit from both snails and slugs, in consequence of the 
bristly surface presented to them, and which they shrink from encountering. 
Care must of course be taken that they do not get under it." (^Penny Cyc.^ 
Limax.') No gardener ought to rest content with merely protecting his 
plants or fruits from snails and slugs ; because w^hile they are in the garden, 
as they must live, if they are debarred from attacking one plant they will 
only have recourse to another. Nothing short of extermination, therefore, 
ought to satisfy him, and this he may accomplish by enticing the larger 
slugs into empty pots, or under cabbage -leaves or haulm ; and by soaking 
thoroughly with lime-water the soil which he supposes to contain young 
slugs or eggs. 

Sect. III. — Insects^ considered with reference to Horficultwe.' 

305. The number of species of insects in the world greatly exceeds that 
of all other animals and plants put together, and the power which some 
insects have of nmltiplying themselves, such as the plant lice for exam- 
ple, is almost incredible. As by far the greater number of insects live on 
plants, some on several species, and others on only one, the importance of 
some knowledge of the natural history of insects to the gardener is sufficiently 
obvious. The subject, indeed, is one of great extent ; nevertheless every 
gardener may readily acquire, from books and observation, such a know- 
ledge of it as will suffice for the purposes of his profession. We shall there- 
fore lay before him the essence of that part of it which more especially 
relates to the insects which infest British gardens. We shall notice in suc- 
cession the general nature of insects, their different stages of life, their 
nourishment, propagation, duration, their natural enemies, and, above all, 
the means employed by art to mitigate the evils which they occasion, or to 
destroy them. We shall take as our guide Kollar, from whose treatise we 
have abridged gi-eat part of the article ; and the whole has been revised for 
us by J. O. Westwood, Esq., Secretary to the Entomological Society. 

Subsect. 1. Of the Nature of Insects and their Classification. 

306. Insects are animals which have a body consisting of one or more divi- 
sions, articulated feet, and a head conspicuously distinct from the body, on 
which are placed two movable horns, called antennse. They breathe through 
au'holes, which are situated on the sides of the body ; the greater number have 
wings in their perfect state, and only a proportionably small number are 
entirely without them. With the exception of certain groups, all perfect 
insects have six feet, and their bodies are divided into a head, thorax, and 
abdomen, by notches or incisions ; hence the name insect., derived from the 
Latin word insecare, to cut or notch. Before they attain their perfect state 
they are subject to various transformations, which are called metamorphoses. 
For the sake of perspicuity the very numerous class of insects, the most 
extensive in the whole animal kingdom, has been divided into two principal 
divisions — the winged, and the wingless. 

807. Winged insects are divided into the follov/ing orders : — 



100 



NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 



(1.) Coleoptera (Beetles; Sheath- wings). Six feet, and mostly four 
wings, the anterior pair of which are horny, in the form of a covering for 
the two posterior wings, which are sometimes wanting. They have upper 
and lower jaws (mandibles and maxillae) for gnawing or chewing : their 
under wings are transversely folded. Examples — the may-bug, the long- 
horns (Cerambycidaj), stag-beetles, ground-beetles (C'arabidse), weevils, &c. 

(2.) Oi'thoptera (Straight -wings). Six feet ; four wings, the two anterior of 
a leathery substance, serving as covers to the posterior, which are folded both 
longitudinally and transversely, but more generally only longitudinally, 
(whence the name straight- wings,) and which lie, when at rest, concealed 
under the others. They have upper and lower jaws (or mandibles and 
maxillae) for chewing. Examples — the earwig, the black-beetle, the cock- 
roach, the field-cricket, the migratory locust, and the green grasshopper. 

(3.) Hemiptera (Half-wings). Six feet; four wings, the two anterior form- 
ing hard coverings with membranous ends, or resembling the lower ones, but 
being larger and stronger. Instead of upper and lower jaws, the organs of 
the mouth are formed of bristles, inclosed in an articulated sheath, of a cylin- 
drical or conical shape, and forming a projecting beak or sucker. Examples 
— the field and tree bugs, house bugs, cicadee, and aphides. 

(4.) Neuroptera (Net- wings). Six feet ; four membranous naked wmgs, 
upper and lower jaws for chewing ; the wings are delicately veined, the 
under nearly the size of the upper, or even broader in diameter. Examples 
— the dragon-fly, or Libellula ; lace- fly, or Hemerobius ; and day-fly, or 
ii'phemera. 

(5.) Hymenoptera (Membrane-wings). Six feet ; four membranous wings, 
upper and lower jaws ; the posterior wings smaller than the upper. In the 
abdomen of the female of most species is a sting, or ovipositor. Examples — 
the saw-flies ( Tenthredinidae), Sirex gigas, gall-fly, bees, wasps, humble- 
bees, and ants. 

(6.) Lepidoptera (Scale- wings). Six feet; four membranous wings, covered 
with small, coloured, mealy, shining scales or feathers. Instead of the upper 
and lower jaws, two hollow filaments exist, which together form a spirall}^ 
rolled tongue. Examples — butterflies, moths, and hawk-moths. 

(7.) Rhipiptera Fan- wings). Six feet ; two membranous wings, folded 
like a fan ; on the anterior part of the thorax are situated two small, bent, 
hard, movable bodies, like wing-covers. The masticatory organs consist of 
simple bristle-shaped mandibles, and two palpi. To this order belong two 
genera of parasites living on wasps and bees. 

(8.) Diptera (Two-wings). Six feet; two membranous expanded wings, 
generally with two movable organs, called poisers or balancers, and which 
are situated behind the wings. The organs of the mouth consist of a sucker 
formed of a variable number of bristles, which are enclosed in an unarticu- 
lated sheath ; terminated in a double lip. Examples — gnats, midges, house- 
flies, ox and horse breeze-flies, &c. 

308. Insects without wings consist of the following orders : — 

(9.) Myridpoda (Thousand-feet, Millepedes). They have more than six 
feet, twenty-four at least, and upwards, which are placed on a series of rings, 
extending the whole length of the body ; each ring has generally two pairs. 
The first, and sometimes also the second pair, form parts of the mouth. 
Examples— the centipede, iulus, and scolopendra. 

(10.) Thysanura (Fringe -tails). Six feet; on the under sides of the 



TRANSFORMATION OF INSECTS. 



101 



abdomen are situated flat movable appendages like pro -legs, and at the extre- 
mity is a forked apparatus, by which the body can raise itself and move by 
leaps. Example — the sugar-louse (Lepi'sma saccharinum. ) 

(11.) Parasz^a (Parasites). Six feet; no other organs of sight except 
simple (instead of composite) eyes ; the mouth is mostly internal, and con- 
sists of a snout, which contains a retractile sucker, or it forms a cleft with 
two lips, two mandibles, and hooks. Examples — the different species of lice. 

(12.) Suctdria (Suckers). Six feet, of which the posterior are the long- 
est, and adapted for jumping. These undergo a transformation, and acquire 
organs of motion which they had not at first. The mouth consists of a 
sucker, which is enclosed in a cylindrical sheath, and is formed of two articu- 
lated pieces. Example — the flea. 

309. Crabs and spiders, which Linnaeus included among insects without 
wings, are now formed into two distinct classes — Crustacea and Arachnida. 

310. The arrangement here given is that of KoUar ; but other authors 
diff^er in their views of the subject. By some the earwig is formed into an 
order distinct from the Orthoptera. The Thrips is separated as an order 
from the Hemiptera, the caddice-flies (Phryganea) from the Neuroptera and 
the horse-flies (Hippobosca) from the Diptera. In a popular point of view 
the arrangement of Kollar may be considered as sufficiently detailed. 

Subsect. 2. Transformation of Insects. 

The greater number of insects properly so called, with the exception 
of some without wings, change their form several times during their life in 
so striking a manner, that a person unacquainted with entomology would be 
inclined to consider one and the same insect, in diff'erent periods of its exist- 
ence, as entirely different animals. 

811. Insects, in general, are produced from eggs; a few species alone, in 
which the eggs are developed in the body of the mother, ai-e viviparous ; for 
example, the aphis. Shortly after pairing, the female lays her eggs, which 
are often stuck on, and covered with, a sort of glue, to preserve them from 
the weather, instinctively in the place best adapted to their development, 
and which off"ers the proper food to the forthcoming brood. The white- 
thorn butterfly and the golden-tail moth lay their eggs on the leaves of fruit- 
trees or other leafy trees, and the latter covers them over with a gold- 
coloured covering of sflk. The common lackey-moth (^ombyx neustria) 
fastens them in the form of contmuous rings round the stems of the fruit-trees; 
and the gipsy-moth (jBombyx dispar) fastens them in a broad patch on the 
stems of trees or on paling, and covers them with a thick coating of hair. 
The winter- moth (Gedmetra brumata) lays them singly on the buds of the 
leaves and flowers ; the printer-beetle (Bostrichus typographus) introduces 
them between the bark and the albumen, &c. 

312. MoS't insects are developed from the eggs in the shape of worms, 
which are called larvce. The larvae of butterflies, which are always provided 
with feet, are called caterpillars ; those of beetles and other insects, grubs ; 
and, when they have no feet, maggots. In this state, as their bodies increase, 
the insects often cast their skin, and not unfrequently change their colour. 
Many winged insects (e. g. cimices, cicadae, grasshoppers, and dragon-flies), 
in their larva state, very much resemble the perfect insect ; they only want 
the wings, which are not developed tUl after the last change of the skin. 
The larva state is the period of feeding, and at this period insects are usually 



102 



FOOD OF INSECTS. 



the destructive enemies of other productions of nature, and objects of perse- 
cution to farmers, gardeners, and foresters. 

yi8. The nympha or pupa state succeeds that of larva. In this state 
insects for the most part take no nourishment (with the exception of the 
Orthopterous, Hemipterous, and part of the Neuropterous species, which vary 
but little in form from the larva), and repose in a death-like slumber. The 
body is covered with a skin more or less transparent, through which the 
limbs of the perfect insect are more or less apparent. To be safe from 
their enemies, or from the weather, the larvae of many insects, particularly 
moths, prepare for themselves a covering of a silky or cottony texture; 
many burrow in the soil, or form themselves a nest of moss, leaves, grass, 
haulm, or foliage ; many even go deep into the earth, or bury themselves 
in decayed wood, or conceal themselves under the bark of trees. &c. 

314. After a certain period, which is fixed in every species of insects, and 
which can either be hastened or retarded according to circumstances, the per- 
fect insect appears from the pupa. It is usually furnished in this state with 
other organs for the performance of its appointed functions. It is incumbent 
on the perfect insect to propagate its species, therefore the organs for this 
purpose are only perfected at this period of their lives. The male insect 
seeks the female, and the female the most suitable place for laying her eggs ; 
hence most insects are furnished with wings. Food is now a secondary 
consideration, consequently, m many, the feeding organs are now less perfectly 
developed than in the larva state, or very much modified and suited for finer 
food, as for example in butterflies, which, instead of the leaves of plants, 
only consume the honey out of their flowers. 

Subsect. 3. Food of Insects. 

315. Insects, like other animals, derive their nourishment from the vege- 
table and animal kingdoms ; but a glance is sufficient to show, that they 
possess a much wider field of operations than the others. "While the other 
animals make use for their subsistence of only a small portion of the inex- 
haustible treasures of the vegetable kingdom, and reject the rest as insipid 
or noxious, the insects leave perhaps no vegetable production untouched. 
From the majestic oak to the invisible fungus, or the insignificant wall-moss, 
the whole race of plants is a stupendous meal, to which the insects sit down 
as guests. Even those plants which are highly poisonous and nauseating to 
other animals are not refused by them. But this is not yet all. The larger 
plant-consuming animals are usually limited to leaves, seed, and stalks : not 
so insects, to the various families of which every part of a plant yields suit- 
able provender. Some which live under the earth attack roots, others 
choose the stem and branches, a third division live on the leaves, a fourth 
prefers the flowers, while a fifth selects the fruit or seed. 

316. Even here a still further selection takes place. Of those which feed 
on the roots.^ stem, and branches, some species only eat the rind, like the 
bee-hawk-moth (ASphmc^? flpiformis) ; others the inner bark and the albur- 
num, like the Tdrtrix Wceheridna, and the injurious bark-beetle ; and a 
third division penetrates into the heart of the solid wood, like the 
goat-moth (Cossus ligniperda), and the family of the long-horned beetles 
(C'eiambycidse). 

317. Of those which Tprefcr foliage., some take nothing but the juice out of 
the veins (aphides, in all their states) ; others devour only the substance of 



FOOD OF INSECTS, 



103 



the leaves, without touching the epidermis (mining caterpillars) ; others only 
the upper or under surface of the leaves (many leaf-rollers, Tortrices) ; while 
a fourth division devours the whole substance of the leaf (the larvae of many 
other Lcpidopterous insects). 

318. Of those which feed on flowers^ there are some which eat the petals 
(the larvae of iVoctua verhasci, the mullein-moth, N. linariae, &c.) ; others 
choose the farina in a perfect state (bees, the rose-chafer, Cetdnia, the 
Lepturidae, &c. &c.) ; and a still greater number the honey from the necta- 
ries (most perfect Lcpidopterous insects, wasps, and flies). There are also 
insects which, not satisfied with any existing part of the plants as such, 
cause injury to one part or another, by occasioning a peculiar body or 
excrescence in which their young live, as the various sorts of gall insects 
and other sorts of flies. But insects are not confined to plants alone in their 
living and unused state. The death-watch, or ticking-beetle (Anobium), 
feeds on wood which for years has been used in our dwellings, and in various 
articles of furniture and utensils. 

319. From what has been said it will appear, that a single plant can 
support a host of various sorts of insects on its different parts ; whence it 
also appears, that the number of insects greatly exceeds that of plants. 

320. An equal variety in the food of those insects which live on animal 
matter may also be pointed out. Some live as parasites on the skin of other 
animals, not excepting even insects themselves, suck their blood, and are a 
burdensome torment to the animals : to these belong the diff^erent sorts of lice 
(bird and sheep lice), ticks, and mites. Others attack man and the larger ani- 
mals only for a short time, and draw blood — gnats, midges, autumn-flies, 
breeze-flies, bugs, and fleas. Some breeze-flies (CE'stridae) penetrate through 
the skin into the flesh of the red deer and horned cattle, others live in the 
stomachs of horses and asses, and one sort in the frontal sinus of sheep. The 
/chneumonidae feed on the flesh of the larvae of other insects, and often 
greatly contribute to the extirpation of noxious insects. 

321. The Carabidae and other carnivorous beetles devour their prey entire, 
immediately after killing it ; while the Cimices and Hemerobii only suck 
out the juices. The larvae of the stinging- gnat and other flies which live in 
water devour whole swarms of infusoria alone. A great number live on 
carrion and the excrements of animals, and thus diminish and destroy the 
corruption proceeding from such matter : to these belong chiefly the blue- 
bottle fly, horse-beetle, carcass-beetle, and dung-beetle. Many feed upon 
prepared animal matter, and become very prejudicial to household economy. 
Many moths live entirely on hair, leather, wool, and feathers. 

322. With the various transformations of insects theh- economy is also 
changed, and consequently their abode is also varied : the caterpillar requires 
very different food from the butterfly ; the maggot, from the beetle and fly. 
The larva of Sirex gigas feeds on wood, while the perfect insect preys on 
flies. The larva of the May-bug or cockchafer lives on roots and tubers ; the 
beetle, on leaves. 

323. Many insects are very gluttonous^ and often consume more food in a 
day than is equal to the weight of their bodies. Thus the maggot of the 
flesh-fly, according to Redi, becomes 200 times heavier in the course of 
twenty-four hours. Caterpillars digest in one day from one third to one 
fourth of their weight ; and hence it is apparent that a comparatively small 
number of caterpillars can entirely strip a tree in a few days. 



104 



DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS OF INSECTS, 



824. Opposed to this gluttony of caterpillars, some insects in their perfect 
state appear to take no nourishment^ such as the day-flies (E'phemeridae), 
and the breeze-flies (CE'stridje); the latter of which, in their larva state as 
maggots, feed on the flesh of horned cattle and red deer. Even among the 
Lepidoptera, many of those M^hich spin cocoons, especially Hornby cidae, seem 
to take no nourishment in the perfect state. 

325. Many insects only eat in the day, others in the evening, and a third 
division, such as the caterpillars of the night-moths, only in the night. 
Most of them seek their own food ; but a few, namely, the larvae of bees, 
which live in communities, humble bees, wasps, and ants, are fed by the 
perfect insect. Many stow away their food ; others, mdeed the greater 
number, live without making any previous supply of food. The larvae of 
the caterpillar-killing kinds of w^asps (^Sphegidae), of wild bees, and of a few 
other insects, are provided by their parents with a stock of provisions suffi- 
cient for their nourishment in the larva state. 

Subsect. 4. Distribution and Habits of Insects. 

826. The distribution of insects is in exact proportion to the diffusion of 
plants ; the richer any country is in plants, the richer it is also in insects. 
The polar regions, which produce but few plants, have also but few insects ; 
whereas the luxuriant vegetation of the tropical countries feeds a numerous 
host of insects. With respect to their habitation, insects are divided into 
those which live upon land or water. 

827. Those which live in the water either never leave that element, or 
are able to live at will either in the water or on the earth, at least for a 
shoii time ; for example, many water-beetles. Many live at certain periods 
of their development in water : at others, on land ; such as many sorts of 
flies, and all the dragon-flies, w^hich as larvae and pupae live in water, but as 
perfect insects on land, or in the air. 

328. Land insects live in the earth, under stones, in decayed wood, in 
putrid animal substances, &c. Of these some pass then- whole lives in 
these places, others only during a particular period of their development. 
The larvae of the dung-beetle live deep under the ground, while the perfect 
insect inhabits the excrement of animals ; many of the larvae of flies live in 
carrion or excrement, while the perfect insect flies about in the open air. 
A very great number choose the different parts of plants for then* abode, as 
the roots, bark, inner bark, alburnum, wood, pith, buds, flowers, leaves, and 
fruit. They change their abode in every new stage of their development. 
Thus the bark-beetle, which in the larva state lived under the bark, swarms 
in its perfect state upon the trees ; the curcuiio of the apple-tree, the larva 
of which infests the bottom of the apple blossom, crawls on the trees, or on 
the surrounding ground ; the mining-moth, which as a larva lives under the 
cuticle of the leaves, flutters in its winged state about the flowers and leaves. 

329. A small number live upon other animals^ on the skin, such as lice, or 
in the mside of the body, as the ox and horse breeze-flies (CE'stridae). The 
two latter leave their first abode before entering the pupa state, which they 
effbct in the earth, and hover as flies round the animals to deposit their eggs 
upon them. 

330. Most insects live solitarily., either without any definite dwelling, or 
they construct for themselves a house composed of various kinds of vegetable 



USES OF INSECTS. 



105 



or animal matter ; for example, many caterpillars. A few species live in 
society, such as bees, ants, wasps, &c. 

S31. By obtaining a general knowledge of the abodes of insects, it is 
evident that the observer of the economy of insects will be able more satis- 
factorily to combat many that are injurious to him ; as thus he can, with 
little trouble, greatly diminish or entirely annihilate those which he has 
ascertained to live in society, or in places of easy access. 

Subsect. 5. Uses «/ Insects. 

832. There are among insects no very inconsiderable number from which 
man derives, in many respects, immediate and important uses. We need 
here only to mention the bees and the silkworm. The dijBFerent sorts of gall- 
nuts, ingredients so essential to dyeing and the manufacture of leather, are 
the productions of several insects, namely, the gall-flies, which wound 
with their ovipositor various parts of oaks, &c., in order to deposit their eggs 
in the cavity, and which produce these useful excrescences. The most 
durable and most beautiful red (cochineal) we owe to a small insect, the 
Coccus cacti. Another, nearly allied to the above-named insect. Coccus 
manmparus, is supposed to have saved the lives of the Israelites in their 
journey out of Egypt, for they would have died of hunger if they had not 
been provided with manna, — a sweet nutritive substance, which is regarded 
as identical with the material which, in consequence of a wound caused by 
this insect on the Tamarix gallica mannifera, trickles on the ground. 

883. The Cantharides, or Spanish blister-flies, are an essential article of 
medicine. Many insects accomplish the fructification of different plants. 
Whole nations in other quarters of the globe live on locusts. Many 
mammalia, a number of birds, amphibious animals, and fishes, live entirely 
on insects. 

384. A great number of these creatures even live upon other species of 
insects, and destroy them : thus preventing the hurtful from preponderating, 
and disturbing the balance in the economy of nature. To these belong 
chiefly the /chneumonidse and spiders. 

385. Lastly, how many diseases are obviated, particularly in warm cli- 
mates, by insects speedily consuming dead animal substances, and thereby 
preventing the generation of noxious gases ! 

Subsect. 6. Means contrived by Nature to limit the Multiplication of Insects. 

836. Many appearances in nature, even such as at first cause anxiety and 
care, on account of their injurious consequences, are found to be in many 
respects highly beneficial and salutary, although we may not always under- 
stand them. Thus, continued rain, which in many respects is extremely 
hurtful, contributes greatly to diminish the number of noxious insects, and 
for a series of years renders them entirely innocuous. This continued rain 
may, for example, take place at the pairing time of certain insects, which 
will greatly obstruct them ; or at the time when the insects are in the cater- 
pillar or larva state, when thousands die in consequence of bad weather, 
and our fields, orchards, and woods are cleared of a dangerous enemy for 
many years. Thus in the spring of 1882, after incessant rain, Kollar saw 
the caterpillars of the white-thorn butterfly (Papilio cratse'gi), which for 
many years had not only stripped all the hedges, but also done considerable 



106 



MEANS CONTRIVED BY NATURE TO LIMIT 



injury to the fruit-trees, dying by thousands, as if of a dropsy. The cater- 
pillars swelled, became weak, and died. If they did attain the pupa state, 
they suffered from the same evil, and the perfect insect was yery rarely 
developed, on which account the gardens in the following years were entirely 
spared. 

337. Late frosts are also very beneficial, as they entirely destroy many 
insects in their larva state. KoUar had an opportunity early in the summer 
of 1833 of observing great devastations on the fir-trees in the neighbourhood 
of Vienna, by a species of saw-fly (Tenthredo rufa King). The larva of 
this insect had attacked certain parts of a young forest of Scotch pme, and 
the question was how their ravages were to be prevented from increasing- 
next year. Fortunately, in the month of May, a moderate frost set in, and 
thousands of these larvae were seen hanging to the twigs, as if scorched. In 
this manner theu' increase was limited for the future. 

338. A multitude of insects are also destroyed by inundations^ particu- 
larly such as undergo their transformations in the earth, or live upon it in 
all their stages, more especially if the inundation happens when they are 
near their final transformation. In meadows the different species of May- 
bugs ( Jfelolonthidse) suffer by this means ; in kitchen gardens, the mole- 
cricket; in orchards, the pupa of the small winter-moth (Geometra bru- 
mata), when the water overflows the gardens late in the autumn, at the 
time when the moth is usually developed from the pupa lying in the earth. 
Besides the means of preserving an equilibrium by storms, and the effects 
of the elements, nature employs a multitude of others, although not so 
speedy and efficient, to the same end. 

339. To these belong the enemies of the destructive msects, which we meet 
with in all classes of the animal kingdom. Among the mammiferous ani- 
mals the bats hold a conspicuous place for their destraction of insects. We 
only see them flying about in the twilight, precisely at the time when many 
moths leave theii* hiding-places and hover round the flowers. As they live 
almost entirely on insects, they no doubt devour great numbers of the 
hurtful sorts; and perhaps it is to be ascribed to this circumstance that 
fruit-trees standing near houses, churches, barns, &c., suffer less from insects 
than isolated trees. Bats do not confine themselves to moths, but eat 
the beetles which fly about in the evening ; and, among others, some of the 
weevils injurious to the flowers and buds of fruit-trees, as the Curculio 
(Anthonomus) pomdrum, and p}a'i. These creatures, as they do no injury, 
should therefore be carefully preserved. 

340. To the insectivorous mammaUa also belong various sort-s of mice, the 
mole, badger, hedgehog, squirrel, fox, and wild swine. Whether the 
benefits derived from them in this way counterbalance the mischief which 
many of these creatures cause, it is difficult to determine. At all events, 
the squirrel and the hedgehog deserve to be spared. 

341. Bii'ds contribute much more than the mammiferous animals to the 
destruction of injurious insects. ]\Iauy caterpillars know instinctively how to 
conceal themselves from the birds which prey on them ; in many their 
covering of stiff hair acts as a protection against their enemies ; others 
remain all day between roUed-up or flatly- united leaves, and only go out to 
feed at night ; others find sufficient protection in the buds, into which they 
soon penetrate. Gregarious caterpillars live while they are changmg their 
skin, and when they are going into the pupa state, in webs, in which they 



THE MULTIPLICATION OF INSECTS, 



107 



are inaccessible to birds. Others live under the bark of trees, and even deep 
in the wood. Notwithstanding these and other obstacles, a great number 
are yearly devoured by the birds, particularly during the breeding season. 
In winter a multitude of birds, driven by hunger into the villages, diligently 
search the branches of trees for the eggs of many sorts of moths that are 
glued to them, and which yield a scanty sustenance to these frugal animals. 
Reaumur states that the green-finch tears open the strong nest of the yellow- 
tail-moth (Bombyx chrysorrhoe a), and consumes the young caterpillars. 

342. Among the birds of the woodpecker race^ the green and red wood- 
peckers (Picus viridis and major), the nut-hatch {Sitia. cae'sia), and the tree- 
creeper (Certhia familiaris), may be considered the most useful. Although 
these birds seek beetles chiefly, and consequently contribute to the diminu- 
tion of the long-horned and weevil tribes of beetles, they also consume a 
number of caterpillars ; but it must be acknowledged, that they also devour 
the honey-bee. 

343. Among birds of the sparrow tribe, the starling deserves particular 
notice. It lives in summer chiefly in pastures, but comes in spring and 
autumn in large flocks to the meadows and orchards, where it devours a 
great number of insects, pupae, and larvae. The chaffinch is a determined 
consumer of caterpillars and moths' eggs. The titmice are particularly use- 
ful, viz. the ox-eye and tom-tit; then the goldfinch, redbreast, and red-start, 
and also the wagtails. 

344. The cuckoo also particularly deserves to be spared ; it not only devours 
many of the smaller smooth-skinned larvae, but even consumes the hairy 
caterpillars of many moths, particularly of the ^ombycidae. On examining 
the intestines of a cuckoo, in the month of September, Kollar found therein, 
besides the remains of various insects, a great quantity of the skins of the 
caterpillar of the large j56mbyx pini, which is one of the largest European 
species, and has very stiff hair. The inner coat of the stomach was entirely 
covered with hair, but a close inspection with the magnify ing-glass showed 
that the hair was not the hair of the stomach of the cuckoo, as some orni- 
thologists suppose, but only the hair of the caterpillars. This bird may 
therefore be of very essential service when there is a superfluity of the 
caterpillars of the lackey or processionary moths (^ombyx neustria or 
processionea). 

845. It is sufficiently known that great service is rendered by the whole 
race of crows to meadows and fields. Their favourite food consists of the 
larvae of the cockchafer, which are thrown up by the plough, and which they 
also draw out of the earth with their strong beaks. It is a wonderful provision 
of nature, that exactly at the time that the insects injurious from their 
great numbers appear, the greatest number of the insectivorous birds have 
hatched their broods, and their voracious young are ready to be fed upon 
them. 

346. Insectivorous birds are also sometimes granivorous, and feast readily 
on our fruit, particularly cherries ; but the injury they cause in this respect 
is not to be compared to the use they are of in destroying insects. At least 
we never hear of universal devastation caused by birds, though we do by 
insects. 

347. Among amphibious animals which destroy insects, lizards hold a 
conspicuous place. Grasshoppers are the favourite food of many species. 
Frogs and toads also devour many insects. 



108 



MEANS FOR ARRESTING THE PROGRESS OF 



348. Besides mammalia, birds, and amphibious animals, Nature, to restore 
the equilibrium among her creatures, and particularly to prevent the prepon- 
derance of some sorts of insects, makes use chiefly of insects themselves, 
namely, those which feed upon others, and which by degrees obtain a supe- 
riority over those that are hurtful to us. 

849. Thus many sorts of beetles, particularly of the family of ground- 
beetles ( Carabidse), destroy a multitude of the pupae of moths lying in the 
earth. Many flies, allied to our house-fly, but much larger, lay their eggs 
in living caterpillars and destroy them. But the most useful are the /chneu- 
monidse. The females of this numerous family, 1300 species of which Pro- 
fessor Gravenhorst has described in Europe alone, lay their eggs entirely in 
the bodies of other insects. 

350. The manner in which these IchneumonidcB accomplish their work of 
destruction is highly curious and interesting. All the species are furnished 
at the end of the body with an ovipositor, composed of several bristles 
attached together, with which they pierce the larvae of other insects, and 
introduce their eggs into the flesh of the wounded animals. In some this 
sting is longer than the whole body, sometimes more than an inch long, 
namely, in those species which seek the objects of their persecution in the 
interior of trees or wood that has been much and deeply perforated by the 
insects which reside within. They perceive, either by their sense of smell 
or by their antennae, that their prey is at hand, and introduce their eggs, 
not without difficulty, into the bodies of the larvae living in the wood. Some 
attack caterpillars feeding openly on plants, others perforate the various 
excrescences, or gall-nuts, which also contain larvae : there are even many 
species, scarcely visible to the naked eye, which lay their eggs in the eggs of 
other insects, such as butterflies, and thus anticipate theu' destruction. The 
eggs are hatched within the body of the living insect, and the young para- 
sites, in the most literal sense, fatten on the entrails of their prey. At last 
the wounded caterpillar sinks, the enemies escape through the skin and 
become pupae ; or the caterpillar, notwithstanding its internal parasites, 
enters the pupa state, but instead of a butterfly, one or more /chneumonidae 
appear. To these wonderful animals we often owe the preservation of our 
orchards, woods, and grain. 

351. Besides the above-mentioned /chneumonidae, ants, field or tree bugs, 
and many sorts of spiders, contribute greatly to the extirpation of various 
insects. 

Subsect. 7. Means devised by Art for arresting the Progress of Insects in Gardens, 
or of destroying them there. 

352. Insects may be destroyed in all their different stages ; in some, how- 
ever, with greater ease than in others. Some can only be taken or killed 
when in the perfect state., from the difficulty of discovering their eggs, or 
from their small size, or from the short period which elapses between the 
hatching of the insect and its maturity ; for example, the aphides. Others 
can only be destroyed in the perfect state, with great difficulty ; such as the 
diff^erent butterflies. A great number of the insects which infest British 
gardens are only to be destroyed in the larva state ; while some, such as the 
gooseberry-moths, may be destroyed in every stage. We shall briefly 
indicate the diff'erent practices which may be had recourse to in different 
stages, for deterring or destroying insects, by the gardener ; leaving particular 



INSECTS, OR DESTROYING THEM. 



details till particular insects come to be mentioned, when treating on the 
culture of the plants which they attack. We shall commence with opera- 
tions connected with the perfect insect, and take in succession the eggs, the 
larvcB, and the pupae. 

853. Deterring the Perfect Insect. — The perfect winged insect may, in some 
cases, be deterred from approaching plants by covering them with netting or 
gauze, the meshes of which are sufficiently small to exclude the insect, but 
not too small to prove injurious to the plant by excluding light and air. Wasps 
and flies are in this manner excluded from vineries and peach-houses while 
the fruit is ripening. Bunches of grapes against the open wall are also 
protected by putting them in bags of woollen netting or gauze. Choice 
plants in pots are sometimes protected from wingless insects by placing the 
pot containing the plant in the midst of a saucer which surrounds the pot 
with water, which it is found the insect will not cross. The stems of plants, 
such as dahlias and gooseberries, are sometimes protected by a zone of 
glutinous matter, on wool, tow, or paper, over which the insect will not 
venture. A remarkable mode of deterring some insects from entering houses 
by the windows is described in the Architectural Magazine, vol. ii., as 
practised in Italy, and known even in the time of Herodotus. This is 
simply to place before the openings of the window a net of white or light- 
coloured thread, the meshes of which may be an inch or more in diameter. 
The flies seem to be deterred from entering through the meshes from some 
inexplicable dread of venturing within. If small nails be fixed all round 
the window-frame at the distance of about an inch from each other, and 
thread be then stretched across both vertically and horizontally, the network 
so produced will be equally eff^ectual in excluding the flies. It is essential, 
however, that the light should enter the room on one side of it only ; for if 
there be a thorough light either from an opposite or side window, the flies 
pass through the net without scruple. (W. Spence in Transact. Entomol. 
Society, vol. i.) It would appear to be a general principle, that winged 
insects may be deterred by meshes of such a size as will not admit them 
with their wings expanded, and also that insects will not enter from bright 
light into darkness, more especially if deterred by the slightest obstacle, such 
as the threads stretched across before large openings in Italy. 

354. Preventing the Perfect Insect from laying its Eggs. — Insects may 
be prevented from laying their eggs on plants within reach by surrounding 
them with a netting or other screen ; or, in some cases, by sprinkling the 
plant with some liquid containing a very ofi^ensive odour. I'hus moths are 
prevented from laying their eggs on gooseberry-bushes by hanging among 
them rags dipped in gunpowder and tar ; and probably there are various 
cheap liquids that might be used in the case of fruit-trees, and perhaps even 
forest-trees, and possibly for deterring butterflies from depositing their ova 
on the cabbage tribe. Insects which deposit their eggs in the soil cannot 
easily do so when the soil is very hard, and may therefore be enticed to depo- 
sit them in portions of soil made soft on purpose. Thus boxes or large pots 
filled with rotten tan, sunk in the soil, form an excellent nidus for the eggs 
of the cockchafer, and will prevent that insect from laying them in the com- 
mon soil of a garden. Hoeing or digging patches of soil here and there 
throughout the garden or plantation will have a similar effect, to a certain 
extent ; and after some weeks, when the larvae are some lines in length, 
the soil may be sifted, and the msects taken out and destroyed. While 



110 



MEANS FOR ARRESTING THE PROGRESS OP 



loosening the naked soil serves as a trap for the cockchafer, covering that soil 
with straw is found to act as a defence against them ; and hence one of the 
principal uses of mulching in the rose-gardens and tree-nurseries in the 
neighbourhood of Paris. 

355. Catching the Perfect Insect.^ so as to prevent it from depositing its 
eggs. — Though this cannot be done to any great extent with -winged insects, 
such as the butterfly, moth, and some flies, yet it may be employed in tlie 
case of the cockchafer, the rose-beetle, &c., which may be collected by 
children ; and in the case of wingless insects, such as wood-lice, ants, and 
earwigs, which may be enticed > into hiding-places by food, or by other 
means. Hay, mixed with crumbs of bread, and tied up in little bundles, — 
or, what is better, stufl'ed into empty flower-pots or boxes, — will attract wood- 
lice ; and the material may be taken out daily, and the insects destroyed, 
after which it may be replaced, occasionally adding some fresh gratings of 
cheese. Ants may be entrapped by sweetened water put in narrow-necked 
bottles and sunk in the soil ; or, better, by moist sugar, mixed with hay, 
and put loosely into flower-pots in the same manner as for wood-lice. 
Earwigs may be caught by placing hollow bean-stalks in their haunts, to 
■which they will retire in the day-time, when they can be shaken out of the 
stalks into a vessel of water. A simple and effectual trap for both wood-lice 
and earwigs is composed of two pieces of the bark of any soft rough-barked 
tree, such as the elm, placed inside to inside, so as to leave in the middle 
between them a very slight separation, tying the two pieces of bark together 
by a wand or twig, part of which is left as a handle, and laying the trap 
where the insects abound. They will retire between the pieces in the 
day-time, which can be quickly lifted up by the twig and shaken over a 
vessel of water. No bait is required for tliis trap, the more tender part of 
the bark being eaten by the wood-lice and the earwig. The same bark-trap 
will also serve for millepedes, beetles, and, to a certain extent, for ants. 
The most effective mode of destroying ants in frames or hothouses is by 
placing toads in them. One toad will be sufficient for a frame or a hot- 
house. The toad places himself by the side of an ant-path, and by stretching 
out his tongue as the insects pass him, draws them in and devours them. Mr. 
Westwood suggests to us, that, where ants abound, it is most advisable to 
watch for the period when the winged males and females swarm ; when this 
is perceived, they should be destroyed by beating them down with the spade, 
and turning up the nest. By this means the coupling of the sexes is pre- 
vented, as well as the formation of fresh colonies. 

350. Destroying the Perfect Insect. — This is effected in the open air by the 
use of washes or decoctions in the case of the aphides ; or, in the case of 
the wasp, by hot Avater being poured into its nest, or sulphur being burnt 
in it ; or by pouring salt and water into ants' nests ; or by lighting a fire over 
the holes of burrowing insects, &c. In plant-houses, the perfect insect, such 
as the red spider, the green fly, &c., is destroyed by fumigation with tobacco- 
smoke, accompanied at the same time. by steaming, which is found to con- 
dense the oil of the tobacco on the leaves of the plants. The perfect insect 
is also destroyed in hothouses by the sublimation of sulphur, which may be 
mixed with lime or loam, and washed over the heating flues and pipes, or 
placed on a hot stone or plate, or in a chafing-dish. Dusting the leaves of 
plants under glass with sulphur, in a state of powder, is found to destroy 
the red spider. Beetles, wood-lice, ants, and other crawling wingless 



INSECTS, OR DESTROYING THEM. 



Jl] 



insects, are also destroyed by tempting them with food containing poison. 
A remarkable but very efficient mode of destroying the vine-moth in 
France has been discovered by Victor Audouin, which might in many cases, 
we have no doubt, be adopted in British gardens. This mode is founded 
on the practice of lighting fires during the night in vineyards, to which 
the moths are attracted and burn themselves. M. Audouin has modi- 
fied this practice in a very ingenious manner, which has been attended 
with the most effective results. He places a flat vessel with a light on the 
ground, and covers it with a bell-glass besmeared with oil. The pyralis, 
attracted by the light, flies towards it ; and, in the midst of the circle which 
it describes in flying, it is caught and retained by the glutinous sides of the 
bell-glass, where it instantly perishes by suffbcation. Two hundred of these 
lights were established in a part of the vineyard of M. Delahante, of about four 
acres in extent, and they were placed about twenty-five feet from each other. 
The fires lasted aboujt two hours ; and scarcely had they been lighted, when 
a\reat number of moths came flying around, which were speedily destroyed 
by the oil. The next day the deaths were counted. Each of the 200 vessels 
contained, on an average, 150 moths. This sum multiplied by the first 
number gives a total of 30,000 moths destroyed. Of these 80,000 insects, 
we may reckon one fifth females, having the abdomen full of eggs, which 
would speedily have laid, on an average, 150 eggs each. This last number, 
multiplied by the fifth of S0,000, that is to say, by 6000, would give for the 
final result of this first destruction the sum of 900,000. On the 7th of 
August, 180 lamps were lighted in the same place, each of which on an 
average destroyed 80 moths, or a total of 14,400. In these 14,400 moths 
there was reckoned to be, not only one sixth, but three fourths, females : 
but, admitting that there was only one half females, or 7200 ; and, multi- 
plying this by 150 (the number of eggs that each would have laid), we have 
a total of 1,080,000 eggs destroyed. Two other experiments were made on 
the 8th and 10th of August, which caused the destruction of 9260 moths. 
{Gard. Mag. vol. xiii. p. 487.) 

357. Luring away the Perfect Insect. — Attracting the perfect insect from 
the plant or fruit by some other kind of food to which they give the pre- 
ference, and which is of less value to the gardener, may perhaps sometimes 
be efifected. Thus honeyed water in nan'ow-mouthed glasses, 
such as fig. 6, is used to entrap wasps and flies from wall-fruit ; 
and decayed fruit or small portions of meat, placed under 
hand-glasses in the following manner, may be used for a simi- 
lar purpose ; — Take a common hand-glass, — the hexagonal or 

any other form Fig. 6. Fiy-giass 
will do (fig. 7) ; remove in the 
apex the whole or part of three 
of the panes, a, 6, c. Then take 
a second hand-glass, v/hich must 
be of the same form as the first, 
and place it on the roof of the 

first, so that the sides of the one 
mg.1.Hand-slasses prepared for mamng a fly-trap. ^^j^^^j^^ ^.^j^ ^.^^^ 

the other ; next stop all the interstices between the bottom of the one and 
the eaves of the other, at c, /, g^ with moss, wool, or any suitable substance, 

i2 





112 



MEANS FOR ARRESTING THE PROGRESS OF 




Fig. 8. Plan of a fly -trap. 



which will prevent the entrance or exit of flies. The bottom hand-glasd 
must rest on three pieces of bricks, fig. 8, to form 
an opening underneath. The appearance of the trap 
when completed is simply that of one hand-glass 
above another, fig. 9. Frag- 
ments of waste fruit are laid on 
the ground, under the bottom 
hand-glass, to attract the flies, 
which, having once entered, 
never descend again to get out, 

but rise into the upper glass, and buzz about under its 
roof, till, fatigued and exhausted, they drop down, and 
are seen lying dead on the roof of the under glass. One 
of these traps, placed conspicuously on the ground be- 
Fig. 9. Hand-glasses ar- fore a fruit-wall or hothouse, acts as a decoy to all 
ranged as a fly-trap, j^j^^^jg ringed insects. {Gard. Mag. vol. ii. p. 152.) 

358. Collecting the Eggs of Insects. — The eggs of insects, after being depo- 
sited on the bark or leaves of plants, may sometimes be collected by hand ; 
for example, when they are laid in clusters or patches, so as to form a belt 
round the twig, as in the lackey-moth ; or when they are covered with 
fibrous matter, as in the JBomb yx di'spar, which lays its eggs in large circular 
or oval spots, containing 300 or more each, on the bark of trees or hedges, 
and covers them with a yellow wool. The eggs of the yellow-tail- moth are 
laid on the leaves of fruit-trees, in a long narrow heap, and covered with 
gold-coloured hair, whence the scientific name^ombyx chrysorrhoe'a, which 
makes them very conspicuous ; but the leaves may easily be collected, 
and the eggs destroyed. The satin-moth, ^ombyx salicis, which, in its 
larva state, feeds on the leaves of willows and poplars, often stripping entire 
trees, when it becomes a perfect insect, lays its eggs in July, in small spots 
like mother-of-pearl, on the bark of the tree ; and as they are conspicuous, 
they may easily be scraped off. Practical men in general are too apt 
to undervalue the effects of hand-picking, whether of the eggs or larvae of 
insects ; not reflecting that every insect destroyed by this means, is not only 
an immediate riddance of an evil, but prevents the generation of a great 
number of other evils of the same kind. Circumstances have forced this on 
the attention of the French cultivator, and the following facts will place the 
advantage of hand-picking in a strong light. In 1837, M. V. Audouin, 
already mentioned, was charged by a commission of the Academie des 
Sciences, to investigate the habits of a small moth, whose larva is found to 
be exceedingly injurious in vineyards in France. During the month of 
August, women and children were employed during four days in collecting 
the patches of eggs upon the leaves, during which period 186,900 patches 
were collected, which was equal to the destruction of 11,214,000 eggs. In 
twelve days from twenty to thirty workers destroyed 482,000 eggs, which 
would have been hatched in the course of twelve or fifteen days. The 
number of perfect insects destroyed in a previous experiment, by an expensive 
process, was only 30,000. (Gard. Mag. vol. xiii. p. 486.) Many insects, how- 
ever, deposit their eggs singly or in very small quantities, or in concealed places; 
and the eggs being in these cases very small, cannot be removed by art. 

359. Freventing Eggs from being hatched. — Eggs, after being deposited, may 



INSECTS, OR DESTROYING THEM. 



sometimes be destroyed, or prevented from hatching, by the application of 
washes, or a coating of glutinous adhesive matter, such as gum, glue, paste, soft 
soap, sulphur, and clay, or in some cases clay alone. A mixture of lime and 
water will not always have the effect of preventing the hatching of the eggs ; 
because, when the egg begins to vivify and swell with the heat of the spring, 
the lime cracks and drops off. This, however, is not the case when the 
lime is mixed with soft soap, which renders it elastic. Water raised to the 
temperature of 200° will destroy the eggs of most insects ; and when these 
are deposited on the bark of the trunk of an old tree, or the well -ripened 
branches of a young hardy tree, water at this temperature may be applied 
freely. For young shoots in general the temperature should not exceed 180^ 
or 150°. It should be remembered that insects, in depositing their eggs, 
always instinctively make choice of places where the newly-hatched insect 
will find food without going far in search of it. Hence they never lay them 
on walls, stones, glass, boards, or similar substances ; and therefore the atten- 
tion of gardeners, when searching for ova, should be directed much more to 
the plants which nourish the insects, than to the walls or structures which 
shelter the plants. (See 311.) 

360. Collecting or destroying Larva;. — Insects are much more mjurious to 
plants in their larva state than they are in any other ; because, as we have 
already seen (312), it is in this stage of their transformations that they chiefly 
feed. With the exception, however, of several of the wingless or crawling 
insects, and certain bugs and beetles, larvae are in general not difficult to dis- 
cover, because, for the most part, they live on those parts of plants that are 
above ground ; but some live on the roots of plants, and these are among the 
most insidious enemies both of the gardener and the farmer. The ver hlanc^ 
or larva of the cockchafer, in France, and that of the wire- worm, in England, 
are perhaps the most injurious of all underground larvae, and those over 
which the cultivator has least power. Underground larvae may be partially 
collected, but not without much care and labour, by placing tempting baits 
for them in the soil. As they live upon roots, slices of such as are sw^eeter 
and more tender may be deposited at different depths and at certain dis- 
tances, and the places marked, and the soil being dug up once a day, the insects 
ma}; be picked off and the baits replaced. Slices of carrot, turnip, potato, and 
apple, form excellent baits for most underground larvae. Such as attack leaves 
— as, for example, those of the gooseberry — may be destroyed in immense 
quantities by gathering the leaves infested by them, as soon as the larvae 
become distinguishable from the leaf by the naked eye. Instead of this 
being done, however, it too frequently happens that the larvae escape the 
notice of the gardener till they are nearly full grown, and have done most 
of the mischief of which they are capable. Hand-picking has been found 
most serviceable in preventing the injury caused by the black caterpillar on 
the turnip leaves, which, in certain seasons, has proved destructive of the 
entire crop. It may also be applied to the destruction of the cabbage cater- 
pillars. Here, also, we may notice the beneficial effects of picking out and 
destroying young onion plants infested by the grub of the onion-fly. This 
ought to be done as soon as the plants appear sickly, because the grubs 
arrive at maturity in a very short time ; and, by destroying the plant, future 
generations of the fly are prevented. Grub-eaten fruit ought also to be 
picked up as soon as it falls to the ground, before the enclosed grub has 
time to make its escape into the earth, and which it would do in a very short 



114 



AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS CONSIDERED. 



time, the fruit not falling until the grub has arrived at its full size. The 
larvae of some kinds of saw-flies envelop themselves in a kind of web in 
the day-time, and only go abroad to feed during the night. Webs of this 
sort may be seen in great numbers, in the early part of summer, on thorn 
hedges, fruit-trees, spindle-trees, and a great many others ; and they might 
readily be collected by cliildi'en or infii-m persons, and thus myi-iads of 
insects destroyed. The lai-va may be destroyed, both in its infant and adult 
state, by dashing against it water in which some caustic substance has been 
dissolved, such as quicklime or potass ; or a bitter or poisonous infusion may 
be made, such as tobacco-water. While the larvae are not numerous, or the 
plants infested by them are tender and higlily valued, they ought to be collected 
by hand ; and in the case of the larvae of mining insects, in which the larva 
is concealed within the epidermis of the leaf, there is no way of destroying 
them but by gathering the leaves, or crushing the insects between the finger 
and thumb. 

361. Collecting the Pupa; or Chrysalids. — Insects may be destroyed in the 
pupa state by collecting their chrysalids or cocoons, when these are placed 
above ground, as is most commonly the case with those of moths and butter- 
flies. These ai'e commonly deposited in crevices in the old bark of trees, or 
in sheltered parts of walls or buildings ; rarely on young shoots or in the 
tender pai'ts of plants, because, when the perfect insect comes forth, it no 
longer requu'es such food. Often the larva descends into the soil, there to 
undergo its pupa state ; and in some cases it may be destroyed by water- 
ing the soil with boiling water, or by deep trenching ; the surface soil, con- 
taining the insects, being placed in the bottom of the trench. As the eggs 
and clirysahds require the presence of au- for their vivification and maturity 
no less than the seeds of vegetables, they are consequently, when deposited 
in the soil, always placed near the surface; and hence they may be destroyed 
either by heaping earth on the surface, or by trenching or digging do^vn the 
surface soil, so that the eggs or pupae may be covered at least to the depth 
of six inches. How long vitality will be retained under such circum- 
stances is uncertain. In destroying the cocoons of insects, care should be 
taken not to destroy those of the insect's enemies, such as the cocoons of the 
spider, or those of the ichneumon flies. These are sometimes deposited in 
heaps on the bark of trees, and are individually not larger than the egg of a 
butterfly. The gardener ought to be able to recognise them, because they 
are his best friends. 

This general outline will be sufiicient to show the necessity of every gar- 
dener, who would be a master of his profession, studying the natural history 
of insects, and more especially of those which are knoA^n to be injurious or 
useful to him, whether in the open garden or in plant-stractures. It is only 
by such a study that he can be prepared to encounter an insect which he 
has never heard of before, and that he will be able to devise new modes of 
counteracting the progress of^ or destroying^ ah'eady known insects. For 
this purpose we recommend to his study the work of Kollar already men- 
tioned, and next Mr. Westwood's Introduction to the modern Classification 
of Insects. 

Sect. IV. — Amphibious Animals^ considered with reference to Horticulture, 
S62. The frog, iJana temporaria Z/., and the toad, Bufo vulgaris Flem.^ 
are found useful in gardens, because they live upon worms, snaUs, slugs, and 



BIRDS, CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 115 

terrestrial insects. The toad being less active than the frog, and being capable 
of living a longer period without food, is better adapted for being shut up 
in frames, or kept in stoves. Both prefer a damp and shady situation ; and 
where they are intended to breed, they should have access to a shallow pond, 
or shady ditch. The ova of the frog is deposited in clusters in ditches and 
shallow ponds, about the middle of March ; and the young, or tadpoles, are 
hatched a month or five weeks afterwards, according to the season : by the 
1 8th of June they are nearly full-sized, and begin to acquire their fore 
feet ; towards the end of that month, or the beginning of the next, the 
young frogs come on land, but the tail is still preserved for a short time 
afterwards. The common toad is a few days later in spawning than the 
frog. Its ova are deposited in long necklace-like chains in shallow water 
in shady ponds or ditches. There is one species, B. Calamita Laurent^ the 
Natter- Jack, which inhabits dry localities, and is a much more active 
animal than the toad, but much less common. 

363. The common Eft, iac^rta palustris Z., and L. aquaticus i., are 
occasionally met with in gardens in damp situations ; and they live upon 
aquatic insects, snails, worms, &c. ; but nevertheless, from theu' disagree- 
able appearance, we cannot recommend their introduction. On the contrary, 
we think they ought to be destroyed either by art, or by their natural 
enemies, such as the turkey, weazel, &c. The ova are deposited on aquatic 
plants about the same time as those of the toad. 

Sect. V. — Birds^ considered with reference to Horticulture. 

Birds are, upon the whole, much more beneficial than injurious to gar- 
dens ; and being also larger animals and more familiar to every person living 
in the country than insects, very little requires to be said respecting them. 
We shall briefly notice the commonest English birds of the different orders ; 
taking as our guide Jenyns' Manual of British Vertebrate Animals. 

864. Raptor es {Seizers). — Birds with feet formed for grasping : food, en- 
tirely animal substances. This order includes the eagle (^quila L.) and fal- 
con (Falco L.), which may be considered injurious to gardens by scaring away 
other birds which are useful. It also includes the sparrow-hawk (^ccipiter 
/ringillarius WilL)^ which preys upon the smaller birds and quadrupeds, 
and also on amphibiie ; on which account it may be considered as partly in- 
jurious and partly useful. This may also be said of the kite (Jfilvus 
/ctinus Sav.) The kestril, or wind-hover hawk (Falco Timiunculus L.) is 
peculiarly valuable for killing Beetles, and it also destroys slugs and snails. 
It is pecuKarly fit for a garden, because cats dare not venture to attack it. 
The white owl, or barn-owl (/S'trix flammea X.), with tawny yeUow 
plumage, white underneath, is one of the most valuable bu'ds of this order, 
because it feeds principally upon mice, snails, and slugs, and occasionally 
devours other small animals, such as rats, and sometimes, but rarely, fish. 
It is common in every part of the kingdom ; it comes abroad about sunset, 
and collects its food during the night. It may be known from the tawny 
owl or wood-owl by screaming in its flight, but never hooting like that 
species. " If this useful bird caught its food by day," Mr. Waterton 
observes, " instead of hunting for it by night, mankind would have ocular 
demonstration of its utility in thmning the country of mice, and it would 
be protected and encouraged everywhere. It would be with us what the 



116 



BIRDS, CONSIDERED WITH 



ibis was with the Egyptians. When it has young, it will bring a mouse 
to the nest about every twelve or fifteen minutes. But in order to have a 
proper idea of the enormous quantity of mice which this bird destroys, we 
must examine the pellets which it ejects from its stomach in the place of 
its retreat. Every pellet contains from four to seven skeletons of mice. In 
sixteen months from the time that the apartment of the owl on the old 
gateway at W alton Hall was cleaned out, there has been a deposit of above 
a bushel of pellets." (Essays on Nat. Hist. 3rd edit. p. 13.) The tawny- 
owl (/S'trix AlxxQO Temm.) with reddish-brown plumage, is found only in 
woods, where it builds in the hollows of old trees, or amongst ivy. It preys 
upon various small quadrupeds and birds ; it comes abroad only during the 
night, and has a clamorous and hooting note. By destroying small birds, 
this owl becomes injurious to the gardener as well as useful, and therefore 
he ought chiefly to encourage the barn-owl. For this purpose a picturesque 
tower might be formed in some retired situation in the flower-garden or 
shrubbery, or on one of the angles of the kitchen-garden wall, like a watch- 
tower, where it would prove ornamental ; and a brood of young owls might 
be brought to it, and supplied abundantly with mice till they were full-growTi, 
and able to provide for themselves. The time to procure the young birds 
is about the end of April ; or the eggs might be procured and hatched ia 
the bark-bed of the stove, &c. There are some other species of owl occa- 
sionally found in England, but they are too rare to be of any practical use. 

865. Insessdres (PercJiers). — Birds with feet adapted for perching : food, 
chiefly insects and the smaller quadrupeds, but partly fruits and seeds. This 
order includes a number of birds which are interesting to gardeners. The 
shrikes (Lanius Z,.), of which there are two species, feed on small birds, mice, 
snails, and insects. The fly-catchers (Muscicapaj L.) feed on insects taken 
on the wing ; and among these the cultivated or hive-bee does not escape. 
The water ouzel (Cinclus aquaticus Bechst.) feeds on aquatic insects, and 
is capable of diving for them. The missel- thrush (Turdus viscivorus L.) 
lives on insects and berries, particularly on those of the mistletoe. The 
field-fare (T. pilaris L.) feeds on haws and other berries, and also on in- 
sects and worms. The song- thrush ( T. musicus L. ) feeds on berries, in- 
sects, and snails; as does the blackbird and the redwing (T. iliacus i.) 
The red-breast (Sylvia Rubecula Lath.) feeds on insects and worms; and 
also, when the food is scarce, on seeds or crumbs of bread. The black-cap 
(Sylvia Atricapilla Lath.^j lives chiefly on insects ; the wag- tail (itf otaciUa, 
L.) on aquatic insects. The titmouse (Parus L.) lives chiefly on insects, 
but will also eat seeds. The greater titmouse (P. major), when hard 
pressed for food, lives upon the honey-bee ; and, according to Mr. Main, 
sometimes destroys great numbers of them. The bird " seats himself at 
the door of the hive, and taps with his bill to provoke the bees to come 
forth. The first bee that comes out is instantly seized by the middle and 
carried off" to a tree, and there beaten against a branch till it is nearly dead. 
The bird then separates the head and thorax, which it sw^allows, from the 
abdomen, which it rejects, as containing the sting, and then flies back 
for another victim." {Ladies' Mag. of Gard. vol. i. p. 52.) The bearded 
titmouse, an inhabitant of fenny districts, lives on snails and other land 
moUuscae. The lark (^lauda L.) feeds on insects and small seeds. The 
bunting (Emberiza L.) feeds principally on seeds. The Cirl bunting, 
found in Devonshire and some of the adjoining counties, is said to feed on 



REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



117 



the berries of the jSolanum Dulcamara. The chaffinch, the house-sparrow, 
the tree-sparrow, and diflFerent other species belonging to the genus Frin- 
gilla, feed on insects and seeds ; sometimes on berries ; and when food is 
scarce, on the buds of trees. They also eat the anthers of Crocuses and 
other spring flowers. In severe winters the buds of the Gooseberry and 
Currant tribe are sometimes devoured by the common house-sparrow ; 
and this even in the neighbourhood of London, where it might be supposed 
this bird would find food at all seasons. The bullfinch, cross-bill, and 
starling, live on insects and worms, and occasionally grain. The raven 
(Corvus Corax L.) lives on mice, rats, poultry and other animals, as well 
as on carrion. The carrion crow (C. Corone L.) and the hooded crow (C. 
Cornix L.) have similar habits. Mr. Waterton considers the carrion crow 
as merely a variety of the raven ; " he rises long before the rook, and retires 
to rest later than that bhd. Indeed, he is the first bird on wing in the 
morning, and the last at night, of all our non-migratory, diurnal British 
birds. He feeds voraciously on ripe cherries, and in autumn eats walnuts; 
but he destroys many worms and caterpillars ; though when his young are 
in the nest, he seizes game and young poultry wherever he can find them." 
{Essdys on Nat, Hiat-) The rook (Corvus frugilegus Z/.) lives principally 
on the grub of the cockchafer, the wireworm, and other insects ; but will 
occasionally devour corn ; and, during the winter season, is very destructive 
to turnips. The jackdaw (C. ikf onedula L.\ the jay, and the magpie, feed 
on a great variety of animal and vegetable substances. The woodpecker 
(Picus jL.), of which there are several species, feeds on ants and other 
insects ; more especially on the larva of the timber-eating species, which it 
extracts by means of its long tongue, after having perforated the wood with 
its bill. Neither the titmouse nor the woodpecker, Mr. Waterton observes, 
ever bore into the hard and live wood. The wryneck (I'unx TorquiUa i.) 
lives principally on ants ; and the common creeper (Certhia familiaris Z,.), 
which is generally dispersed through the country, and is remarkable for the 
great facility with which it climbs up the trunks of trees, feeds entirely on 
insects. The nuthatch (Mtta europse'a L.) lives occasionally on insects, 
but principally on nuts, which it breaks with its bill after having firmly 
fixed them in the crevices of old trees. The cuckoo feeds principally on 
caterpillars and other insects. The swallow and the martin feed entirely on 
insects taken on the wing ; they appear about the end of April or beginning 
of May, and depart in October. The goatsucker (Caprimulgus L.) lives 
on insects, particularly on cockchafers, which it seizes on the wing, and on 
butterflies ; but this bird is more frequently found in solitary woods than iu 
gardens or frequented places. 

866. The greater number of birds which frequent gardens belong to this 
order ; and while they do good by devouring insects, snails, and worms, 
they are also to a certain extent injurious, by eating fruits and attacking 
newly-sown or germinating seeds. The singing-birds are the best for 
destroying soft-winged insects, such as moths and butterflies. Of all the 
birds of this order, perhaps the hedge-sparrow is the most harmless, and the 
house-sparrow the most mischievous. The former lives upon the seeds of 
weeds or other plants that lie upon the surface of the ground, and it rarely 
attacks buds ; while the house-sparrow scratches up newly-sov/n seeds and 
crops the tops of seedling plants when they are just penetrating through 
the surface of the soil, such as peas : it also eats the smaller fruits, and, 



118 



BIRDS, CONSIDERED WITH 



when other food is wanting, attacks buds. The robin devours currants, more 
especially about the time the young robins leave the nest, in June, when 
the currants are begiiming to ripen. Blackcaps, whitethroats, and bull- 
finches, eat currants, strawberries, and raspberries ; and of the latter fruit, 
bullfinches are particularly fond. Gooseberries, being too large for the 
soft-bnied birds, as soon as they ripen are attacked by blackbirds and 
thrushes ; and the fondness of these birds for ripe cherries has long been 
notorious. The wren and the fly-catcher are purely insectivorous ; and 
the tomtits, though they sometimes destroy buds, yet are far more useful 
than injurious, from the number of caterpillars which they devour. 

367. Rasdres {Scratchers). — Birds with feet not formed for scraping: food, 
chiefly seeds and terrestrial vermin. The ringdove, and different other species 
of doves, live on all kinds of grain and seeds, and, during severe weather, on 
the leaves of turnips and other cultivated plants ; and some of them occasion- 
ally eat the smaller snails and slugs. This is the case with the domestic 
pigeon ; though it more frequently lives on peas and grain. The turkey lives 
on snails, slugs, worms, lizards, frogs, and terrestrial insects, together with 
corn and seeds of almost every other kind. The peacock lives on similar food, 
and will even attack small snakes. The Guinea pintado, the domestic cock, 
and the pheasant, are omnivorous, eating roots as well as animals, fruits, and 
seeds. The corm of JXanunculus bulbdsus, where it abounds, is greedily 
eaten by the pheasant. The grouse (Tetrao L.) frequents woods of pines, 
birch, and juniper, and feeds on the berries of the latter, and on the buds 
and tender spray of the two former. The black grouse feeds on berries, and 
on the tops of heath and birch. The common partridge feeds on seeds and 
insects, and especially on the pupae of ants. Few of these birds concern the 
gardener, except the turkey, peacock, and pheasant, which may be useful , 
in pleasure -grounds in picking up vermin. 

868. Gmllatdres {Waders). — Birds with legs adapted for wading: food, 
chiefly animals and grain. The plover (Charadrius i.), of which there are 
several species, haunts moors and other open districts, and lives on worms and 
insects. The heron feeds principally on fish and small reptiles. The stork, 
which sometimes appears in Suffolk, lives on reptiles, insects, smaU quadru- 
peds, such as mice, rats, &c., and might be usefully domiciliated in gardens ; 
as might the crane, as an ornamental object, and because it feeds on aquatic 
plants, worms, and small reptiles. The woodcock (*S'c61opax i.), a winter 
visitant, lives on insects and worms ; as does the snipe. The water-hen 
(Galllnula Lath.), and the coot (T^ulica L.), feed on aquatic insects, seeds, 
and vegetables. The birds of this order may be said scarcely to concern the 
gardener. 

369. Natatdres {Swimmers). — Birds with feet adapted for swimming, om- 
nivorous. The goose (^'nser Briss.), of which there are several species, and the 
swan (Cygnus Meyer) live upon grain of all kinds, aquatic vegetables, 
and grass. The common gull (JLarus canus L.) is an inhabitant of the sea- 
coast, but frequents inland districts during the winter months, where it lives 
upon worms, snails, and small fish. As it does not touch seeds or vegetables 
of any kind, it is kept in gardens in various parts of Scotland. The common 
duck (^'nas ^oschas L.) feeds naturally on aquatic insects and vege- 
tables, fish, and molluscous animals, and is the most useful bird of this , 
order for occasional admission into gardens. Ducks, however, when placed ; 
in a garden to destroy vermin, require to be' withdrawn once a day, and ' 



REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



119 



either starved, or fed with grain, before being sent back again to eat the 
vermin. 

As a general conclusion to be drawn from this section, the gardener 
will learn on the one hand to be cautious how far he destroys birds of any 
kind ; but he will also, on the other, watch the operations of birds, and 
when he finds them committing depredations on newly-sown seeds, on seeds 
coming through the ground, on flowers, or on fruits, have recourse to some 
mode of deterring without destroying them. 

870. The different modes of deterring birds may be reduced to the follow- 
ing : — Excluding by netting, or other coverings, supported at a few inches' 
distance from the rising seedlings, fruit, flower, or plant to be protected ; setting 
up scares, of different kinds, such as m.ock men or cats, mock hawks or other 
birds of prey, miniature wind-mills or clapper-mills ; lines with feathers tied 
at regular distances, placed at a few inches' distance above the rows of newly- 
sown peas, or other seeds sown in drills ; over rows of crocuses or other 
dwarf spring flowers, or over beds or entire compartments. A system of 
dark worsted threads, placed in front of wall-trees at a few inches' distance 
from the leaves, wiU scare away most birds ; because, taking the worsted 
string for a twig, and lighting on it, it turns round by the grasp, and sinking 
at the same time by the weight, the bird falls, and if this happens to him on 
a second attempt, he will be deterred for the future. The following scare is 
founded on an idea given by Mr. Swainson in the Encyclopedia of Agricul. 2d 
edit., p. 1112: — Let poles, ten or twelve feet high, be firmly fixed in the 
ground, in conspicuous parts of the garden, each pole terminating in an iron 
spike six or eight inches long ; pass this spike through the body of a dead 
hawk in the direction of the back -bone : it will thus be firmly secured, and 
give the bird an erect position ; the wings being free, will be moved by every 
breeze, and their unnatural motion will prove the best scarecrow either for 
ravenous or granivorous birds, more particularly the latter. Cats are found 
useful in walled gardens as scares to birds, as well as for other purposes. 
R. Brook, Esc[., of Melton Lodge, near Woodbridge, in Siiffblk, has four or 
five cats, each with a collar and light chain and swivel, about a yard long, with 
a large iron ring at the end. As soon as the gooseberries, currants, and rasp- 
berries, begin to ripen, a small stake is driven into the ground, or bed, near 
the trees to be protected, leaving about a yard and a half of the stake above 
ground; the ring is slipped over the head of the stake, and the cat being thus 
tethered in sight of the trees, no birds will approach them. Cherry trees and 
wall-fruit trees are protected in the same manner as they successively ripen. 
Each cat, by way of a shed, has one of the largest-sized flower-pots laid on its 
side, withm reach of its chain, with a little hay or straw in bad weather, and 
her food and water placed near her. A wall of vines between 200 and 800 
yards long, in Kirke's Nursery, Brompton, the fruit of which, in all pre- 
vious seasons, had been very much injured by birds, was one year completely 
protected from them, in consequence of a cat having voluntarily posted 
herself sentry upon it. (Hort. Trans. 2d series, and Gard. Mag. vol. xii. 
p. 429.) A stuffed cat has also been found efficacious. Crows and rooks are, 
in some parts of the country, deterred from lighting on sown wheats by pieces 
of rag dipped in a mixture of bruised gunpowder and tar, and stuck on rods, 
which are placed here and there over the field, and the rags renewed every 
three or four days. Of course this scare only operates where the birds have 
been previously accustomed to be shot at. The most certain mode of scaring 



120 



THE SMALLER QUADRUPEDS, CONSIDERED 



away birds, however, is to set boys or other persons to watch and sound a 
wooden clapper all round the fruit, or seeds, which may be ripening, or 
germinating. 

S7l. The destruction of birds is most judiciously effected by traps, or by 
poisoning, because neither of these modes operates like the gun in scaring 
away others. " The report of fire-arms is terrible to birds ; and, indeed, it 
ought never to be heard in places in which you wish to encourage the pre- 
sence of animated nature. Where the discharge of fire-arms is strictly 
prohibited, you will find that the shiest species of birds will soon forget 
their wariness, and assume habits which persecution prevents them from 
putting in practice. Thus the cautious heron will take up its abode in the 
immediate vicinity of your mansion ; the barn-owl will hunt for mice under 
the blazing sun of noon, even in the very meadow w here the hay-makers are 
at work ; and the widgeons will mix, in conscious security, with the geese, 
as they pluck the sweet herbage on your verdant lawn ; where the hares 
may be seen all the day long, now lying on their sides to enjoy the warmth 
of the sun, and now engaged in sportive chase, unbroken in upon by enemies, 
whose sole endeavour is to take their lives." (^Essays on Nat. Hist.., 8d ed. p. 
251.) One of the simplest bird traps, and one also of a very effectual descrip- 
tion, is to smear some of the twigs of the trees in which they are expected to 
alight with bird-lime. Every country boy can suggest the modes of collect- 
ing birds together by regular supplies of food, which may be poisoned by 
arsenic, or netting may be so contrived as to be pulled down over the birds 
and secure them. 

Sect. VI. — The smaller Quadi-iipeds, considered with reference to Horti- 
culture. 

A few of these deserve notice, partly as the enemies of gardens, and partly 
as the subduers of other garden enemies ; and in order that none deserving 
notice may escape, we shall take them in scientific order. 

872. FercE ( Wild Beasts). — The badger (J/eles Cuv.) burrows in the ground 
and comes abroad in the night to feed, devouring indiscriminately animal and 
vegetable substances. The martin ( Jf ustela Foina L.) inhabits the vicinity of 
houses, and ^veys on poultry, game, rats, moles, &c. It breeds in hollow trees. 
The polecat {M. Putorius Z,.) is a common inhabitant of woods and planta- 
tions in all parts of the country, and preys on game, poultry, eggs, and all 
the smaller quadrupeds, amphibise, snails, slugs, and worms. The ferret 
(31. Furo jL.), considered by some as the polecat in a domesticated state, 
is employed to destroy rabbits and rats. The weazel (M. vulgaris Gmel.) 
is common in the vicinity of barns and outhouses. It devours young birds, 
rats, mice, moles, frogs, toads, lizards, snakes, snails, slugs, &c. Mr. 
Waterton, after recommending this animal to farmers, says : " But of all 
people in the land, our gardeners have most reason to protect the weazel. 
They have not one single word of complaint against it — not even for dis- 
turbing the soil of the flower-beds. Having no game to encourage, nor 
fowls to fatten, they may safely say to it, ' Come hither, little benefactor, 
and take up thy abode amongst us. We will give shelter to thy young ones, 
and protection to thyself,* and we shall be always glad to see thee.' And 
fortunate, indeed, are those horticultural enclosures which can boast the 
presence of a weazel ; for neither mouse, nor rat, nor mole, can carry on 
their projects with impunity whilst the weazel stands sentinel over the 



"WITH REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



121 



garden. Ordinary, and of little cost, are the apartments required for it. A 
cart-load of rough stones, or of damaged bricks, heaped up in some seques- 
tered corner, free from dogs, will be all that it wants for a safe retreat and a 
pleasant dwelling. Although the weazel generally hunts for food during the 
night, still it is by no means indolent in the day-time, if not harassed by 
dogs or terrified with the report of guns." (^Essays, &c. p. 802.) The otter, 
which inhabits the banks of rivers, lakes, and marshes, swims and dives with 
great facility, and is destructive to fish, on which it preys. The fox and the 
wild cat prey on birds and small quadrupeds. The domestic cat is too well 
known and too useful where rats, mice, or birds are to be deterred or de- 
stroyed, to require further notice : but where birds are to be preserved or 
encouraged, cats are their gi-eatest enemies. " Cats amongst birds," Mr. "Water- 
ton observes, " are like the devil amongst us : they go up and down seeking 
whom they may devour. A small quantity of arsenic, about as much as the point 
of your penknife will contain, rubbed into a bit of meat, either cooked or raw, 
will do their business effectually." The mole (Talpa europae'a L.) burrows 
beneath the surface, but never to a great depth, throwing up hillocks at in- 
tervals. It feeds on worms and the larvae of insects, and, according to some, 
on roots. It breeds twice a year, in spring and autumn ; and as it carries 
on its operations chiefly in the night-time, the runs and hills may be watched 
early in the morning, and the animals dug out wherever they give signs of 
movement. They may also be taken by traps, of w^hich there are several 
kinds ; or poisoned by putting a little arsenic in worms, or in pieces of 
meat ; or by the use of nux vomica. They may also be caught by sinking 
in their runs narrow-mouthed vessels of water, into which the animals will 
descend to drink without being able to get out again ; or these vessels may 
have false covers similar to those set in the runs of rats. The shrew (iSorex 
i.), of which there are three species, inhabits gardens, fields, and hedge- 
rows, and preys on insects, and also on vegetable substances. It may be 
caught by a water-trap in the same 
manner as the mole, or by an inverted 
flower-pot sunk in the soil, and slightly 
covered with litter or leaves, fig. 10, or 
subdued by employing some of its natu- 
ral enemies. The hedgehog (^rinaceus 
L.) resides in hedges, thickets, &c., re- 
maining concealed in the day-time, but 
coming abroad at night in quest of 

worms, snails, slugs, and even frogs and Fig.lO. inverted flower -pot, for eatcMng mice. 

snakes. It also lives on roots and fruits. Hedgehogs are occasionally kept 
in gardens for destroying frogs, toads, lizards, snails, slugs, and worms ; and 
in kitchens, for devouring beetles, cockroaches, woodlice, and other terrestrial 
insects. Care is requisite, however, that they are not annoyed by cats, 
which, though they cannot devour them, will, if not prevented, soon force 
them to quit a habitation which is not natural to them. The spines of the 
hedgehog are soft at its birth, and all inclining backwards ; but they become 
hard and sharp in twenty-four hours. The bat, of which there are several 
species indigenous, lives entirely on insects caught on the wing. It forms 
the natural food of the owl. The dog, w^hich belongs to this order, is well 
known in gardens and country residences for his property of watching and 
attacking rats and other vermin. 




122 



THE SMALLER QUADRUPEDS CONSIDERED. 



873. Glires {Dormice). — The common squirrel feeds on birds, acorns, nuts, 
and other fruits ; and though he is very ornamental in woods, he should be 
but sparingly admitted into pleasure-grounds. The dormouse lives on similar 
fruit to the squirrel, and builds in the hollows of trees. The field-mouse 
may be caught and subdued in the same manner as the shrew. The field- 
mouse in the Forest of Dean had become so destructive in 1813, that after 
trying traps, baits with poison, dogs, cats, &c. with little success, at last the 
plan of catching it by holes was hit upon. These holes were made from 
eighteen inches to two feet long, sixteen or eighteen inches deep, about the 
width of a spade at the top, fourteen or fifteen inches wide at the bottom, 
and three or four inches longer at the bottom than at the top. The object 
was to get the bottom of the hole three or four inches wider every way than 
the top, and the sides firm, otherwise the mice would run up the sides and 
get out again. The holes were made at twenty yards apart each way, over a 
surface of about 3200 acres : 80,000 mice were very soon caught, and the 
ground was freed from them for two or three years. As many as fifteen 
have been found in a hole in one night ; when not taken out soon, they fell 
on and ate each other. These mice, we are informed, used not only to 
eat the acorns when newly planted, but to eat through the stems of trees 
seven and eight feet high, and an inch and a half in diameter : the part 
eaten through was the collar, or seat of life. (Billingtons Facts on Oaks and 
Trees, S^c. p. 43.) The black and the brown rat are omnivorous, and the 
latter takes occasionally to water and swims readily. Both are extremely 
difficult to extirpate, and the various modes of entrapping them are too 
numerous and well known to require description here. The hare feeds 
entirely on vegetables, and is very injurious where it finds its way into 
gardens and young plantations. It eats the bark of several trees, and is 
particularly fond of that of the Laburnum. Various mixtures have been 
recommended for rendering the bark of young trees obnoxious to the hare, 
and an ointment composed of powdered sloes and hogs'-lard is said to prove 
effectual. Stale urine of any kind, mixed up with any glutinous matter 
that will retain it on the bark, has also been recommended. The rabbit is 
more injurious to gardens than the hare, because it is much less shy, and 
much more prolific. It may be deterred from injuring the bark of trees by 
the same means as the hare, and from eating pinks, carnations, and other 
evergreen herbaceous plants, by surrounding them with a tarred thread sup- 
ported by sticks at the height of six or eight inches from the ground ; or by 
a fence, formed of wires about eighteen or twenty inches long, placed upright, 
with the tops pointing outwards, the wires being connected by one horizontal 
wire at the bottom and another at the middle. When hares or rabbits are 
to be excluded from pleasure-grounds, a wire-wove fence is requisite ; and 
where it is intended that the eff"ect of the irregularity of the margin of the 
plantation should not be impaired by the formality of a fence the lower part 
of which is as close as basket-work, and consequently more like a fence of 
boards painted green, than an invisible fence, which it is commonly called, 
the mode is to have three parallel lines of fences, two or three yards apart. 
The outer fence may consist of iron posts and rods, no closer together than 
is necessary to exclude horses, cattle, and deer ; the second fence should be 
such as will exclude sheep ; and between this fence and the outer one there 
may be several large bushes, or low trees, with branches reaching to within 
the height of a sheep from the ground. The third fence need not be more 



DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF PLANTS CONSIDERED. J 23 



than two feet high, with an iron wire about a foot higher along the top, 
and with the wires sufficiently close together to exclude hares and rabbits ; 
and between this fence and the sheep-fence there may be several shrubs, 
with their branches resting on the ground. Thus, by the distribution of the 




"Fig. 11. Triple fence: 2l, for excluding cattle ,• h, sheep fence ; c, hare and rabhit fence. 



materials which commonly form one fence into three fences, the outer margin 
of the plantation may be made to appear as free and irregular as if there 
were no fence at all. See fig. 11. 

374. Unguldta {Hoofed Animals). — The ox, the sheep, the goat, the deer, 
the horse, the ass, and the hog, belong to this order ; and the means of pro- 
tecting gardens against them, or of using the animals or their manure so as 
to become subservient to gardens, are well known, and already pointed out 
in the Suburban Architect and Landscape Gardener^ and in our chapter on 
Manures, p. 56. 



CHAPTER VI. 

DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF PLANTS, CONSIDERED WITH 
REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 

There are various diseases and accidents to which plants are liable, some 
of which come little under the control of the gardener, and others he can 
avert or subdue. The principal diseases which affect garden-plants are the 
canker, mildew, gum, honeydew, and flux of juices. 

375. The canker chiefly affects fruit-trees, and of these perhaps more 
particularly the apple ; and some apples are constitutionally more liable to 
disease than others, — for example, the Ribston Pippin. The canker exhibits 
itself in small brown blotches, which afterwards become ulcerous wounds, on 
the surface of the bark, and soon extend on every side, eating into the wood, 
and sooner or later becoming so large as ultimately to kill the tree. The 
causes generally assigned are, the unsuitableness of the soil, the unpropitious- 
ness of the climate, and the unfavourableness of the seasons ; and here the 



124 



ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES OF PLANTS, 



matter generally rests. Now, though we cannot make a soil just as we would 
wish, still its improvement is within our influence ; and though we cannot 
change the climate in our neighbourhood, we can at least accommodate our 
operations to its character. A tree planted in a proper manner, with its 
collar little, if anything, beneath the surface, in a deep friable loam, resting 
upon a dry bottom, and where the climate is moderately favourable, will 
seldom show any sign of canker. Whenever a tree is planted deep, — that is, 
when the collar is buried a foot or more beneath the surface, — there the 
canker will be apt to appear, however favourable other circumstances may 
be. This aptness to canker will be increased almost to certainty, if the 
ground should be deeply dug, or trenched, and supplied with rank manure 
near the tree, as then, being forced to obtain its nourishment from a greater 
depth, it will require a higher temperature and more sunlight to inspissate 
and elaborate its cmde juices. 

376. To prevent canker^ where good soil is only of very moderate thick- 
ness, and where the subsoil is a ferruginous gravel, or a stiff cold clay, it is 
not only necessary to drain the ground and plant upon the surface ; but the 
trees should be set on the top of mounds from six inches to a foot above 
the surrounding level, and from four to eight feet in diameter ; the bottom 
of these mounds being covered with some hard substance, such as stone, 
slate, &c., to prevent the roots descending, and to lead them out as it were 
in a horizontal direction. No manure whatever should be incorporated 
with the soil, unless it should be very poor indeed : but it may be applied 
as a mulching round the mound, which will tend to keep the roots sufficiently 
moist and also near the surface. If these points were attended to, w^e should 
hear little of canker, unless in places naturally very damp, where more 
than a fair average of rain falls ; or where, from the prevalence of clouds, 
there is a deficiency of sunshine. In such places the shoots grow so luxu- 
riantly during summer, that they are yet soft and spongy, and filled with 
crude juices in the end of autumn. The frost sets in, freezes these juices, 
bursts the sap-vessels, and the decay of the shoots, or brown blotches, and 
ultimate canker, are the consequence. The only preventive in such cases is 
to plant on hillocks, and in soil made light and poor : the wood will then 
be less luxuriant and better ripened. 

377. What has been said respecting the prevention of canker will also 
apply to its cure. No scrubbing, scraping, or anointing will be of the least 
use. Cutting down the trees and allowing them to shoot afresh may be of 
benefit, if the canker has been produced by one very unfavourable season ; 
grafting them with hardier sorts will succeed, if the evil arises from unfa- 
vourableness of climate ; but neither of these methods will be of permanent 
benefit, when the evil proceeds from soil or deep planting. In such cases, 
where the trees are very bad, the best method is to destroy them gradually, 
and plant young ones in a proper manner, leaving some of the old trees until 
the young ones commence bearing. If the trees are not very old, nor yet 
too far gone, it will be advisable to take them up carefully, cut away all the 
cankered wood, plaster up all the wounds with a compound of clay and cow- 
dung, plant them in fresh soil on hillocks, and give no manure unless what 
is supplied for mulching. Such trees will generally become quite free of 
disease and bear splendid crops. A number of years ago, in a large kitchen- 
garden in the neighbourhood of London, a great number of fruit- trees were 
dispersed in the different quarters in a miserable state from canker. The 



CONSIDERED WITn REFERENCE TO HORTICULTURE. 



125 



gardener appropriated a quarter in the garden for the reception of these 
trees ; had the ground thrown into wide and high ridges : on the top of these 
ridges the trees were planted, and last summer they presented a fine healthy 
appearance, and were well stocked with good fruit. The soil was a stiff 
clayey loam. 

37"8. The gum, by which is meant an extraordinary exudation of that 
secretion, takes place chiefly in stone-fruit trees, such as the Peach, Cherry, 
Plum, &c., from a cut, bruise, bend, or other violent disruption of the tissue, 
or by injudicious pruning; often, however, without any visible cause. The 
gum on the young shoots of Peach-trees is analogous to the canker on Apple- 
trees, and seems to be caused by a cold wet soil, or a cold wet climate. Trees 
subject to this disease will live many years, and bear abundantly, though 
sometimes they are destroyed by it. For the gum we know of no remedy. 

379. Mildew appears in the form of a whitish coating on the surface of 
leaves, chiefly on those of herbaceous plants and seedling trees. Deficiency of 
nutriment is favourable to the production of mildew ; it seems also to prefer 
glaucous-leaved plants, as the Swedish Turnip, Rape, and Peas, which are par- 
ticularly subject to it in dry weather. Some varieties of fruit-trees are more 
liable to mildew than others ; for instance, the Royal George and the Royal 
Charlotte Peaches are often attacked, when other sorts, growing contiguously, 
are free from the disease. The mildew is supposed to be produced by innu- 
merable plants of a minute fungus, the seeds of which, floating in the air, find 
a suitable nidus in the state of the surface of the leaf, and root into its 
stomata. This favourable state for the appearance of the disease seems to 
be promoted by various circumstances. It sometimes proceeds from a ten- 
derness in plants, produced from sowing or planting too thick. It exhibits 
itself in a season of dry weather, when the leaves become in a languid state, 
produced often by the rootsbeing prevented from drawing moisture from below, 
by injudicious surface watering. It also shows itself after a season of wet 
weather, if the drainage is defective, and the leaves have become surcharged 
with crude juices. More especially does it present itself in either of these cir- 
cumstances, when the roots and branches of a plant are placed very differently 
relatively to moisture and temperature. For instance, it is very apt to 
make its appearance in a peach-house, if the border should be cold and wet, 
and the top of the tree in a warm arid atmosphere. The same effect will be 
produced when the atmosphere is genial and moist, and the border allowed 
to become too dry. Cucumbers grown in Pine stoves, will often become 
much infested with mildew in the winter months ; because unless the pines 
should be in fruit, they will neither enjoy the requisite temperature, nor 
a sufficiently moist atmosphere. In many cases, also, the disease proceeds 
from the soil being exhausted ; from containing too much inert carbonaceous 
matter, or becoming soured or sodden from want of drainage. In such cases 
trees are often completely cured by replanting properly in fresh soil. The best 
temporary specific for arresting the disease, is washing the affected parts 
with a composition of water and flower of sulphur. If the plants are tender, 
it will be advisable to shake the sulphur in a state of powder on the affected 
parts when dry. In both cases it will be necessary to guard against bright 
sunshine, by partial shading. In some cases the labour of sulphuring may 
be dispensed with, by at once cutting off the affected leaves and shoots. 
Where the mildew is liable to be produced by drought, it may frequently 
be prevented by copiously watering the soil, by which the late Mr. Knight 

K 



126 ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES OF PLANTS CONSIDERED. 



prevented this disease from attacking his late crops of Peas, The rust 
in corn crops is produced by a fungus in the same manner as the mildew ; 
but as it chiefly concerns the agriculturist, we refer the reader to Professor 
Henslow's Report of the Diseases of Wheat, Jour. Ag. Soc. Eng., vol. ii. p. 1. 

380. Honey dew is a sweet and clammy exudation from the surface of the 
leaves of plants during hot weather, and it is supposed to be occasioned by 
the thickening of the circulating fluids in the leaf, which being unable to 
flow back into the bark with their accustomed rapidity, the sugary parts find 
their way to the surface. The disease is common in the Oak, Beech, Thorn, 
and in many other plants. Hitherto no remedy has been applied to it in 
general cases, as though it weakens plants it seldom kills them. When, 
however, it appears on plants in a state of high cultivation, for instance, in a 
peach-house, or on a peach- wall, no time ought to be lost in applying the 
syringe or garden-engine, and even rubbing it off^ the leaves if necessary, 
otherwise the shoots or branches affected will be apt to be destroyed. Some 
persons suppose the honey dew to be occasioned by the aphides, as the 
exuviae of those insects are often found on leaves aff^ected with this disease. 

881. Blight is a term which is very generally applied to plants when under 
the influence of disease, or when attacked by minute fungi or insects. In 
some cases the continued action of dried air, and cold frosty winds, preventing 
the flow of the sap, may bring on a disease which might be called blight, 
exclusive of either the action of insects or of fungi ; but by far the greater 
number of instances of what is called blight are produced by these two causes. 
In general the fungi may be destroyed by the application of powdered sulphur, 
and the insects by some of the dififerent means that have been already pointed 
out (352 to 861). 

382. Flux of Juices. — Under this term are comprehended the bleeding, or 
flow of the juices of the vine and other plants, when accidentally wounded, 
or pruned too early in autumn, or too late in spring ; and the discharge of the 
descending sap, or the cambium, in a putrid state between the bark and the 
wood, which frequently happens in elm-trees, and is incurable. The flux of 
the rising juices seldom does much injury, and may generally be prevented 
by pruning before the sap is in motion. 

383. The accidents to which plants are liable are chiefly confined to the 
plants being broken or bruised, and the general remedy is amputation of the 
parts. When the section of amputation is large, it is best to cover the 
wound w^ith some adhesive composition, which will exclude the weather, 
and not impede the gi'owth of the bark over the wound ; but this subject 
will be noticed more in detail when we come to treat of pruning. 

884. A number of other plant diseases have been described and named by 
writers on Botany, but they are of very little interest to the practical gar- 
dener, because they rarely occur when plants are properly treated, or occur 
only in old age, or in a state of natural decay ; or because, when they do occur, 
they seldom admit of any remedy. Those diseases to which some plants 
are more liable than others, will be mentioned when these plants are treated 
of ; for example, the rot in the Hyacinth, the dropsy in succulents, the blis- 
tering of the leaves in Peach-trees, &c. 



127 



PART II. 

IMPLEMENTS, STRUCTURES, AND OPERATIONS OF 
HORTICULTURE. 



CHAPTER I. 

IMPLEMENTS OF HORTICULTURE. 

385. With the progress of gardening a great many tools., instruments^ 
utensils^ machines^ and other articles^ have been invented and recommended ; 
and some of these are without doubt considerable improvements on those 
previously in use; while, on the other hand, many would be rather im- 
pediments than otherwise in the hands of an expert workman. The truth 
is, that for all gardening in the open air, and without the use of pots for 
growing plants, or walls or espaliers for training trees, the only essential 
instrument is the spade. There is no mode of stirring the soil, whether by 
picks, forks, or hoes, which may not be performed with this implement. 
It may be used as a substitute for the dibber, or trowel, or perforator (in 
planting or inserting stakes) ; instead of the rake and the roller in smoothing 
a surface and rendering it fit for the reception of the smallest seeds ; and 
after these are sown, the spade may be employed to sprinkle fine earth over 
them as a covering, by which indeed that operation may be performed more 
perfectly than by " raking in." The only garden operation on the soil which 
cannot be performed with the spade, is that of freeing a dug surface from 
stones, roots, and other smaller obstructions, which are commonly " raked 
oflp ; " but as the removal of small stones from the soil is of very doubtful 
utility, and as at all events these and other obstructions can be hand- 
picked, the rake cannot be considered an essential garden implement. The 
pruning-knife might in general be dispensed with in the training of young 
trees, by disbudding with the finger and thumb ; but as the branches of 
growTi-up trees frequently die or become diseased, and require cutting off, 
the pruning-knife may be considered the most essential implement next to 
the spade ; and with these two implements the settler in a new country 
might cultivate ground already cleared so as to produce in abundance every 
vegetable which was found suitable to the climate and soil. 

386, But though a garden of the simplest kind may be cultivated with 
no other implements than a spade and a knife, yet for a garden containing 
the improvements and refinements common to those of modern times, a 
considerable variety of implements are necessary or advantageous. Some 
of these are chiefly adapted for operating on the soil, and they may be 
designated as tools ; others are used chiefly in pruning and training plants, 
and may be called instruments ; some are for containing plants or other 
roots, or for conveying materials used in cultivation, and are properly uten- 
sils ; while some are machines calculated to abridge the labour of eff^ecting one 
or more of these diffierent purposes. We shall arrange the whole in groups 
according to their uses, previously submitting some general observations. 

K 2 



128 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND USES 



Sect. I. — General Observations on the Construction and Uses of the Imple- 
ments used in Horticulture. 

Implements may be considered with reference to the mechanical prin- 
ciples on which they act, the materials of which they are constructed, their 
preservation and their repairs. 

387. All tools and instruments, considered with reference to the mechanical 
principles on which they act, may be reduced to the lever and the wedge ; 
the latter serving as the penetrating, separating or cutting, and sometimes 
the carrying part ; and the former, as the medium through which, by motion, 
force is communicated to the latter. All the different kinds of spades, 
shovels, and forks have their wedges in the same plane as the levers ; all 
the different kinds of picks, hoes, and rakes have their wedges fixed at 
right angles to the levers. The blades of knives and saws are no less 
wedges than the blades of spades or rakes, only their actions are somewhat 
more complex ; every tooth of the saw acting as a wedge, and the sharp 
edge of a knife consisting of a series of teeth so small as not to be visible 
to the naked eye, but in reality separating a branch by being drawn across 
it, on exactly the same principle as the saw. The series of combinations 
which constitute machines, when analysed, may be reduced to levers, 
fulcrums, and inclined planes ; and utensils depend partly on mechanical 
construction, and partly on chemical cohesion. It is only by understanding 
the principles on which an implement is constructed that that part can be 
discovered where it is most vulnerable when used, or most liable to decay 
from age. In all tools and instruments the vulnerable point is the fulcrum 
of the lever, or the point where the handle is connected with the blade or 
head. Another reason why failure generally takes place in that part is, that 
the handle is there generally pierced with a nail or rivet, which necessarily 
weakens the wood by breaking off or separating a number of the fibres. In 
general, the power or efficiency of any tool or instrument, supposing it to 
be properly constructed, is as its weight taken in connexion with the motion 
which is given to it by the operator. Hence strong-made implements of 
every kind are to be preferred to light ones ; and this preference will be found 
to be given by all good workmen. 

888. In the construction of implements, the levers or handles are for the 
most part made of wood, and the wedges or operating parts of iron or steel. 
The wood in most general use for handles in Britain is ash ; and next to the 
ash, oak : but for lighter tools, such as the hoe, rake, the scraper, besom, 
&G., pine or fir deal is sufficient. Handles to implements are of four kinds : 
first, cylindrical and smooth from one extremity to the other, as in the hoe, 
rake, &c. ; second, cylindrical, or nearly so, but dilated at one or at both 
extremities, as in the pick, hatchet, &c., such handles being called helves ; 
third, cylindrical and smooth, but with a grasping piece at one end, as in 
the spade, shovel, &c. ; and fourth, angular or rough throughout, as in the 
pruning-knife, hammer, hedgebill, &c. The reasons for these forms of 
handles are to be found in the manner of using the implements : one hand 
of the operator is run rapidly along cylindrical handles, as in the hoe and 
rake ; in the dilated handles, one hand slides along between two extremities 
till it reaches the dilated part of the head, which wedges firmly into the 
hand ; and, this dilated part being in the direction of the operating part of 
the tool, adds considerably to its strength. This is the case in the pick, and 



OF THE IMPLEMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



129 



in the hatchet, in which implements, without the dilations at both extre- 
mities of the handle, as well as in some degree in the middle part, it would 
be difficult for the operator to bring down an oblique blow with sufficient 
accuracy. Without the cross-piece or perforated handle of the spade, the 
operator could not easily lift a spitful or turn it over ; and hence we find, 
that in using the Flemish and other Continental spades, that have no grasping 
piece at one end, the operator never attempts to turn over the spitful, but 
merely throws it from him in such a manner that the surface falls towards 
the bottom of the furrow. No pruning-knife or hedgebill could be grasped 
firmly in the hand if it were cylindrical ; and unless these instruments are 
held firmly, it is impossible to cut obliquely with sufficient precision. The 
iron of all instruments should be of the best quality, and the cutting edges 
of blades, and sharp perforating points, should be of steel for greater hard- 
ness and durability. 

389. Next to the importance of having implements properly constructed, 
is that of keeping them constantly in good repair. For this purpose the 
iron or steel parts require to be occasionally sharpened on a grindstone or by 
other means ; or to have additions of iron or steel welded to them by the 
blacksmith or cutler. All implements, when not in use, should be kept 
under cover in an open airy shed or tool-house ; some, as the spade, pick, 
&c., may rest on the ground ; others, as the scythe, rake, &c., should be 
suspended on hooks or pins ; and smaller articles, such as trowels, dibbers, 
&c., placed in a holster rail. This is a rail or narrow board fixed to the 
wall in a horizontal direction, an inch or two apart from it at the lower 
edge, and somewhat farther apart at the upper edge. Other small articles 
may be laid on shelves, and pruning-knives kept in drawers. No imple- 
ment ought to be placed in the tool-house without being previously 
thoroughly cleaned ; and all sharp-edged implements, such as the scythe, 
hedgebill, &c., when laid by and not to be used for some time, should have 
the blades coated over wdth grease or bees'-wax, and powdered over with 
lime or chalk to prevent the grease from being eaten off by mice, as well 
as by combining with it to render it more tenacious, of a firmer consist- 
ence, and less easily rubbed off. In coating the blade of a scythe or hedge- 
bill, or the plate of a saw, with w^ax or grease, it should be first gently 
heated by holding it before a fire ; and afterwards the wax or grease should 
be rubbed equally over every part of it, and the powdered chalk or lime 
dusted on before the grease cools. When the instruments are again to be 
brought into use, the blades should be held before the fire, and afterwards 
wiped clean with a dry cloth. The same operation of greasing should also 
be applied to watering-pots laid by for the winter, when these have not been 
kept thoroughly painted. Every implement ought to have its proper place 
in the tool-house, to which it should be returned every day when work 
is left off. In w^ell-ordered establishments, fines are agreed on between the 
master and his men, to be imposed on all who do not return the tools to their 
proper places in due time, and properly cleaned. 

Sect. 2. — Tools used in Horticulture. 
By tools are to be understood implements for performing the commoner 
manual operations of horticulture, and they may be included under levers, 
picks, hoes, spades, forks, rakes, and a few others of less consequence. 

390. The common lever^ fig. 12, is a straight bar of wood shod with iron, or 



130 



TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 




Fig. 12. T7ie common lever. 




Kneed lever and crowbar. 



of iron only, and is used for the removal of stones or large roots, which rest 
on, or are embedded in the soil. The advantage gained is as the distance 
from the power, applied at a, to the fulcrum 
6/ and the force of the power is greatest 
when it is applied at right angles to the di- 
rection of the lever. The handspoke, or 
carrying lever, belongs to this species of tool, 
and is simply a pole, tapering from the two extremities to the middle, by means 
of one or two of which, tubs or boxes, or other objects, furnished with bear- 
ing hooks, can be removed from one place to another. Two of these poles, 
joined in the middle by cross-bars or boards, form what is called the hand- 
barrow — a carrying implement occasionally useful in gardening. Sometimes, 
to render a detached fulcrum unnecessary, the operating end of the lever is 

bent up, so that the elbow or angle, fig. 13, 
c, serves as a fulcrum. When the ope- 
rating end terminates in claws, like those 
of a common hammer, it is termed a crow- 
bar, c?, and is extremely useful for forcing 
up stakes or props which have been firmly 
fixed in the ground. Sometimes the upper extremity of the bent lever and 
crowbar are m.ade pointed and sharp, so as to serve at the same time as per- 
forators, as shown in both the kneed lever and crowbar. Every garden 
ought to have one of these tools ; and perhaps the most generally useful is 
the kneed lever, forked at the extremity, fig. 13, c. 

391. Perforators., fig. 14, are straight rods of iron, or of wood pointed with 
iron, for making holes in the ground, in which to insert stakes for supporting 

tall or climbing herbaceous plants, standard roses, climb- 
ing roses, or other shrubs, and young trees. The 
pointed iron rod, with a solid ball at top, e, «, is most in 
use for inserting pea-sticks, and the smaller props in dug 
gardens, as well as for inserting branches in lawns to 
shelter tender shrubs in the winter time, or 
to prevent small plants from being trodden 
upon. The wooden stake, pointed with 
iron, /, is used for making holes for larger 
posts for protecting or supporting trees in 
parks and pleasure-grounds. It is driven 
in with a wooden mallet, and afterwards 
Fig. 14. Perforators, pulled out by passmg an iron bar through 
the ring at one man taking hold of each end of the bar. The 
other bars are inserted by alternately lifting them up and letting 
them drop down, and they are pulled up either by hand or, in 
the case of fig. 14, /i, by passing a stick or handle through the 
eye at the top. The solid ball i, is for the purpose of adding 
to the weight of the rod, and which, of course, when lifted to j-ator for 
considerable height, adds greatly to its power in falling. The amateurs. 
perforator, fig. 15, having a handle and a hilt for the foot, /Ic, is chiefly 
adapted for amateurs and ladies. 

392. The dibber, fig. 16, is a perforator for inserting plants, and sometimes 
also for depositing seeds or tubers in the soil. It is most suitable for plant- 
ing seedlings, because these have a tap root, and few lateral fibres. Dibbers 




Fig. 15. Per/o- 



TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



1.31 




spade, as 




Fig. 18. Cast-iron 
sheaths for dibbers. 



are very commonly formed of the upper part of the handle of 
after the lower part has been broken, be- 
come decayed, or is no longer fit for use. 
This is sometimes shod with iron, which 
renders it more durable when it is to be 
I n m used in stiff or gravelly soils. Sometimes 
Fig, 16. Dibbers, a piece of a kneed branch is formed into a 
dibber, as shown at m. For planting cuttings of the shoots 
of shrubs or herbaceous plants, either in the open ground 
or under glass, small dibbers, are used, some for inserting pjg, 17. Potato- 
cuttings of heaths, not thicker than a quill ; but these the dibber. 

gardener forms for himself. The potato-dibber, fig. 17, 
has a hilt for the foot, and a handle and shank as long as 
that of the spade. For the potato and other larger 
dibbers, cast-iron sheaths, fig. 18, are sometimes fitted 
to the lower extremities, to render them more durable. 
393. Picks^ fig. 19, combine the operation of perforating with that of 
separating, breaking, loosening, and turning over ; and the pickaxe adds that 
of cutting. As the blow given by the pick on the soil, or on a root, is 
almost always given in a vertical direction, the helve is made cylindrical, 
excepting where it joins the head, and here it is dilated, so as to wedge into 
the hand of the operator, and serve to guide the direction of the stroke. The 
common pick is shown at a, the pickaxe at &, and the mattock at c. The 
narrow pointed end of the common 
pick is used for penetratmg into the 
hardest soils; and the broad or chisel 
end for separating and turning over 
softer soils. The pickaxe h is for 
separating and turning over soft 
soils containing numerous roots of 
trees; those roots lying in a direction 
at right angles to the operator, being 
cut off with the chisel at one end 
of the prongs, and those roots lying 
in the opposite direction, by the chisel at the opposite end. The pick c, fre- 
quently called a mattock, and a grubber, or grubbing-axe, is principally used 
for grubbing up small trees or bushes. The pick a is essential to the toolhouse 
of the commonest garden, being frequently required for loosening gravel walks, 
where repairs or alterations are to be made, or more gravel to be added. 
894. Draw Hoes^ figs. 20 and 21. — The common draw hoe, and all its 

varieties, are merely picks of a 
lighter kind, with the prongs 
dilated into blades. They are 
used for penetratmg, moving, 
and drawing, the soil, for the 
purpose of disrooting weeds, 
forming furrows in which to sow 
seeds, or drawing the earth up 
to plants. For light, easily- 
worked soils, the blade may be 
broad and narrow in depth ; for 




Fig. 19 Picks. 




Fig. 20. Braw hoes. 



132 



TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 




stronger soils, it should be less broad, and the iron should be thicker ; and 
for thinning seedlings, such as onions, lettuce, or turnips, the blade need not 
be more than two inches broad. The triangular hoe, fig. 20, a, is useful in 
light soils, and for separating, by its acute angles, weeds which grow close to 
the plants, to be left, and also for thinning out seedlings ; but for loosening 
the soil among seedling-trees, or other plants growing close together on strong 
soil, the pointed or Spanish hoe or pick, fig. 21, deserves the preference. 

One of these tools has a short handle, and is used for 
stirring the soil in narrow intervals among the plants 
sown broadcast in beds ; the other is worked with a long 
handle, like a common draw- hoe ; and it has a cross- 
piece on the neck of the blade, which serves as a guide 
to the operator in directing the blade perpendicularly 
downwards, instead of to one side, when it might ma- 
terially injure tap roots. In France and other parts of 
the Continent, there is an almost endless variety of hoes 
and hoe-picks, a number of which will be found figured 
Fig 21. Spanish hoes. described in the Gard. Mag., and in the Encyc. of 
Gard., 3d ed., 1832. Sometimes a draw hoe and a rake, or a draw hoe and 
a hoe pick, are fixed back to back, as sho\^^l in fig. 20 ; but these instru- 
ments are not much used. The common draw hoe, also shown in fig. 20, 
will suflice for most garden purposes. 

395. Scrapers, fig. 22, are narrow pieces of board, 
or of sheet-iron, fixed to a long handle in the same 
manner as a draw hoe, and used to scrape the worm 
casts from lawns or walks. Where worms are kept 
under by the use of lime-water, these tools are 





fig. 23, may 



be considered as intermediate between 
The 



Fig. 22. Lawn-scraper. 

scarcely necessary. 

396. Thrust hoes, 
the draw hoe and the spade, 
common form is shown at a, and a 
modification of it at e; but &, the 
blade of which is of steel, and sharp 
on every side, so as to cut either 
backwards or forwards, or on either 
side, is a more efficient implement ; 
though in the hands of a careless ope- 
rator it is liable to wound the plants, 
among which it is used for loosening 
the soil, or cutting up the weeds. 
Booker's hoe, c, is a very powerful im- 
plement, but liable to the same objec- 
tion ; as is Knight's hoe, d. Thrust 
hoes are best adapted for light soils, and for cutting over annual weeds; they 
are also most suitable for hoeing between plants in rows, where the branches 
reach across the intervals ; because no vertical stroke being ever given by the 
thrust hoe, as with the draw hoe, the branches are less likely to be injured. 
The hoes a and e are, perhaps, the strongest and safest for general use. 

397. Spades, fig. 24. — The spade consists of the grasping-piece or handle, 
or upper extremity, a ; the shaft, which joins the handle to the blade b ; 
tlie hose, or part of the blade into which the handle is inserted, c ; the hilts, 




Fig. 23. Thrust-hoes. 



TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTUKE. 



133 




■u hich are two pieces of iron which crown the upper edge of the blade for tlie 

f(CP f51 P^^T^s^ of receiving the foot of the operator, d ; and 
the blade, e. As the hilt or tread projects over the 
blade, however useful it may be in saving the soles of 
the shoes of the operator, it is found in many soils to 
impede the operation of digging, by preventing the 
blade from freeing itself from the soil which adheres 
to it. Hence, in some parts of the country, instead 
of a hilt being put on the spade to save the shoes of 
the operator, a plate of iron about two inches broad, 
Fig. 24. Spades. with leather straps, called a tread, is tied to his shoe, 
and effects the same purpose, while the spade requires much less cleaning. 
The spade e is for free easily worked soil, and is that most frequently 
used in gardens ; /, having the lower edge of the blade curved, enters 
more easily into stiff soil, while the upper part of the blade on each 
side of the hose being perforated, no soil can adhere there, and there- 
fore spades of this form clean themselves, and in working are always 
quite free from soil. The spade, g, has a semicylindrical blade, and 
is without hilts ; it is chiefly used in executing new works, such as canals, 
drains, ponds, &c., in strong clayey soil. In consequence of the cylindrical 
form of the blade, and the lower extremity of it being applied to the soil 
obliquely, it enters the ground as easily as the blade of the spade /, while 
the sides separate the edges of the slice of earth from the firm soil ; and, 
after it is lifted up, serve as a guide in throwing it to a distance. There is 
a variety of this spade in which the blade, instead of being semi-cylindrical, 
is a segment of a cylinder, and rather broader at the bottom or cutting edge 
than at the tread. This breadth at the entering edge diminishes friction on 
the sides of the upper part of the blade, by preventing them from pressing 
hard against the earth while passing through ; in the same manner as the 
oblique setting of the teeth of a saw prevents friction on the sides of the 
blade. This spade also, from the greater breadth of the lower part of its 
blade, lifts more completely the loose soil at the bottom of the furrow. It is 
chiefly used in engineering works, and in digging or trenching stiff soil. The 
handles of spades are almost always formed of sound root-cut ash, and their 
blades of good iron pointed with steel. The blade is not set exactly in the 
same plane as the handle, but at a small angle to it, in consequence of which, 
when the blade is inserted in the soil, the elbow formed between the blade and 
the handle serves as a fulcrum ; and the handle being thus applied to the 
lever at a larger angle, has considerably more power in raising up the spitful. 
Were the blade fixed to the handle in the same plane, and the blade in- 
serted in the soil perpendicularly, the first exertion of the operator would 
be employed in gaining that angle, which, in the former, is produced for 
him by the manner in which the handle is joined to the blade. In the 
Flemish and other continental spades, the blade is always fixed on in the 
same plane as the handle ; but in these cases the blade is longer than it is 
with us, and it is always entered at a considerable bevel ; and besides, the 
soil is generally lighter than in Britain, and requires less exertion to pene- 
trate and separate it. 

Shovels are seldom required for garden purposes, the broad blade of the 
spade, fig. 24, e, serving as a substitute. 

308. Turf-spades^ fig. 25, are used for the purpose of paring very thin 



134 



TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



layers of turf from old pastures, for forming or repairing lawns or pleasure- 
grounds, laying grass edgings, collecting turf for forming composts for plants, 
and for other purposes. One form, 
A, frequently called a breast-plough, 
from the handle being pressed on by 
the breast, has the edge of the blade 
turned up so as to separate the strip 
of turf to be raised, from the firm 
turf : another form, i, is used after Fig. 25. Turpspades. 

the turf has been cut or lined off into ribbons or bands, by the tool called 
a turf-racer. 

899. Turf-racers^ or verge-cutters, fig. 26, are tools used either for 
cutting grassy surfaces into narrow strips to be afterwards raised up by the 
turf spade, or for cutting the grass edgings or verges of walks. The com- 

mon verge-cutter, Ar, 

Ti }\ has a sharp reniform, 

I ) or crescent - shaped 

blade; and the wheel 
verge-cutter, Z, is a 
thin circular plate of 
steel, with a sharp- 
Fig. 26. Verge-cutters or turf-racers. edged circumference, 
fixed to a handle by an axle, and operating by being pushed along before 
the operator. It is well adapted for cutting off the spreading shoots or 
leaves of grass edgings which extend over the gravel, without paring away 
any part of the soil. As the edges of these tools are very easily blunted, 
they require to be made of steel, and frequently sharpened. M'Intoshs 
"wlieel verge-cutter, fig. 27, is designed for cutting grass verges on the sides 

of walks. With this instrument a man 
may cut as much in one day as he would cut 
in four or five days with the common verge- 
cutter without wheels. Bell's verge-cutter, 
instead of a wheel, has a broad bent plate of 
iron, through the middle of which the 
cutting coulters are inserted, and fixed and 
Fig. 27. 31' intosh's wheel verge-cutter, adjusted by screws. It is described and 
figured in Gard. Mag. vol. xiv. p. 177. In cutting turves from a piece of 
grass land, the line is first stretched in order that the cutting may be per- 
formed in a perfectly straight direction. This is also the case in cutting the 
verges of straight walks, but in cutting those of curved walks the eye alone 
serves as a guide. In gardens and pleasure-grounds of moderate extent, a 
sharp-edged common spade may be used as a substitute for the turf-spade, 
and also for the turf-racer and verge-cutter. 

400. The trowel and the spud, the latter of which is also used 
as a spade cleaner, belong to this group of tools. Though the 
spud, fig. 28, can hardly be considered as a fit tool for a pro- 
fessional gardener, yet, with a suitable handle, it forms a most 
convenient walking-stick for the amateur gardener ; because by 
it he may root out a weed, or thin out a plant, wherever he sees pig. 28, 
it necessary. The transplanting trowel, fig. 29, a, is a very Garden spud. 
useful tool wherever careful and neat gardening is practised ; because 






TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



135 



a b 
Fig. 29. 

Trowels. 



by two of these, one 
taken up %yith balls. 




Fig. 30, Daisy-ioeeder. 



in each hand, growing plants can be 
put temporarily into pots, and carried 
from the reserve ground to the flower beds and borders, where 
they can be turned out into the free soil, without sustaining any 
injury. The trowel h is used for taking up plants and to lift soil 
as a substitute for the hand, in potting plants. A trowel with a 
flat blade and a forked point is sometimes used for raising up 
weeds from gravel or grass, and is called a weeding-trowel. The 
weeding-hook, which is a narrow strap of iron forked at the 
lower extremity, and a wooden handle at the other, is 
also used for raising weeds. There is a variety of this, 
with a fulcrum, for rooting daisies and other broad-leaved 
weeds out of lawns, fig. 30. The use of the fulcrum is 
to admit of a long handle which renders it unnecessary 
for the operator to stoop. Some of these tools have short 
handles, to adapt them for infirm persons and children. 

401. Transplanters., figs. 31 and 32. — These 
tools are used as improved substitutes for the 
transplanting trowel. In Saul's implement, fig. 
31, the blades are opened by pressure on the lever 
a ; and in the spade transplanter, fig. 32, the blades 
are pressed together by moving the sliding-piece, 
downwards ; and when the plant is carried to its 
place of destination, they are opened by moving it 
upwards. Both these transplanters are more 
adapted for amateurs than for professional garden- 
ers, and the manner in which they are to be used 
is suf&ciently obvious from the figures. Trans- 
planters of this kind are generally supposed to be 
of French origin, but we are informed that the 
instrument of which fig 31 is an improvement 
was an invention of the Rev. jMr. Thornhill, 
Fig. 31. Saul's vicar of Staindrop, in the county of Durham, about 
transplanter. 1820 ; who used it extensively on his farm for 
transplanting turnips. 

402. Forks., figs. 33 and 34. — The forks used in gardening are of two 
kinds ; broad -pronged forks, fig. 34, for 
stirring the soil among growing plants, and 
as a substitute for the spade in all cases 
where that implement would be liable to 
cut or injure roots ; and round -pronged 
forks, fig. 33, for working with littery dung, 
a, or for turning over tan, h. There are 
hand- forks of both kinds, fig. 33, c, and 
fig. 34, c?, for working in glass-frames, 
hotbeds, or pits. The digging-fork is al- 
most as essential to every garden as the 
spade ; and, wherever there are hotbeds, dung linings, or 
tan, the dung-fork with three prongs, fig. 33, a, and the 
tan-fork with five prongs, &, cannot be dispensed with. 
The three pronged digging- fork, see fig. 34, is used for shallow digging, 
or pointing fruit-tree borders, and also for taking up potatoes ; and the 





Fig. 34. Digging- 
forks. 



Fig.33. Bring and tan- 
forks. 



136 



TOOLS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 





two-pronged fork is for stirring the soil in narrow intervals between rows, 
and also for digging up carrots, parsnips, horse-radish, &c. 

403. Rakts^ figs. 35 and 86, are used for freeing the surface soil from 

stones and other ob- 
stacles, for raking off 
weeds or mown grass 
or fallen leaves, and 
for covering in seeds. 
The common garden 
rakes, used for rak- 
ing soil and gravel, 
differ chiefly in size. 
See fig. 86 . The 

daisy-rake, fig. 85, a, has broad teeth, 
lancet-pointed, sharp at the edges, and 
set close together; and it is used for 
Fig. 35. Daisy and grass rakes. tearing off the heads or flowers of daisies, 
plantains, dandelions, and other broad-leaved plants, which appear in grass 
lawns, in the early part of the season ; and thus it renders the necessity of 
mowing less frequent. The short grass rake, fig, 85, &, is formed of a thin 
piece of sheet-iron, cut along the edge so as to form a sort of comb, and 
riveted between two strips of wood, as shown in the figure. It serves for 
raking off cut grass, and also, to a certain extent, as a daisy-rake. 

404. Besoms are used in horticulture for sweeping up mown grass, fallen 
leaves, and for a variety of purposes. The head or sweeping part is formed 
of a bundle of the spray of birch, broom, or heath, and lately the suckers of 
the snow-berry have come into use for this purpose. The handle is formed 
of any light wood, such as willow, poplar, or deal. One or more besoms are 
essential to every garden, and they require to be frequently renewed. For 
lifting matters collected together by the broom or grass rake, two pieces of 
board are used by the operator, one in each hand, by which the smallest 
heap of leaves or grass can be quickly and neatly lifted up, and dropped into 
a basket or wheel-barrow. The pieces of board may be about 18 in. long, 
from 6 in. to 9 in. broad, and f in. thick. 

40.'). Beetles and Rammers^ fig, 87, are useful tools even in small gardens, 
for beating down newly-laid turf edgings ; for ramming and consolidating the 
soil about posts and foundations, and for a va- 
riety of other purposes. For example, where 
part of a gravel walk is taken up and relaid, 
unless the newly moved soil and gravel are 
consolidated, or rammed down, to the same 
degree as the old part, there will be a depres- 
sion in that part of the walk, which will in- 
crease after the sinking in of rain, and thus 
Fig. 37- Beetles and rammers, require continual additions. In fig. 87, a is 
the common turf beater or beetle, the head or beating part of which is 
commonly made of a block of wood, though it would be much better 
of a plate of cast iron, because that would be heavier ; h is the common 
wooden beater, which is also used as a rammer, the whole of which is 
formed of wood ; c and d are two rammers, in which the heads are formed 
of cast iron, and which are very superior tools, invented by Anthony 




IxNSTRUMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



137 




Strutt, Esq. To retain tlie handle in the socket, a slit is made in the han- 
dle, and a small wedge entered in it, and afterwards it is driven home till it 
assumes the appearance shown in the section at e. The great art in conso- 
lidating turf or gravel with the beetle or rammer, is to bring down the tool in 
such a manner as that the face of the head may be perfectly parallel to the 
surface to be acted upon. When the operator does not succeed in this, he 
will be warned of it by the jar which the tool will transmit through his hands. 

406. The mallet,, fig, 88, a, is formed of a piece of any tough wood, such as 
elm or oak, or of fir, though in the latter case it should have a ring at each 

end to prevent its splitting. It is used for driving 
posts, and there is a smaller or hand mallet for 
using with the pruning chisel, and as a substitute 
i/lP fo^' ^ hammer in driving in short stakes. In using 

Fig. 38. iFoodeii mallet and a mallet, as in using the beetles, the centre of the 
garden hammer. striking part of the head should always be brought 

down on the centre of the stake or other object to be struck ; otherwise 
the full power of the tool will not be obtained, and a jar on the hands of 
the operator will be produced. 

407. The garden hamme7\ fig. 38, &, is used for nailing wall-trees, and for a 
great variety of purposes, and it differs from the common carpenter's hammer 
in having a projecting knob, c, in the head, to serve as a fulcrum in drawing 
out nails from walls, without injuring the young shoots. Considered by itself, 
the common hammer may seem an insignificant tool ; but viewing it as in- 
cluding all the different kinds of hammers used in rendering metals malleable, 
and in joining constructions and machines of various kinds together, by means 
of nails and pins, it appears one of the most important of all implements. 
See Moseley's Illustrations of Mechanics, p. 238. 

408, The garden pincers, fig. 39, besides the piucing part, 
have a clawed handle for wrenching out nails, and are useful 
Fig, 39. Garden gardens for this and a variety of other purposes. Some 
have a knob, which enables them to be used also as a hammer. 



Sect. III. — Instruments used in Horticulture. 

Instruments are distinguished from tools by having sharp cuttmg eages, 

and being adapted for operating on plants rather than on the soil ; and they 

are also generally smaller than tools, and have for the most part handles 

adapted for grasping. Those used in horticulture are chiefly knives, bills, 

shears, and scythes. 

409. Garden Knives. — Three kinds of knives are required in every garden, 

the cabbage-knife, a large rough handled instrument, with a hooked blade, 

for cutting and trimming Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Turnips, and other large 

succulent vegetables, when gathered for the kitchen ; the pruning -knife, 

c c^^^^=Tr=-v fig^ a, for cutting the branches and twigs off trees and 

shrubs, forming cuttings, &c. ; the budding-knife, &, and 

the grafting-knife, c, used in performing the operations 

V- An~ ^ ~T ■ of budding and grafting, and also in making smaller 
Fig. 4.0. Garden knives. . ° ° °' n i -, 

cuttmgs. \Vhere heaths and other small-leaved plants 

are propagated by cuttings of the points of the shoots, a common pen-knife 

is requisite, as well as a pair of small scissors for clipping off the leaves ; but 

these instruments are so familiar to every one that it is unnecessary to describe 




138 



INSTRUMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



them. Formerly garden-knives were distinguished from those in common use 
by having blades hooked at the points, for more conveniently hooking or tear- 
ing off shoots or leaves ; but this mode of separating shoots or branches being 
found to crush that part of the shoot which was left on the living plant, and 
by that means render it liable to be injured by drought or by the absorption 
of water, a clean draw-cut has been resorted to as not liable to these objec- 
tions ; and this requires a blade with a straight edge like those of the prun- 
ing-knives now in general use. All knives which are used by the practical 
gardener should be without moveable joints, and they should be carried in a 
sheath in the side-pocket, that no time may be lost in searching for them in 
other pockets, or in unfolding of the blade from its case. At the same time 
the master gardener and the amateur ought to carry a folding pruning-knife 
in his pocket for occasional use, in correcting the faults or supplying the 
omissions of his workmen. There are folding pruning-knives combining in 
the same handle a saw, a chisel, a file, a screw driver, &c., but these are for 
the most part more curious than useful. The 
asparagus-knife, fig. 41, has a blade about 
eighteen inches long, hooked and serrated, and ^ig- 4i. Asparagus-knife. 
is used for cutting the young shoots of Asparagus when in a fit state for the 
table. It is thrust into the soil so as, when drawing it out, to cut the shoot 
from two to five inches under the surface, according to the looseness of the 
soil, and the taste of the consumer for asparagus more or less coloured at the 
points. Where green Asparagus is preferred to what is thoroughly blanched, 
such a knife is hardly requisite, as the buds may be cut off by the surface 
with a common cabbage-knife. 

410. Bill-knives or Hedge-bills are large blades fixed to ends of long 
handles for cutting off branches from young trees, and for cutting up the sides 
of hedges instead of shears. The advantages in using them in preference to 
shears is, that they have a clean smooth section instead of a rough one, 
which, as already observed, admits drought and moisture, and also stimulates 
the extremities of the branches to throw out numerous small shoots, and 
these, by thickening the surface of the hedge, exclude the air from the inte- 
rior, in which, ultimately, the smaller shoots die, and the hedge becomes 
thin and naked. The most complete set of instruments of the bill kind is 
that used in Northumberland, and described by Blaikie in his Essay on 
Hedge-row Timber. One of these mstruments, fig. 42, ought to be in every 



Pig. 42. The scimitar bill-knife. 

garden-tool house. The handle of this bill-knife, or scimitar, as it is called, 
is four feet in length, and the blade eighteen inches in length, the former 
deviating from the direction of the latter to the extent of six inches, as 

shown by the dotted line in the figure ; 
— — — .J7\ deviation is made in order to admit 
the free action of the operator's arm, while 
Fig. 43. Dress uii-knife. he is standing by the side of a hedge, and 

cutting it upwards. Fig. 43 is what Is called a dress-bill for cutting the sides 
of very small hedges, or such as are quite young. 

411. Pruning Saws are of different kinds, but they may be all reduced to 
draw saws, fig. 44, a, and thrust or common saws, such as those in common 



INSTRUMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



139 



use by carpenters. Draw -saws have the teeth formed so as to point to the 

operator, fig. 44, 6, and only to cut when 
the blade is drawn towards him. Thrust- 
saws have the teeth or serratures formed at 



J 



r [ I I j right angles to the edge of the blade, so as 

Hua^^l^ ft hH^mtHi^ chiefly when pushed or thrust from 

h d c operator, but partly also when drawn 

^ig. 44. Garden-saws. towards him. The draw-saw is always used 

with a long handle, and is very convenient for sawing ofF branches which are 
at a distance from the operator. In both these saws the line of the teeth is 
inclined about half the thickness of the blade to each side, as shown at d; 
the advantage of which is, that the blade passes readily through the branch 
without the friction which would otherwise be produced by the two sides of 
the section. Draw-saws being subjected to only a pulling strain, do not 
require so thick a blade as thrust-saws ; and, for that reason, they are also 
much less liable to have the blades broken or twisted, and are less expensive. 

412. Pruning chisels are chisels differing little in some cases, fig. 45, e, 
A ^ ^ from those of the common carpenter, fixed to the end of a long 

\ K handle, for the urpose of cutting off small branches from the 
stems of trees at a considerable height above the operator. The 
branch should not be larger than 1^ in. in diameter at the part 
to be amputated, otherwise it cannot be so readily struck off 
at one blow. In performing the operation two persons are 
requisite : one places the chisel in the proper position and holds 
it there, while the other, with a hand-mallet, gives the end of 
the handle a smart blow, sufficient to produce the separation 
of the branch. If properly performed, the section does not 
require any dressing ; but sometimes there are lacerations of 
the bark, which requu-e to be trimmed off with the hooked 
part, g, of the chisel, /. 

413. Shears.^ in regard to their mode of cutting, are of two kinds : those 
which separate by a crushing cut, as in the common hedge-shears, fig. 46, 

the grass- shears, and verge- 
shears ; and those which se- 
parate by a draw or saw 
cut, as in the pruning-shears, 
fig. 47. The common hedge- 
Fig. 46. Shears for clipping hedges and box edgings. shears is USed in gardens for 

topiary work, cutting hedges of privet, and other small-leaved slender- twigged 
hedge-plants, which do not cut so readily with the hedge-bill ; and it is 
more especially used for clipping box edgings. The pruning- 
shears, fig. 47, have one blade, which, by means of a rivet, 
moves in a groove, by which means this blade is drawn across 
the branch in the manner of a saw, and produces a clean or 
draw-cut ; that is, a cut which leaves the section on the tree 
as smooth as if it had been cut off by a knife. There are in- 
struments of this kind of various sizes, from that of a pair of 
common scissoi-s, for pruning roses or gooseberry bushes, to 
such as have blades as large as those of common hedge- 
shears, with handles four feet long, which will cut off branches 
from two to three inches in diameter. All of them may be rig. 47. Pruning- 
economically used in gardens, on account of their great power, shears. 



e f 
Fig.45. Pruning- 
chisels. 





140 



INSTRUMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 




and the rapidity and accuracy with which operations are performed by them. 
Fig. 47 shows two instruments commonly known as Wilkinson's shears, 
which are well adapted for pruning shrubs, and for the use of amateurs. 
Roses are better pruned by instruments of this kind than by knives, as unless 
the latter are kept very sharp, the softness of the wood, and the large 
quantity of pith it contains, yield to the knife, and occasion too oblique a 
section, in consequence of which the shoot dies back much farther than if 
the section were made directly across. 

414. The Axe^ fig. 48, can scarcely be dispensed 
with in gardens, for the purpose of sharpening props 
or other sticks for peas, &c. ; and a larger axe, as 
well as a common carpenter's saw, may be required 
Fig. 48. Garden axe. where branches are to be broken up for fuel for the 
hot-house furnace, or other fires. 

415. Verge-shears., fig. 49, a, are shears of the crushing kind used for 
clipping the edges of grass- verges, which they do without cutting the soil, as 
is commonly the case when any of the different descriptions of verge-cutters 
already described (899) are used. The blades of these shears operate in a 
vertical plane, or what is called held edgewise. 

416. Grass-shears, fig. 49, 6, are used instead instead of the scythe for 

clipping the grass round the roots of 
shrubs or other flowering plants on 
lawns ; but as they are very apt to 
go out of order, the common hedge- 
shears is generally used in prefer- 
ence ; the stooping necessary in using 
the hedge-shears being found by the 
operator less laborious than that of 
keeping the blades of the long- 
handled shears in a cutting position. 
The blades of these shears work in 
a plane parallel to the surface of the 
ground, from which they are sup- 
ported behind by two castor wheels, 
or in other words, they work flat- 
wise. 

417. The Short- grass Scythe, fig. 50, c, is essential wherever there are 
grass- verges on lawns, because though in many cases the mowing machine 
may be used on broad surfaces, it is not so convenient for verges and small 
irregular places as the scj'the. 
The blade of the scythe cuts ex- 
actly on the same principle as 
that of the saw, and it requires 
to be frequently sharpened by a 
hand-stone or whet-stone, as well 
as occasionally ground. The 
blade of the garden-scythe re- 
quires to be fixed to the handle 
in such a manner as that when 
the handle is held by the operator standing upright, the plane of the 
blade shall be parallel to the plane of the ground. In the case of field- 




Fig. 49. Verge and Grass-shears. 




Fig. 50. Garden-scythes. 



INSTRUMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



141 



scythes, where the ground is rough, the plane of the blade may be very 
nearly in the same plane as that of the handle ; by which means the inequa- 
lities of the ground's surface will chiefly be struck by the back of the blade, 
and never by its edge. The daisy -knife or daisy-scythe, fig. 50, rf, is a two- 
edged blade, lancet-pomted, and is used for mowing off the heads of 
daisies, clover, and other exogenous plants in lawns, which renders less fre- 
quent the necessity of mowing with the scythe. In using this instrument, 
the handle, which ought to be angular, is held firmly with both hands, and 
the blade, which ought to be at least four feet from the operator, is moved 
rapidly to the right and left parallel to the plane of the surface, the operator 
advancing as in mowing. 

418. Other Instruments. — There are several other instruments which are 
occasionally used by amateurs ; such as the averruncator, m hich may be 
described as a cutting-shears fixed to the extremity of a long handle, and 
operated on by means of a cord and pulley. Its use is to enable a person 
standing on the ground to thin out branches in standard fruit trees, which it 
readily does, though frequently with a considerable loss of time. An amateur 
however, who prunes his own orchard, will find this a useful instrument ; 
though, if he has an attendant, the hooked pruning- chisel, fig. 45, /, is prefer- 
able. The grape-gatherer, or flower-gatherer, consists of a shears fixed at 
the extremity of a long handle, and which clips and holds fast at the same 
time. It is occasionally useful for gathering flowers from the upper parts of 
stages in green-houses, or from plants against walls, or on poles, that cannot 
be conveniently reached by hand ; it is also used for gathering grapes which 
cannot be otherwise conveniently reached. There is also an instrument of 
this kind without a long handle, called a flower-gatherer, which clips off" a 
flower and holds it at the same time, and is used by ladies in gathering 
roses. Scissars with long handles, for thinning grapes, are required where that 
fruit is cultivated to the highest degree of perfection. The fruit-gatherer is 
an amateur's instrument, of which there are several varieties ; but they are 
very little used. Instruments for scraping the moss or bark off" trees, gouges 
for hollowing out wounds in their trunk or branches, climbing-spurs, and 
some other instruments belonging to this section, and perhaps more fanciful 
than useful, will be found described in the Encyclopaedia of Gardening, 
edition 1831. 

419. Chests of Tools and Instruments^ for amateurs, are made up by the 
ironmongers ; and one sold by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, Winsley-street, 
Oxford-street, for three guineas, contains the following articles : — Tools, 1 
draw-hoe (fig. 20), 1 triangular draw-hoe (fig. 20, a), 1 thrust-hoe (fig. 23, 
a), 1 rake (fig. 86), 1 trowel (fig. 20, 6), 1 hammer, (fig. 38, &), 1 pruning- 
chisel (fig. 45), 1 pruning-shears, 20 inches long, 1 ditto, a foot long (fig. 
47), 1 clipping-shears for hedges and box-edgings (fig. 46), 1 shears for 
clipping and holding flowers, 1 shears for thinning grapes, 1 pruning-knife 
(fig. 40, a), 1 budding-knife (fig. 40, c), 1 draw-saw (fig. 44, a), and 1 han- 
dle in two parts, which, when joined, form a length of four feet, for screwing 
into those tools and instruments which require a handle of that length. The 
box which contains these articles is 1 ft. 10 in. long, 10 in. wide, and 6 in. 
deep. Among the disadvantages attending the use of these implements are : 
the loss of time that is incurred in screwing on and unscrewing the han- 
dle, the liability of the screws to become rusty and unfit for use, and the 
lightness of the implements, with the exception of the shears, by which they 

L 



142 



UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



are not so effective as they ought to be. To a working gardener or 
amateur, therefore, they are altogether out of the question ; but for ladies 
emigrating to other countries, they may serve as an inducement to gardening 
recreations. 

Sect. IV. — Utensils used in Horticulture. 

Garden utensils are vessels for containing growing plants ; for carrying 
different articles used in culture, such as soUs, water, &c. ; for preparing soil 
or other matters, such as the sieve ; and for protecting plants. The principal 
are the plant pot or box, the watering-pot, the basket, the sieve, and the 
bell glass. 

420. Earthenware pots for plants are made by the potter in what are 
called casts, each cast containing about the same quantity of clay, and costing 
about the same price, but differing in the sizes of the pots so much, that 
while in the first size there are only two pots to a cast, in the tenth size there 
are sixty, as in the following table : — 











Inches 


Inches 










diam. 


deep. 


1st size has 2 to the cast, called 


twos, being 


18 


12 


2d 


4 


» 


fours 


12 


10 


3d 


6 


a 


sixes 


9 


8 


4th 


8 


3i 


eights 


8 


7 


5th 


.12 


n 


twelves 


7 


6 


6th 


16 


n 


sixteeas 


6 


7 


:7th 


24 


» 


twenty-fours, 


5 


6 


8th 


32 


» 


thirty-twos 


4 


5 


9th 


48 


}> 


forty-eighths 


3 


4 


10th 


60 


}> 


sixties 


2 


2i 


llth 


80 


)} 


thumbs or eighties, 


H 


2 



These are the sizes of the London potters ; but at Liverpool the sizes and 
the proportions are somewhat different. The sizes are from No. 1, which is 
20 in. in height and diameter, to No. 37, which is 2 in. in height and 
diameter, as shown in fig. 51. About London the sizes of pots in most 




Fig. 51. Sizes of garden pots in Liverpool, 



general use are, twenty-fours, which are 5 in. in diameter and 6 in. deep ; 
thirty-twos, which are 4 in. in diameter and 5 in. deep ; and forty-eights, 
which are 3 in. in diameter and 4 in. deep. "VVTien pots in which plants 
have been grown are to be laid aside for future use, they should be thoroughly 
cleaned within, because the smallest particles of earth adhering to the inner 
surface of the pot, when the pot is again filled with fresh soil, will, by the 
rough surface produced, cause that soil so to adhere to the sides of the pot, , 
that the ball of earth, when the plant is to be shifted, cannot be turned out 
of the pot without being broken in pieces. The garden pots in common use 



UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 143 

about London ai-e generally made between a fifth or a sixth part narrower 





53 

Fig. 52. Propagating-pot. 

Fig. 53. Pot with raised bottom, to prevent the entrance of worms. 
Fig. 54. Pot withrraised bottom, to prevent the entrance of worms. 
Fig, 55. Pot with channelled bottom, to facilitate the escape of water. 
Fig. 56. Ornamental pot, with the base serving as a receptacle for drainage-water. 

at bottom than at top ; but for particular purposes, such 
as that of growing hyacinths, pots are made almost 
equally wide throughout, and deeper than usual in pro- 
portion to their width. For striking cuttings, or grow- 
ing seeds, there are pots made broad and shallow, some- 
times called pans or store pots. There are also pots for 
aquatics, made without holes in the bottom to permit 
the escape of water ; others for marsh plants, without 
holes in the bottoms, but with holes in the sides lialf way 
between the bottom and the top, so as to retain the 
lower half of the soil in a mai'shy state. There are 
pots made with a slit on one side (fig. 52), for the pur- 
pose of introducing the shoot of a plant to be ringed in 
order to cause it to produce roots — (a small wooden 
box is much better, as being less porous) ; others with 
a large hole in the side for the same purpose ; some 

nwith concave bottoms, with the intention of putting the 
water hole out of the reach of woi-ms (figs. 53 and 54) ; 
others (fig. 55) with grooves in the bottom to prevent 
the retention of water by the attraction of cohesion, 
when the pot stands on a flat surface ; and there are 
pots fixed within pots, so that the space within the outer 
and the inner pot shall be water-tight, in order to con- 
tain water or moist moss, so as to keep the soil in the 

Winner pot of comparatively uniform moisture and tem- 
perature. There are pots made in two parts (fig. 66), 
the lower serving as an ornamen- 
tal base — so as to give the pot a 
somewhat classical character — and 

^fil^'andlZfsZ^'in-^^^^^ ^^^^ as a receptacle 

troducing wirework. for the water that drains through 
the pot. Pots are also made with rims pierced with 
holes, so as to construct on them a frame of wirework 
for training climbers, as in fig. 57- There is also what 
is called a blanching-pot (fig. 58), which is placed over 
plants of sea-cale, rhubarb, &c., for blanching them, 

l2 




Tig. 58. MancMng-pot. 



144 



UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



having a moveable top, which can be taken off at pleasure, to admit light or 
to gather the produce. Boxes of boards, however, are found more econo- 
mical. There are also square-made pots, which, it is alleged, by filling up 
the angles left by round pots, allow of a greater quantity of soil being obtained 
in a given space in beds or shelves under glass ; and pots with one side 
flattened, and with a pierced ear or handle, to admit of hanging the pot against 
a wall or a trunk of a tree. Many other fanciful pots might have been figured 
and described ; but in the general practice of gardening all these peculiar pots 
(figs. 52 to 58) may be dispensed with ; and, in truth, with the exception of 
the last forms (figs. 57 and 68), they are only found in the gardens of some 
amateurs. It is useful, however, to know what has been done or attempted in 
this way, in order to prevent a waste of time in repeating similar contrivances. 

421. From the porosity of the material of which common earthenware 
plant-pots are made, it is evident that when the soU within the pot is moist, 
and the pot placed in a warm dry atmosphere, the evaporation and transpi- 
ration through the sides must be considerable ; and as evaporation always 
takes place at the expense of heat, this must tend greatly to cool the mass 
of soil and'fibrous roots within (252 and 257.) This may be prevented by 
glazing the exterior surface of the pot ; but as this would add to the ex- 
pense, and be chiefly useful in the case of plants in pots kept in rooms, it is 
seldom incurred. To prevent evaporation in rooms the double-pot is sometimes 
used, or single pots are surrounded by moss, or cased in woollen cloth or bark of 
trees : in plant-houses, the atmosphere is, or ought to be, so nearly saturated 
with moisture by other means, as to reduce the evaporation from the pots to 
a degree that cannot prove injurious. From the bad effects of this evaporation 
in warm countries may be traced the practice in these countries of growing 
plants in wooden boxes, which was probably instinctively hit upon, without 
any reference to principles. The advantage which earthenware pots have 
over boxes is, that they can be made round, by which means shifting is 
effected with much greater ease than it can be with any rectangular utensil. 

422. Earthenware saucers for pots are made and sold on the same prin- 
ciple as pots, viz. : in casts ; a cast of saucers for sixties or thumbs costing 

as much as a cast for thirty-two, or 
sixes. Saucers are chiefly . used in 
living rooms, or in other situations 
where the water which escapes from 
the hole in the bottom of the pot 
would prove injurious; and to pre- 
vent this water from 
oozing through the 
porous material of 
the saucer, it is 
sometimes glazed on 
the inside. There 
are also saucers, or Fig. 59. isolating- 

flats, as they are 

Fig. 60. AMar water -saucer. caUed, made with raised platforms in 

the centre, for the pots containmg the plants to stand in ; m some cases, in 
order that they may stand dry and not be liable to be entered by earth- 
worms ; and in others, in order to surround them with water, and thus isolate 
them from the attacks of creepmg insects, such as wood-lice, ants, &c. 
Utensils of this kind are also used for supporting boards in the open garden, 






UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



145 



so as to isolate them, and of course the pots which stand on them, from 
wingless insects, snails, worms, &c. Fig. 59 shows one of these utensils, 
which might easily be substituted for a common saucer and whelmed pot. 
An annular saucer, fig. 60, for containing water, is used either for protecting 
plants in pots or plants in the open ground ; and if lime-water or salt-water 
is used, they will prove a very effectual protection from snails, slugs, 
wood-lice, ants, and other creeping wingless insects. A very ingenious 
substitute for this utensil has lately been invented by Mr. Walker, of 
Hull. It is founded on the galvanic principle of alternate plates of zinc 
and copper producing a galvanic shock, and is therefore called the 
Galvanic Protector. Take slips of zinc four or five inches in breadth, in 
order to inclose the plant or bed to be protected, as with a hoop ; but iu 
addition to the mere rim or frame of zinc, rivet to it, near the upper edge, 
a strip of sheet-copper one inch broad, turning down the zinc over this so 
as to form a rim, composed of zinc, copper, and zinc. The deterring efi'ect is 
produced by the galvanic action of the two metals ; and thus, when the snail 
or slug creeps up the rim of zinc, it receives a galvanic shock as soon as its 
horns or head touch the part where the copper is inclosed, causing it to recoil 
or turn back. A more beautiful application of science in the case of deter- 
ring insects is rarely to be met with, and it will not cost more than 6d. a lineal 
foot. (Gard. Chron. vol. i. p. 115, and 165 ; and Gard. Mag. 1841.) 

428. Rectangular boxes for growing plants are commonly formed of wood, 
but sometimes slate is substituted. Wood, however, as a better non-con- 
ductor both of heat and moisture, deserves the preference. A neat and 
most convenient plant-box was invented by Mr. M'Intosh, fig. 61, and 

used by him for growing orange- trees. 
It differs from the orange- boxes used 
in the gardens about Paris in having 
the sides tapered a little, and also in 
having all the sides moveable. Two 
of the sides are attached to the bottom 
of the box by hinges, and are kept in 
their places by iron bars hooked at each 
end, which slip into hasps fixed in the 
sides, as shown in the figure ; the other 
sides, which are not hinged, lift out at 
leisure, being kept in their places at 
\ Fig. 61. Plant-box. bottom by two iron studs, which drop 

into holes in the bottom. These boxes afford greater facilities than the French 
orange-boxes for the gardener to take them to pieces, without disturbing the 
trees, whenever he wishes to examine or prune their roots, to see whether 
they are in a proper state as regards moisture, or to remove the old, and put 
in fresh soil. The inside of these boxes can also be painted, or covered with 
pitch, as often as may be judged necessary ; which will of course make them 
much more durable, and the trees may be removed from one box to another 
with the greater facility, 
in 424. Wooden tubs are very commonly made use of on the Continent to grow 
in orange -trees, and they are made of different heights and diameters from one 
\. to two or three feet. When the roots of the trees are to be examined, or 
jte old soil to be removed and fresh soil added, the cooper is sent for, who sepa- 
s^-c. rates the staves, and after the gardener has finished his operations, replace^, 

iCB, , 




146 



UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



them again and fixes the hoops. In the wann summers of France and Italy, 
as already observed, it is found much better to grow plants in wooden boxes 
or tubs, than in any description of earthenware vessel. 

425. Watering-pots are made of tinned iron, zinc, and sometimes oi 
copper. There are a variety of sizes and shapes in use in British gar- 
dens : for plants under glass, which are placed at a distance from the 
spectator, pots with long spouts are requu'ed; and for pots in shelves 
over the head of the operator and close under the glass, flat pots with 
spouts proceeding from the bottom, and in the same plane with it, are 
found necessary. Watering-pots have been contrived with close covers, 
containing valves to regulate the escape of the water thi'ough the spout, by 
the admission or exclusion of the atmosphere at pleasure ; but these are 
only required for particular situations and circumstances. The watering-pot 
very generally fails at the point where the spout joins the body of the pot, 
and the two parts ought therefore to be firmly attached together, either by 
separate tie-pieces, or by one continuous body, which may be so contrived 
as to hold the roses of the pot when not in use, as exemplified in 
Money's pot, to be hereafter described. The rose is generally moveable ; 
but as, after much use, it becomes leaky, it is better, in many cases, 
to have it fixed, with a pierced grating in the inside of the pot over 
the orifice of the spout, as in metal tea-pots. This grating, Mr. Beaton 
suggests, should be moveable, by being made to slide into a groove like 
a sluice, in order that it may be taken out and cleaned occasionally. 
Fig. 62, a, represents a watering-pot with a kneed spout, for watering plants, 

without spilling any 
water between pot and 
pot ; because, by means 
of the knee or right 
angle made at the extre- 
mity of the spout, the 
running of the water is 
instantly stopped by 
quickly elevating it, 
which is by no means 
the case when the spout 
is straight throughout 
its whole length : b 
shows the face, and c the 

Fig. 62. Sucker, kneed-spouted, and Overhead, watering-pots. edge of a Very fine rOSe 

of copper for screwing on the end of the kneed spout, for watering seedlings. 
Fig. 62, c?, shows a sucker watering-pot, by wliich the objects effected by the 
kneed pot are attained more completely. There is a sucker or valve in the 
lid, by which the air is perfectly excluded ; and when this valve is shut, not 
a particle of water can escape ] but when it is slightly raised by the pressure of 
the thumb of the hand by which the operator holds the pot, the water instantly 
escapes, and can be stopped in a moment : /, an overhead watering-pot, for 
watering plants close under a glass roof, and above the head of the spectator. 

426. Moneys Inverted Rose Watering-pot., fig. 68, has the spout 
made of copper, and in three distmct parts; so that it serves instead 
of three different pots ; and when furnished with common roses as well 
as with inverted ones, no other pot need be required for a small garden. 




UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE, 



147 



The first and largest spout, «, is fixed to the body of the pot in such 
a manner as not to get easily out of repair : this is effected by filling up 
the angle between the spout and the pot by a hollow compartment, with 
iron sides, 6, in the top of which are two openings, c, and d; the larger, c, for 
holding the middle 
piece of the spout 
when not in use, or the 
larger rose ; and the 
other, d, for holding 
the smaller rose. The 
larger rose, e, is used 
without the middle 
piece of the spout, and 
it delivers the water 
upwards ; and the 
smaller rose,/, which 
can only be used with 

the middle tube of the ^^S- 63. Money's inverted-rose watering-pot. 

spout, delivers the water downwards, exactly over the object or space to be 
watered. The screw-joints by which the roses are attached to the spouts 
are perfectly water-tight, and being made of copper are not liable to rust 
and get out of repair. The advantage of using the roses in inverted positions 
is, that the action of the water is more definite ; and of using them with the 
face of the rose upwards, that the shower produced comes down more gently. 
For watering small seeds in pots, the holes in the roses ought not to exceed 
the fiftieth part of an inch in diameter. One watering-pot of this descrip- 
tion may be kept for select purposes, and for the use of amateurs or ladies ; but 
for open air gardening the common zinc watering-pot, with a fixed rose, 
is quite sufficient ; adding, for more refined purposes, the pot fig. 62, a. 

427. Sieves for sifting soil, and screens of wire for separating the larger 
stones and roots from soil to be used in potting, are required in most gardens. 
The screen, fig. 64, is not only used for mould, but also for gravel, and some- 
times for tan. It consists of a wooden frame 
filled in with parallel wires half an inch apart, 
surrounded by a rim of three or four inches in 
breadth, and supported by hinged props, which 
admit of placing the screen at any required 
angle. The soil to be screened must be dry and 

well broken by the spade before it is thrown on 

Fig. 64. Wire screen, for soil, old the screen. For gravel two screens are some- 
fan, or gravel. times required ; one with the wires half an inch 
a,part, to separate the sand and small gravel from the stones ; and another, 
with the wires one inch apart, to separate the larger stones from the smaller 
ones; those which pass through the screen being of the fittest size for approach- 
roads and carriage- drives ; while the largest stones which do not pass through 
are adapted for common cart roads. In small gardens sieves may be substi- 
tuted for screens. The smallest may have the meshes a fourth of an inch in 
diameter, and the larger half an inch. The wire of the smaller sieves should 
always be of copper, but of the larger sieves and of screens it may be of u'on. 

428. Carrying utensils are sometimes wanted in gardens, though flower- 
pots, baskets, and wheelbarrows, form very good substitutes. The mould- 
scuttle is a box of any convenient shape of wood or iron, with a hoop-formed 





148 



UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



handle, for carrying it ; sometimes it is formed like the common coal-scuttle, 
but rectangular. The pot-canier, fig. 65, is a flat 
board about eighteen inches wide and two feet long, 
with a hooped handle, by means of which, with 
one in each hand, a man may cai-iy three or four 
dozen of small pots at once, which is very convenient 
in private gardens where there are many alpines 
Fig. 65, Pot-carrier. in pots, and in nurseries where there are many seed- 
lings or small cuttings. 

429. Baskets. — Several different kinds of baskets are used in gardens. 
They are woven or worked of the young shoots of willow, hazel, or other 
plants, or of split deal or willow, or of spray ; but by far the greater number 
of baskets are made of the one year's shoots or wands of the common willow, 
^Salix vimmalis. They are for the most part used for carrying articles from 
one point to another, though some are employed as a substitute for a garden 
wallet, others are used for growing plants; some for protecting plants 
from the sun or the weather, and others as utensils for measuring by bulk. 
As every gardener and country labourer ought to understand the art of basket- 
making for ordinary purposes, in order to fill up his working time during 
inclement weather, we shall first shortly describe that operation. 

480. Basket-making. — One year's shoots of the common willow, or of 
some other species of that family, are most generally used. The shoots are 
cut the preceding autumn, and tied in bundles, and if they are intended to 
be peeled, their thick ends are placed in standing water to the depth of three 
or four inches ; and when the shoots begin to sprout in spring they are dra^vn 
through a split stick stuck in the ground, or an apparatus consisting of two 
round rods of iron, nearly half an inch thick, one foot foui- inches long, and 
tapering a little upwards, welded together at the one end, which is sharpened 
so that the instrument may be readily thrust through a hole in a stool or small 
bench, on which the operator sits. In using it, the operator takes the wand 
in his right hand by the small end, and puts a foot or more of the thick end 
into the instrument, the prongs of which he presses together with his left 
hand, while with his right he draws the willow towards him, by which the 
bark is at once separated from the wood : the small end is then treated in 
the same manner, and the peeling is completed. Every basket consists of 
two parts : the framework of the structure, and the filling in or wattled 
part. The principal ribs in common baskets are two : a vertical rib or 
hoop, the upper part of which is destined to form the handle ; and a hori- 
zontal hoop or rim, which is destined to support all the subordinate ribs on 
which the wands are wattled. The two main ribs are first bent to the 
requu-ed form, and made fast at their extremities by nails or wire. They 
are then joined together in their proper position, the one intersecting the 
other ; and they are afterwards nailed together, or tied by wire at the points 
of intersection. The operation of wattling is next commenced, by taking 
the small end of a wand, and passing it once or twice round the cross formed 
by the pomts of intersection ; after which one, or perhaps two secondary 
ribs, are introduced on each side of the vertical main rib. The wattling is 
then proceeded with a little further, when two or more secondary ribs are 
introduced ; and the process is continued till a sufl5cient number of subordi- 
nate ribs are put in to support the wattling of the entire structure. The 
whole art, as far as concerns the gai'dener, will be understood from the fol- 
lowing figures : — 




UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



149 



Fig. 66 shows the handle and rim of what is called the Scotch basket, 
made fast at the points of intersection. 



Fig. 67. Handle, rim, and ribs of a Scotch basket. 





Fig. 66. Handle and rim of a Scotch basket 



Fig. 67 shows the same skeleton, with the ribs of one side added, and the 
wattling or woven work commence^. 

Fig. 68 represents the commencement of what is called the English mode of 
basket-making ; ui which three parallel rods of two or three feet in length, 
according to the intended diameter of the bottom of the basket, are laid flat 
on the ground, and three other rods of the same length laid across them at 
right angles, as at a ; and next the weaving process is commenced, as at b. 



Fig- 68. Commencement of basket 
making in the English manner. 




Figs. 69 and 70 show the progress of weaving the bottom ; the latter being 
what ultimately becomes the under side, and the former the upper side. 





Fig. 69. Upper side. 



Fig. 70. Underside. 



150 UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 

Fig. 71 shows the bottom complete, the under side of it being uppermost. 




Fig. 71. Bottom of the English basket complete. 
Fig. 72 shows the bottom turned upside down, the points of some of the 
radiating ribs cut off ; some of the rods which are to form the side ribs in- 
serted ; and the side weaving commenced. 




Fig. 72. Side weaving commenced on the English basket- 



UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



151 



Fig. 73 shows the basket nearly completed, with part of the rim j&nished, 
and the rod on which the handle is to be formed inserted. 




Fig. 73, Tlie English basket nearly complete. Fig. 74- Working the sides of the English basket. 

Fig. 74 shows the rim completed and part of the handle plaited. 

Further details will be found in the Arboretum Britannicum, vol. iii. p. 
1471, but those above given will be sufficient to enable any person of ordinary 
ingenuity to construct every kind of wickerwork, whether baskets or hur- 
dles, that can be required for a garden. 

431. Carrying -baskets of different sizes are required in gardens for carrying 
plants for being transplanted, seeds, sets or roots for planting, vegetables or 
fruits from the garden to the kitchen, and for a variety of other pui-poses. A 
basket for hanging before the operator when pmning or nailing wall trees^ 
is sometimes made of wands, and occasionally of split wood ; but a leathern 
wallet, to be hereafter described, is greatly preferable. Larger and coarser 
baskets than any of these arc used for carrying soil, manures, tanner's bark, 
weeds, &c., and are commonly called scuttles, creels, &c. 

432. Measuring-baskets arc formed of particular dimensions, the largest 
seldom containing more than a bushel, and others half-bushels, pecks, and 
half-pecks. There are also pint baskets, punnets, pottles, and thumbs, 
vv hich are utensils in use in the London fruit and vegetable markets for con- 
taining the more valuable vegetables, such as mushrooms, early potatoes, 
forced kidney beans, and the more choice fruits. The bushel basket is gene- 
rally made of peeled wands, but the others of split willow wood, or split 



152 



UTENSILS USED IN HORTICULTURE. 




deal. Fig. 75 represents a punnet 
manufactured in the latter manner, 
the construction of which will be un- 
derstood by any person who under- 
stands the English mode of basket- 
making. 

433. Baskets for growing plants 
were a long time in use in the open 
Fig. 75. Punnet basket garden, being plunged in spring, and 

taken up in the following autumn ; the object being to take up fruit-trees or 
other tender shrubs with a ball, and with most of the fibres. At present 
baskets for growing plants are chiefly used in orchidaceous houses, the basket 
being filled with moss ; but as they are found to be of very short duration, 
wire baskets are substituted, earthenware pots with perforated sides, or a sort 
of open box formed of short rods, laid over one another, at the angles, some- 
what in the manner of a log-house. 

484. Portable Glass Utensils for plants are cliiefly of two kinds : the bell- 
glass, fig. 76, and the hand-glass, fig. 77. Bell-glasses 
vary in dimensions from the large green bell-glass, — j 
eighteen inches in diameter and twenty inches in height, 
used in the open garden for protecting cauliflowers in 
winter and cucumbers in summer, to the small crystal 
bell, three inches in diameter, and 
two inches high, for covering new- 
ly-planted cuttings- Whenever 
the propagation of tender plants by 
cuttings, or by the greffe 6touffe, is attempted, bell- 
Fig. 77. Cast-iron hand- S^^^^^^ ^1'^ essential. The common hand-glass is formed 
glass in two parts, the either square, or of five or more sides on the plan, and 
roof and sides. with the sides Commonly eight or twelve inches high. 

The framework is of lead, cast-iron, tinned wrought-iron, copper, or zinc ; 
the last is much the cheapest, and also the lightest, and when kept well 
paiated, it will last as long as cast-iron, which with the moisture of the soU 
soon becomes rusty at the lower edge. Cast-iron hand-glasses being very 
heavy, are commonly formed in two pieces ; and when the form is square, as 
in fig. 77, air is very conveniently given by changing the position of the cover- 
ing part, as shown in the figure. 

435. The following substitute for hell-glasses may be readily adopted by 
any gardener who can get pieces of broken window-glass from his frames or 
hothouses, and who has a glazier's patent diamond, which differs from the 





Figr.TG. Bell glasses. 





Fig. 78. Substitutes for bell-glasses. 



MACHINES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



153 



common diamond in this, that any person can cut with it. Having procured 
the diamond and several pieces of broken window-glass, cut the latter into 
figures appropriate in size and form for the sides of four or six-sided prisms, 
as shown in fig. 78. When the pieces of glass are properly cut out by a 
wooden or card pattern, join them together with strips of tape, about three - 
eighths of an inch wide, made to adhere to the glass with India-rubber 
vamish. After the glass is formed, varnish over the tape, and the whole will 
be found firm and durable. A loop may be formed at top either of the tape 
or of wire, so as to lift them by. Glasses of this sort may be made from 
six inches to a foot in diameter, and will at all events be found useful for 
striking cuttings or protecting rising seeds. An excellent substitute for 
hand-glasses will be described under the section on structures. 

436. Powdering-boxes for plants are required for dusting them with 
powdered lime, sulphur, coarse snufF, powdered charcoal, fine sand, &c. 
One of the most convenient forms is that of the common dredge-box, but 
for the light powders an appendage to be hereafter described may be added 
to the common bellows. All powders intended to rest on the leaves of 
plants should be dusted over them when they are moist with dew, or by 
having been previously watered. 

437. Other Utensils. — We have omitted to mention some used in very 
extensive gardens, botanic gardens, and nurseries ; such as the glazed 
packing-box ; the earthenware shelter, which may be described as an inverted 
flower-pot, with the sides perforated with holes, or with a large opening on 
one side ; plant-shades of various kinds ; utensils for entrapping or destroying 
vermin ; bulb- glasses ; cast-iron pots for burning tobacco ; and a few other 
articles not in general use, or readily substituted by others of a more simple 
and economical kind. 

Sect. V. — Machines used in Horticulture. 

Machines differ from other horticultural implements in being less simple 
in their construction, and in their action, enabling the operator to abridge 
labour. The principal gardening machines are the wheelbarrow, roller, 
watering engines, garden-bellows, and transporting or transplanting machines. 

438. Wheelbarrows for gardens are of two kinds : one of large dimensions 
for wheeling littery dung, tan, short grass, leaves, haulm, or weeds ; and 
another of moderate size (fig. 79), for wheeling soil and gravel. They are 

generally constructed of wood, 
with the wheel also of wood 
and shod with iron; but some 
wheelbarrows are formed en- 
tirely of cast and wrought 
iron ; they are, however, too 
heavy for wheeling anything 
Fig. 79- Garden wheelbarrow. excepting littery dung or other 

light matters, and they are far from being so durable as a wooden barrow, 
when the latter is kept well painted. Some dung and tan barrows have the 
body or box attached to the handles or levers, commonly called trams, by 
moveable iron bolts, so that it can be readily taken off and carried by two 
men into places where the entire barrow with its wheel could not be 
admitted ; for example, in fiUing the bark pit of a stove vdth tan or 
leaves. There is a third kind of barrow used by engineers, in deep cuttings, 
which has shallow sides of an equal height on every side of the bottom of 




154 MACHINES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 

the baiTow ; it is well suited for carrying heavy subsoil, or stony materials, 
but is not required in gardens. For general purposes, a middle-sized bar- 
row, between the dung barrow and the mould barrow, like that of which 
we have given a figure, is sufiicient. 

439. Rollers are essential in even the smallest garden, for compressing and 
smoothing gravel walks and lawns. They are formed of solid cylinders of 
stone, or hollow cylinders of cast iron, and a very convenient width is four 
feet. Cast iron rollers are always easiest to draw, from the greater diameter 
of the cylinder. The operation of rolling is most effective after the soil or 




Fig. 80. Read's garden syringe. 



gravel has been softened by recent rains, but is at the same time 
sufficiently dry on the surface not to adhere to the roller. 

440. The watering engines used in gardens are the syringe, 
the hand-engine, and the barrow-engine. There are several 
kinds of syringe, but the best at present in use is decidedly 
that of Read (fig. 80). Its two points of superiority are, 
a ball- valve, which can never go out of repair, and an 
air-tube, e, which allows the air above the piston to escape 
during the operation of drawing in water, by which means 
the labour of syringing is greatly diminished. There is a cap, 
a, for washing away insects from wall-trees, and throwing lime- 
water on gooseberry bushes and other standards in the open 
garden, and for water-pines overhead ; a cap, &, for sprinkling 
plants in forcing-houses, which throws the fluid in a light and 
gentle moisture almost like dew, and which is also used for 
washing the leaves of trees and plants when frost-nipped in the 
cold nights that often prevail during the spring, and which 
operation should, of course, be performed before sun-rise. There 
is also a cap, c, which is used when great force is required, 
more particularly in washing trees against walls ; and this cap 
is also used in dwelling-houses for extinguishing fires. Trees 
against walls are frequently covered with netting, and when it 
becomes necessary to syringe these, the netting, when the cap, 
6, is used, requhes to be removed, but with the cap, c, it may 
be kept on. For all small gardens this syringe will serve as a 
substitute for every other description of watering engine. Read s 
pneumatic engine (figs. 81 and 82), the former to a scale of 
in. to 1 ft., differs from Read's hand-syringe in effect, by forcing 
out the water in one continuous stream, and thus at once com- 
bining the character of a syringe and of an engine. By this 
engine, a volume of air is compressed to an indefinite extent, by 
the working of the piston for forcing out the water, and without 




any sensible increase of labour to the operator. The manner in g. 8i. Read's 
which this is effected wiU be understood by the section, fig. 82, P^^^<^i}^ 

... . - , , -, . -r. -.» . I hand-engmej 

m which a is the piston and cylinder, as m Read s syringe ; 6, 



MACHINES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 155 

a case in which this syringe, and also the discharge-tuhe (c), are in- 
closed ; a small hole in the side of the discharge tube ; and e, a valve 
at the bottom of the discharge tube : / is a ball- valve to the suction tube, by 
which the water is drawn up from a watering-pot, pail, or any other vessel. 

On the motion of drawing up the piston (a), the water 
enters b}^ /; while, by pushing down the piston, the 
valve at / is closed, and the water is forced up the 
valve at e, into the discharge tube ; but as some more 
water is forced into this tube than can pass through 
it, it escapes by the small opening at d into the vessel 
of air in which the working barrel and the discharge 
tube are encased. As the air cannot escape from this 
vessel, it is necessarily compressed by the water which 
enters through the small opening at d ; and, conse- 
quently, when the piston, a, is drawn up, and no longer 
forces up the water in the discharge tube, c, the action 
on that tube is kept up by the expansion of the com- 
pressed air which shuts the valve at e, and, conse- 
quently, forces the water along c. The great beauty 
Fig. 82. Section of Read's of tMs arrangement is, that no exertion of the operator 
pneumatic hand-engine, is lost ; nor can he exert himself without ^.producing 
a corresponding result ; for if, by rapid and powerful action, he drives much 
water into the air vessel, the greater degree in which the air is compressed will 
force the water with the more rapidity through the discharge tube, c. This 
engine is 3 ft. long, and 2^ in. in diameter ; it weighs only between 51b. and 
61b. ; works with remarkable ease, and is so little liable to go out of repau-, 
that Mr. Read warrants it to last a lifetime. Read's barrow engine, fig, 83, 
is an oval copper vessel, containing twenty-six 
gallons, particularly adapted for large conser- 
vatories and forcing houses. It will pass 
through a door-way two feet wide, and is so 
portable that it may be carried up or down 
stairs by two men. The great power of this 
engine depends on the air vessel, indicated by 
a dotted circular liue, in the body of the en- 
gine, in which all superfluous force is em- 
ployed in condensing air, as in Read's pneu- 
matic engine, so as to form a reservoir of 
power ; and in the proximity of the bent ful- 
crum, a, to the handle or lever, &, by which 

the weight C, beuig brought near to the ful- Fig. 83. Read's barrow engine. 

crum, the power applied at h is proportionably increased. In most engines 
of this kind there is no pneumatic reservoir, and the distance between the 
weight, c, and the fulcrum, a, is much greater. The construction of the pis- 
ton, valves, &c., is similar to that of Read's hand-engine, so that this barrow- 
engine is not only a machine of great power, but not liable to go out of 
repair. Mr. Read, who has been attending to this subject the greater part 
of his life, considers this engine as his masterpiece. 

441. Garden-bellows. Bellows are used in gardening for dusting plants 
with powdery substances, such as quicklime, powdered tobacco leaves, sul- 
phur, &c., and for fumigating them with tobacco-smoke. Read's fumigating- 
bellows (figs. 84 and 85) answers both purposes. It consists of a pak of 





156 



MACHINES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



bellows, fig. 84, a, to which is attached a canister, 6, with a moveable 
nozzle, through which the smoke escapes, c. The details of the canister are 




Fig. 84. Read's fumigating bellows, 

shown in the section, fig. 85, which is one- third of the natural size. In 
this section d is the bottom socket or cap ; e, the plunger, which keeps down 
the tobacco ; /, the nozzle of the bellows ; and ^, the tube by which the 




smoke escapes, unscrewed to show the ball- valve. 
In using this machine, unscrew the bottom socket 
of the canister, and turn up the canister, so that 



the perforated plunger may fall to what becomes, 
when in use, the upper end h; put in the to- 
bacco, or tobacco-paper, replace the socket, hold 
the apparatus in the position shown by fig. 84, 
hold the bottom of the canister over a piece of 
lighted paper, expand the bellows, and the flame 
will rush in and ignite the tobacco. Then by 
continuing to use the bellows in the ordinary way, 
the tobacco will be consumed in smoke, which 
may be directed by means of the issue pipe c at 
pleasure. Immediately after using the machine, 
immerse the canister, which will now be very hot, 
e I in water ; unscrew the top and bottom, and wash 
I and wipe the valves and pipe, so as to leave the 
I whole perfectly clean. If this is not attended to, 
I the oil of the tobacco will soon form a thick 
I glutinous coating, which will prevent the valve 
I ^ from acting properly. When a large house is to 
^ be filled with tobacco smoke, a fumigating pot, 






Fig. 85. Section of the canister of 
Read's fumigating bellows. 

such as fig. 86, may be used. It is 
made of sheet-iron, holds about 
three pounds of tobacco, and is 
placed on the outside of the house, 
with the smoke-tube entering it 
through a hole made on purpose in 




Fig. 86. Iron fumiyating-pot. 

the front wall or front glass. 



In the 



figure a is the handle by which the pot is carried, b the pipe by which this 



MACHINES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



157 



Fig. 87. Powdering'bellows. 



smoke is introduced to the house, and which is attached to a moveable lid, 
and, c, a tube to which the bellows is applied, and which enters the pot im- 
mediately under a perforated moveable bottom. A substitute for a pot of 
this kind is often formed by two flower-pots, a smaller one being placed upside 
down within a larger, and the tobacco placed in the former. In fumigating 
plants in houses, it will be found advantageous to fill the house at the same 
time with steam, by watering the pipes or flues, or by other means. The 
steam condenses the oil of the smoke, and leaves it on the leaves and points 
of the young shoots in the form of globules of oil, on the surface of the glo- 
bules of water. A pair of common bellows may be rendered fit either for 

< J • ' ^^^^7Y77 ?f?r^^ powdering plants or fumigat- 

- - "^^^^^^ ^^^ B^^^^^^~^=^ ^ ing them, by substituting a 

^ r ^ piece of tinned iron, fig. 87, «, 

^ j \^ ® ® / resembling in shape those tin 

b scales used in the retail of 
meal, in the flat end of which, 
6, are two small valves 1^ of an inch in diameter, with a hole between them, 
to which a screw- cap is fitted for introducing the dust or the tobacco to bf> 
burnt. It is evident that the air which enters through the valves by the \xi 
stroke of the bellows, raises the dust or smoke in the interior, which is ejecteft. 
by the down-stroke ; and, by repetition, the whole powder introduced, or the 
whole smoke produced by the ignition of the tobacco-leaves, will be thrown 
out. (Gard. Mag. vol. iii. p. 30.) We consider this to be much the best 
description of garden-bellows for dusting plants with sulphur. 

442. The mowing-machine is used for shearing lawns, where the surface 
is smooth and even, and kept free from worm-casts and all matters that 
would interfere with the cutting part of the machine, which is formed 
exactly on the model of the engine for shearing the surface of woollen-cloth 
described inVres Dictionat'y of Manufactures, p. 1324. The machine crops 
and collects at the same time in a box the grass cut by it, and is altogether 
very complete in its action where the lawn to be cropped is suitable ; but 
for ordinary garden purposes most gardeners seem to prefer the short grass- 
scythe, and leave the mowing-machine to the amateur, for whom it forms an 
excellent exercise. 

443. Other machines. — In the Encyc. of Gard. will be found described 
various machines for transporting large boxes or tubs containing plants, such 
as Orange-trees ; machines for transporting and for transplanting large trees, 
for regulating temperature, for entrapping or detecting the enemies of gar- 
dens, and for some other purposes ; but few of these are adapted for the 
present work. It may be stated here, that the principle on which all the 
best machines for transporting plants in large boxes or tubs, or transplanting 
large trees with balls to their roots, is the same : viz. two windlass axles are 
supported on four props, which rise out of two horizontal beams, and the 
box or tree being raised by means of the windlasses, is retained in that posi- 
tion tUl it is conveyed to its destination, either by means of two horizontal 
beams, by manual labour, as if they were the levers of a hand-barrow ; or 
by placing wheels under them, in the manner of a cart or waggon. The 
best machine of this kind for removing Orange-trees in boxes, is that used at 
St. Margaret's, near London, and described in the Gardener''s Magazine, vol. 
X. p. 136. From the description of this machine it is obvious that it will 
answer either for transporting trees in boxes, or trees or shrubs with large 

M 



158 



MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



balls; though, to convey the latter to any distance over rough roads, larger 
wheels would be requisite than those which belong to the machine referred 
to. See our Appendix. 

Sect. VI. — Miscellaneous Articles used in Horticulture. 

In complete gardens, containing all the varieties of plant- structures, a 
number of articles are required for the purposes of cultivation and high 
keeping which can neither be classed as implements nor structures. Even 
in the smallest gardens, mats for protection, props for support, nails and ties 
for fastenings, and tallies for naming and numbering plants, are essential. 

444. Articles for protection. — Bass mats, woven from ribands or strands of 
the inner bark of the lime-tree, and imported from the Baltic, are in general 
use, both to protect from the cold by counteracting radiation, and to shade 
from the sun. Canvas, bunting, and netting of different kinds, and oiled 
paper frames, are used for the same purposes. Netting of straw ropes, 
formed by first stretching ropes as weft at regular distances, and then crossing 
them by others as woof, are sometimes used to protect wall-trees. Another 
mode of protecting trees by straw ropes, is by placing poles against the wall, 

— in front of the trees, at from four feet to six feet asunder; 

i thrusting their lower ends into the earth about eighteen inches 
or two feet from the wall, and making them fast at top to the 
coping, or to the wall immediately under it ; straw or hay ropes 
are then passed from pole to pole, taking a turn round each, 
and leaving a distance of about eighteen inches between each 
horizontal line of ropes. Straw ropes may also be used to pro- 
tect early rows of peas or other plants, by first hooping over 
each row, and afterwards passing three or four ropes from hoop 
to hoop. Of course they act by checking radiation, and their 
influence will be gi-eatest when they are placed between a foot 
and eighteen inches from the wall, the amount of heat reflected 
back diminishing in a geometrical ratio according to the distance 
Fig. 88. Wisps 0} of the covering from the body to be protected. Wisps of straw 
straw for being tied to a String, fig. 88, and hung in lines one above another in 
v^ed as protect. ^^^^^ ^ ^^g^ ^^^^ f^^. g^jj^g purposo as straw 

ropes, and in sheltered places are perhaps better. 

445. Mats of straw or reeds are used for protecting plants in the open 
garden, and also for covering glazed sashes, whether of pits, frames, or 
hothouses. Every gardener ought to know how to construct these, in order 
to be able to employ his men within-doors in severe weather. The following 
dhections are given by P. Liudegaard, late gardener to the king of Denmark, 
who used them extensively, and who states, that they produce a considerable 
saving of fuel, affbrd a great security from accidents, such as breaking glass, 
and not only retam heat much better than bass mats, but, from their greater 
porosity, allow the steam of moist hotbeds to pass off" more readily. When 
a heavy fall of snow takes place during the night, bass mats are not so easy 
to get cleaned and dried the next morning as straw mats, because they 
retain the moisture, and get frozen and stiffs by the frost penetrating through 
them ; and hence the next evening they cannot be put on again without the 
risk of breaking the glass. My. Lmdegaard found four hundred straw mats 
sufficient to cover four hurdred lights, for which if he had used bass mats, 
about twelve hundred would have been required. These mats are made of 




MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. ]r)9 

rye or wheat straw, or of reeds, and only in the winter time, when the 
weather is unfit for working out of doors. They are made m frames in the 
foUowmg manner :-An oblong square (fig. 89) is formed of four laths, along 




Fig. 



Mode of making straw mats. 



the two ends of which, a, «, are driven as many naUs as you wish to have 
binding cords, &, &, of which the usual number is six to a width of four feet 
as the strength of the mat depends chiefly on the number of these cords' 
The cords are of tarred rope-yarn; on these the straw, or reeds, is laid in 
handfuls, and bound to each longitudinal cord by other cords, which for 
greater convenience, are made up in little balls, c, c. These cords are also of 
tarred rope-yam. When a mat is finished, the cords are tied together at 
the top or finishmg end, the mat is then detached from the frame, and its 
sides chopped straight with an axe. These mats are more conveniently 
made by two men than by one man ; and by placing the frame -upon a raised 
plank or bench, than by placing it on the ground, and obliging the men to 
stoop. When straw is used, that of rye is the best, and will last, even in 
Denmark, three years : reeds last longer. In the most severe weather these 
mats are rolled on the glass lengthways of the mat; that is, from top to 
bottom, by which the direction of the straw is at right angles to that of the 
sash bar, which prevents the glass from being broken ; and over this covering 
in very severe weather, reed mats may be laid with the reeds in the same 
, direction as the sash bar, so that the water may run off them as it 
does off the thatch of a house, and keep the mats below quite dry. Where 
reeds cannot be got, mats of rye or wheat straw may be substituted • 
because it is evident, that having the straws or reeds laid in the direction 
ot the slope of the glass, must be attended with great advantages by 
throwing off the rain instead of absorbing it. {Gardeners Magazine, vol. 
V. p. 416.) The usual dimensions of these mats are six feet by four 
teet, because that size answers for covering frames and pits of the ordinary 
dimensions; but when they are to be used for covering the sloping glass 
of hothouses, they should be made of sufficient length to reach from the 
copmg to the ground, covering the front glass or front parapet. A ring of 
, twisted wire should be placed exactly in the centre of the upper end of each 
I mat, and to this ring a cord should be attached, for the purpose of beinff 
passed over a pulley to be fixed on the coping-board, or on the back wall 

M 2 



160 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



immediately under it, or on the top rail of the uppermost sash of the roof. 
This cord must be at least twice the length of the mat, in order that, when 
the mat is drawn down and rolled up, the end of the cord may be within 
reach of the operator on the ground at the front of the house. Another 
ring ought to be fixed to the centre of the lower end of the mat, for the 
purpose of fastening it to the front sill when it is drawn over the roof. When 
the mats are removed from the roof, and rolled up during the day, the 
cord is loosened from the ring, and lies on the roof, ready to be refastened to 
it, to draw the mats up the next evening. A second layer of mats might be 
drawn up over the former, in a direction across the sashes, so as to throw off 
the rain in the manner of thatch, by attaching a cord to one corner of each 
end of the mat, passing these cords over two pulleys, and laying on the mats 
like tiles on a roof. Drawing up two mats, however, the one immediately 
over the other, would be much less trouble, and would, excepting in the 
cases of heavy rains or thawing snows, keep out the cold sufficiently well. 
Where the roof is divided by wooden rafters, the mats should be exactly the 
width of the sash, so as to fit in between them : but where it is not so divided, 
the mats should overlap one another in the manner of slates — that is, one 
half the number of mats should first be draw^n up, leaving half the width of 
a mat between each, and afterwards the remaining half should be drawn up 
so as to cover the intervening spaces, and overlap afoot over the mat at each 
side. It is much to be regretted that mats of this kind are so little used in 
England, especially in country places, where straw is abundant and cheap ; 
for being made at a time when little other work can be done, and of a mate- 
rial of very little value, and retaining heat much better than any other 
covering, they would prove a great saving of fuel and of the labour of 
attending on fires, as well as insure the safety of plants. Mr. Shennan, a 
gardener of great experience, who used these mats extensively, observes, in 
the Gardener's Magazine for 1827, that he considers the revival of the old 
system of covering with straw or reeds, and the system of heating by water, 
as the greatest improvements that have been introduced into the forcing 
department in his time. 

446. Wooden .shutters form an excellent covering for the sashes of pits and 
frames ; and though they are more expensive at first, yet from their great 
durability when kept well painted, they are found by market-gardeners to 
be the cheapest of all coverings in the end. Boards do not retain heat so 
effectively as reeds or straw, but they exclude rain and wind better than 
that material ; and by being kept an inch or two above the glass by the , 
cross-bars which bind the boards together, a space is left sufficient to check j 
radiation, and to prevent the escape of heat by conduction. If boarded shut- 
ters could be kept about six inches from the glass, and air excluded from 
entering at top and bottom and at the sides, radiation would be effectually 
returned, and less risk of the escape of heat by conduction incurred than 
when the boards touch the sash-bar ; but this would require great care in 
excluding the air from the sides and ends. All the frames and pits in the 
gardens at Syon are covered by boarded shutters, and all those in the exten- 
sive forcing-ground of Mr. Wilmot of Isleworth. Narrow shutters of this 
kind might be contrived for hothouse roofs, so as to produce a great saving 
of heat. Canvas would, in many instances, repel wet and check radiation : 
as well as deal boards, and might be put on much quicker ; but the great , j 
objection to it is its liability to be disturbed by high winds, — unless, indeed, 1 



MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



161 



it is attached to wooden frames, which occupy as much time in taking off 
and putting on as wooden shutters, and are much less durable. 

447. Asphalte covers have lately been used for protecting glass roofs, and 
promise to be a very suitable, and, at the same time, cheap and durable 
material. The following account of a trial of this article at Dalkeith, near 
Edinburgh, by Mr. M'Intosh, is abridged from the Gardeners Chronicle of 
Feb. 13th, 1841. Pocock's patent asphalte roofing is sold in pieces 16 in. 
by 32 in., at 4ld. each, or about if d. the square foot. Its weight is only 
sixty pounds to the hundred feet square. It has been exposed to severe 
frost and to a heat of 220° without injury : being a non-conductor of heat, 
it is alike useful for protecting from cold and for shading from the sun. In 
texture the material resembles the improved patent felt, and appears to be a 
combination of hair and long fibrous substances, intimately united by exces- 
sive pressure, which gives it strength, durability, and an even surface ; and 
being saturated with an asphaltic composition, it is completely waterproof. 
Mr. M'Intosh has used it to cover 300 feet in length of cold pits ; and he has 
also a number of shutters made of the same material for covering the lights 
of forcing pits. Frames are formed of a top and bottom rail, and two side- 
rails, 1^ inches thick by 2^ inches broad : to the top and bottom rails two 
pieces of wood, 1^ inches by 11 inches, are fastened, and another of like size 
at the middle of the frame across it, attached to the side-rails. To these the 
asphalte covering is secured by copper tacks, but iron or tin tacks, made 
warm and cooled in oU, will answer as well ; thus forming shutters 6 feet by 
4 feet, weighing 241bs., and costing 6s. each, that is, 2s. 3d. for asphalte 
covering, 2d. for tacks, and 3s. 7d. for timber and labour. These water- 
proof shutters Mr. M'Intosh finds vastly preferable to Russia mats, and has 
no doubt they will last for ten or twelve years, if not longer ; for while not 
in use, they can, after being well dried, be stored in a dry, airy loft or shed. 
From the nature of the material they will not take oil paint with advantage ; 
but may, perhaps, be improved if thinly coated with tar and strewed over 
with white sand every three or four years. It is evident that temporary 
coverings to plants against walls, or in the open garden, might as readily be 
formed of these asphalte covers as of boarded shutters. 

448. Oiled-paper frames were formerly much used, both as protection 
from cold, and as shades from the sun. They are made by gluing paper 
to a wooden frame, divided into panes in the manner of a window by narrow 
thin laths. The paper used is what is called fine cartridge, but unsized : 
printers' demy will do. A ream of this consists of 480 sheets, each 1 ft. 10 m. 
by 1 ft. 5 in. ; so that the panes of the frame should be made of the latter 
dimensions. They are oiled with common linseed oil boiled, and mixed 
with a little white lead, being previously pasted on with a paste made of 
starch boiled up with a little glue. Frames of this kind may be used with 
advantage as a substitute for glazed frames in covering newly-sown seeds, or 
in striking cuttings ; for though oHed paper excludes light, it is a powerful 
conductor of heat. Oiled-paper sashes have been also extensively used for 
growing cucumbers and melons, and, above all, for protecting fruit-trees 
while in blossom. For the latter purpose the length of the frames may be 
made in lengths equal to nearly the height of the wall, and each frame 
hinged on one side to a temporary rafter, and kept fast at the other by a 
turn button of wood. When the frames are to be kept open, they can be 
tied to stakes in a simple and expeditious manner, such as will readily occur 
to every gardener. 



162 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



449. Oiled-paper caps are also constructed for protecting or shading her- 
baceous plants in the open garden, and more especially for protecting the 
young shoots of Dahlias when newly planted out in spring, and their flowers, 
from the frost of autumn. In low situations, near water. Dahlias are gene- 
rally blackened by frost five or six weeks before tliis takes place in high 
grounds ; but by the use of such caps as we are about to describe, the plants 
may be protected from perpendicular frosts until the roots are ripe. A cap 
or head for this purpose is shown in figs. 90 to 93. Fig. 90 represents the 

/ ^...mmm^ 93 

.91 

I 




Figs, yo to 93. Oiled paper cap for protecting Dahlias and other flowers. 

stake which supports the cap, in which a, represents a hooked wire 
attached to the stake, and adapted to an eye in the stem of the cap, to make 
sure of holding the latter fast ; 6, shows the four side branches to which the 
Dahlia-shoots are tied ; c, a wooden peg for fastening the tenon of the cap 
into the mortice of the stake ; and e, the surface of the ground. Fig. 91 is 
a geometrical elevation of one side of the frame of the cap, in which is 
shown, /, the summit where the two ribs that form the four angles of the 
cap cross each other, into v/hich the stem, ^, is inserted ; A, shows the edge 
of the mortise ; i, the lower wire ; A:, the upper wire ; and /, one of the ribs. 
Fig. 92 is a perspective view of the skeleton of the cap, in which mrt repre- 
sents the point where the two ribs cross, and the hole in the tenon for the 
peg, c, in fig. 90 ; and o, the eye for the hook, d. Fig. 93 is a perspective 
view of the stake and cap represented inserted in the ground, in which p 
represents the side branches, to which ought to be attached the stems of the 
dahlias ; and c, the surface of the ground. The size of the caps is about 
eighteen inches on the side, and the length of the stake is four feet ; but in 
constructing them the workman will, of course, adjust the length of the 
stake and the diameter of the cap to the height and breadth of the plant to 
be protected. These caps are the invention of Mr. John Turn bull (Gard. 
Mag. xiii. p. 212), who says they will endure for many years with but 
little repair. A cap of wickerwork, for the same purpose, is described in 
the Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. i. p. 181. It consists of an inverted shallow 
basket, to which is attached a tube made of the same material, through which 
the Dahlia stick is passed ; and a peg being inserted between the stick and 



MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



163 



the tube, it is thus firmly fixed at any height required. It measures twelve 
inches in diameter in the widest part, and is three inches and a half in 
depth. 

450. Wicker-v-ork hurdles are useful in gardens for sheltering low plants 
from high winds, for placing horizontally over seedlings to protect them from 
birds, and, in various positions, for shading plants. They are constructed 
of upright stakes fixed in the ground, or in lioles in a board, at regular dis- 
tances of from four inches to eight inches, according to the size of the mate- 
rials and the dimension of the hurdle, and these stakes are filled in or wattled 
with small rods, wands, or spray. When kept dry, they will last three or 
four years, if the stakes are made of willow, or of any of the soft woods ; and 
from four to six or seven years, if they are made of hazel, oak, ash, or any of 
the hard woods. 

451. Props for plants vary in form, dimension, and material, from the 
small wires used for supporting hyacinths in w^ater-glasses, and the sticks of 
six inches in length, used for supporting plants in pots, to cast-iron rods of 
six or eight feet in length, and pillars for roses and other climbers, formed 
of the stems of young fir-trees, of from ten to twenty feet in length, as in 
fig. 94. All the varieties of wooden props may be 
reduced to four kinds — 1. Straight rods with the 
bark on, but with all the side branches cut off, 
varying in size from the shoot of one year to the 
stem of a fir of twenty years' growth. These 
are used for every purpose, from the tying up of 
plants in pots to the support of lofty climbers, in- 
cluding between these extremes tying up dahlias 
and standard roses. 2. Branches or stems, with 
aU the side branches and branchlets retained, used 
for the support of climbing annual stems, such 
as peas, kidney-beans, tropseolums, &c., but only 
suitable when these plants will grow in the open 
ground ; when grown in pots, wire frames, or a 
regular framework of laths, are more in accord- 
ance with the artificial state in which the plants \^ 
are placed. 8. Wooden rods, formed out of laths 
or deal by the gardener or carpenter, regularly 
tapered and pointed, and in some cases painted. ^'^■9^' Props for climbers. 
These are chiefly used for choice plants in pots, but partly also in the 
open garden. 4. Iron rods, from short pieces of wire to rods of cast or 
wrought iron, for supporting dahlias, standard roses, and other plants, and 
with or without spreading heads for climbers. Fig. 95 shows a variety of 
these rods, which may be had of the principal London ironmongers. All 
iron work, before being used in the open air in gardens, would be rendered 
more durable if thoroughly heated and painted over with oil, the effect of 
which is, to prevent the action of the atmosphere on the surface of the iron, 
by carbonising it. After this operation painting may be dispensed with, 
excepting for ornament. It is in general, however, better to paint them, 
and the colour should be black, blue-black, or some very dark shade of green. 
A light green, and white, are of all colours the most to be avoided in an 
artistical point of view ; because the first is too like nature, and the second 
is too glaring and conspicuous. 




a 



J 64 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 




Fig. 95, Cast and wrought iron props for supporting climbers. 



452. The durability of wooden props may, perhaps, be increased by soaking 
them in Burnett's anti-dry-rot composition ; or if they are made of deal, by 
first kiln-drying them, and afterwards soaking them in linseed oil. After 
the oil is thoroughly dried, which will require two or three weeks, the sticks 
may be painted. Sticks of red deal, treated in this manner, will remain 
good for upwards of twenty-five years. (Hort. Reg.^ i. p. 301.) Mr. Mas- 
ters is of opinion (Gard. Mag., xv. p. 821) that the duration of hop-poles 
may be doubled by kyanising ; but little benefit has been yet derived from 
it in the case of props for garden plants. Mr. W. H. Baxter (Gard. Mag., 
XV. p. 542) found kyanising of little or no use. 

453. Garden tallies and labels are articles by which names or numbers are 
attached to plants, and they are of many different kinds. The materials 
are wood, iron, zinc, lead, or earthenware, and the forms are still more 
various than the materials. The most durable are those of lead, with the 
name or number stamped with a steel punch or type, and rendered con- 
spicuous by having the letters filled in with white lead paint. The most 
common are made of wood, with the numbers, in imitation of the Roman 
numerals, cut with a knife. To form tallies to receive numbers of this 
description, take firm ash rods, about an inch or an inch and a half in dia- 
meter ; saw them into lengths of ten or twelve inches ; point the lower end 
rather abruptly, and either plane or cut with a knife a surface sufficient to 
receive the number required on the upper half. This kind of tally may be 
made during winter and wet weather, when little else can be done, and a 
stock kept on hand for use, if required. They are found to last eight or 
ten years, according to the situation in which they are placed. Some- 
times the number is written or painted, and the writing is in ordinary 



MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 165 



cases done with a black-lead pencil on a smooth surface, on which a little 
white lead has been previously rubbed in with the finger, which, when 
written on in a moist state, is found greatly to increase the 
durability of the impression. Sometimes Indian ink is used 
on a white painted ground, which, being a body colour, pre- 
sents a more conspicuous and durable impression than common 
ink, which is only a stain. The most durable letters, next to 
impressions stamped in lead, are those in black oil-paint on a 
white ground. For plants in pots, a tally, formed of wood, cut 
with a common knife from thin laths, rubbed with white lead, 
and written on with a black-lead pencil, is one of the most 
convenient and economical forms and materials. Fig. 96, which 
consists of a shank of wire with the head of wood, is a form 
for pots, as the wire does not injure the roots : the plate is 2|- 
inches long and 1 J inches broad, and about a quarter of an 
inch thick ; the piece of iron wire is about three-sixteenths of 
an inch thick, and is painted black, while the wooden plate is pjg gg yjfoorfe« 
painted white. These tallies are very conspicuous and very label, with a shank 
durable. For herbaceous plants, or low shrubs, or trees in 
the open air, the tally, fig. 97, is very neat and durable, and much more 

economical than would at first sight 
appear. It is formed of cast-iron, with 
a head of the same metal, in which is 
a sunk panel, into which the label 
with the name is placed, and after- 
wards covered with a piece of glass 
neatly fitted in, and puttied like the 
pane of a window. The label should 
be a slip of wood, lead, pewter, or 
earthenware, as not being liable to 
rust, shrink, or warp, from drought 
or moisture. Previously to putting 
in the labels, the tally should be car- 
bonised by heating it nearly red-hot 
and immersing it in oil, as is practised 
with gun-barrels to render them im- 
pervious to the action of the atmo- 
sphere. This being done, a coat of paint 
may be dispensed with, or the iron- 
work may be painted black, and the 
part on which the name is written 
white; or the label may be simply 
rubbed over with a little white lead, 
and the name written with a black- 
lead pencil. In the Glasgow Botanic 
Garden these tallies have been used 
extensively for the last fifteen years. 
The label is there formed of wood, 
and the writing by a black-lead pen- 





Vaccinium 
myrtillm 



Fig. 97. Cast-iron tally, with the label of wood cil, after prcviously rubbiug in a little 

placed in a sunk panel, and covered with a piece white lead. For plants in grcenhoUSes 
of glass secured by putty, , . t ' , ^^• 

or stoves, very neat porcelain tallies 



1G6 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 




are made at the potteries, and they are perhaps the handsomest of all. 
They cost from 2d. to 3d. each, and readily receive black paint, China ink, 
or common ink, without any 
previous preparation : in the 
open air, however, they are 
very liable to be broken. For 
alpine or other herbaceous 
plants in pots in the open air, 
no tally is better than strips of 
sheet lead, about an eighth of 
an inch thick, with the 'name 
at length stamped in with steel 
type, — an operation which the 
gardener may perform in incle- 
ment weather. For large tal- 
lies for trees, bricks, moulded 
with a sloping face and a sunk 
panel to contain a label of lead, 
I zinc, or wood, may be used ; or 
tallies of heart-of-oak, previ- 
ously steamed to draw out the 
sap, and afterwards boiled in 
linseed oil, painted black, with 
the name in white ; or a tally 
formed of a cast-iron shank, 
rivetted to a plate of lead, on 
which the name is stamped, 
the shank and plate being 
painted black, and the letters 
^. ^ , . , , tilled in with white lead. This 

Fig. 98. Cast-iron shank 

and disk of a tally for tally WaS USCd by Mr. GlcU- 

Trl rll*^'"^' ''"dinning in the Bicton Arbore- ^ig. 99. TaUy of cast-iron, with a 
Jirmgroun . tum ; the Cast-irOU shank is label of lead, for naming trees 

shown in fig. 98, and the tally onjirmgrouna. 
complete, with the label of lead rivetted on, is shown in fig. 99. In 
the Goldsworth Arboretum, instead of a plate of lead, a plate of por- 
celain is used, on which the name is painted in black in oil. An 
improvement on this kind of tally consists in having a disk or circular 
plate cast on the shank, about a foot below the name-plate, as in figs. 
98 and 99, which prevents the tally from sinking into the ground, and 
always keeps it upright. Perhaps the most economical and durable tally 
for plants in pots is a small strip of zinc, about three quarters of an inch 
broad and six inches long, on which the name may be written with a 
black-lead pencil, after rubbing on a little white-lead paint, or with 
Indian ink on dried white paint, or on the naked metal with prepared 
ink, which is sold on purpose. The neatest, least obtrusive, and most 
durable tally for this description of plants is undoubtedly strips of sheet 
lead, with the names stamped in, and the letters distinguished by being 
filled with white lead. Temporary labels to plants are written on strips 
of parchment, or narrow slips of wood, and tied to them with twine, or 
sometimes, when the plants are to be sent to a distance, with copper or 



MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



167 



metallic wire. In all cases of writing or painting names or numbers 
on permanent tallies, the words or figures may be rendered more con- 
spicuous and durable by painting them over when dry with mastic var- 
nish, or with boiled oil. Instead of painting tallies black, Mr. Nesfield 
prefers a very dark lead colour, composed of ivory black (not lam^p black) 
and flake white, mixed with boiled linseed oil. His reason for disapproving 
of a pure black ground is founded on the fact, that certain colours, having a 
greater affinity for water than for oil (such as blacks, umbers, and ochres), 
are liable to be affected by damp, unless they are held together by a power- 
fully oleaginous vehicle, with a small portion of white lead. The lettering 
Mr. Nesfield recommends to be done with Paris white, mixed with nearly 
equal parts of copal varnish and nut oU, avoiding turpentine, because it soon 
evaporates, and causes the colour to look dead and chalky. The white 
should be used as thick as it will flow from the pencil, oecause the letters in 
that case will be so much more opaque ; and the varnish should be mixed with 
only a small quantity at a time, on account of its setting very rapidly. Tur- 
pentine must be entirely avoided, except for cleansing pencils, as it soon 
evaporates, while the varnish remains and hardens as it becomes older. 
Colours of the best quality requisite for painting and lettering labels are to 
be had of Messrs. Robertson & MUler, 51, Long Acre, London, whose prices 
are, for flake white, per bladder, weighing ;Jlb., Is. ; ivory black, per ^Ib., 1*. ; 
oil, per pint, 2*. ; copal varnish, per pint, Qs. Two Is. bottles of copal var- 
nish wUl be sufficient for an immense quantity of lettering. — {Gard. Mag. 
vol. xiii. p. 58.) 

454. Nails, lists, and ties, are wanted in every garden. Cast-iron nails, 
about an inch and a half in length, and the lists from the selvages of woollen 
cloth, are in. general use for fastening the branches of trees to walls, and no 
materials have hitherto been devised which have been found better or 
cheaper. The nails, previously to being used, are heated nearly to redness, 
and thrown into oil, for the reason before mentioned (458) ; and old lists, 
before they are used a second time, are boiled in water, to destroy any eggs 
of insects that may be deposited on them. The most common material in 
use for ties are strands of bass matting, and these are rendered much more 
durable when previously steeped in soft soap and water. For large branches, 
ties of the smaller shoots of willows or of clematis are sometimes used ; and 
on the Continent, the smaller branches are tied with rushes or the twigs of 
broom collected in the winter season, and preserved 
in bundles so as to retain a certain degree of mois- 
ture to prevent them from becoming brittle, and at 
the same time not to rot them. In this country 
tarred twine of difi^erent degrees of thickness, and 
bass matting procured by unravelling a mat, are 
almost the only ties in use. Metallic wire and small 
copper wire have been recommended, but they are 
only fit for tying labels to trees sent out of nurseries 
to a distance. A leathern wallet, fig. 100, is found 
n of great use in pruning and nailing wall-trees, when 
Fig. 100, Wallet for pvtting on the Operator is standing on a ladder. It is suspended 

rtLeT""^"'''^''^'^'^*"^'^''"' ^'^"^ shoulder by straps, and contains a large 
pocket for the shreds, nails, and hammer, and two 
small pockets over it for a knife and sharpening-stone. 




168 



MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



455. The garden-line^ fig. 101, consisting of an iron reel, a, 
knob for winding it up, &, iron pin, c, and a hempen cord of 
any convenient length, is an essential article; as is a measur- 
ing-rod, marked with feet and inches, for laying off dimen- 
sions ; and aGunter's measuring chain^ for use on a large scale. 
A pocket foot-rule and a measuring-tape are also useful. 

456. Ladders of different kinds and lengths are required 
for use in the open garden and in hothouses. Figs. 102 
and 103 represent a light folding ladder, the sides of which 

Fig. 101. Iron reel and may be coustructcd of ycllow deal, and the rounds or treads 
pinforagarden-iine. ^^^^ jg ^g^^ -^^ hothouses and also iu the Open garden, 
and may be of any length, from fifteen to thirty feet. When the ladder is open, 
for use, it has the appearance shown in fig. 103, d ; when half shut, of e ; and 




Fig. 102. Portable ladder shut. Fig. 103. Portable ladder open. 

when entirely shut, of fig. 102. The section of each of the sides, or styles, 
is a semi-oval ; their junction, when the ladder is shut up, forms an entire 
oval in the section, as shown in fig. 102. The rounds, or treads, are cylin- 
drical ; and, when the ladder is shut up, they faU into grooves, hollowed out, 
of the same form ; half of the groove of each round being in one style, and 
half in the other, as indicated by the dotted lines, a, 6, in fig. ] 02. The 
ends of each of the rounds turn on iron pins ; one end rests on a shoulder, as 
at a, while the other end is suspended from below the shoulder, and turns on 
an iron or brass pin, as indicated by h. The ends of the iron pins which pass 
through the styles are slightly riveted. In every description of plant-houses, 
vineries, verandas, conservatories, aviaries, &c., a folding-ladder of this kind 




MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



169 




Fig. 104. Rule-joint ladder. Fig. 105. Orchard ladder. 



is a most convenient article ; because, when shut up, it may be carried 
through a house much easier than a common ladder. For working among 
climbing plants under glass, it is found to be particularly useful, as it may 
be introduced in places where there is not room for a common ladder. For 
pruning standard trees out of doors, it is particularly convenient, because it 
can be thrust through the branches like a round pole, so as not to injure 
them ; and when once it has got 
to the desired place or position, it 
can be opened, when the styles 
will press the branches on one side 
without injuring them. Orchard 
ladders for pruning standard fruit- 
trees, or gathering their fruit, are 
of various kinds, some with two 
legs to give them stability, and 
others forming a triangle, with 
horizontal pegs in each leg for 
supporting planks, which cross 
from one leg to the other, and on 
which the operators stand. Fig. 
104 is what is called a rule-joint ladder, for painting and repairing curvi- 
linear glass roofs. The ladder fig. 105 is in common use in the south of 
France and Switzerland, for gathering cherries. 

457. A Levelling Instrument of some kind is occasionally required in 
gardens ; for example, when box edgings are to be taken up and replanted, 
it is necessary to have the ground of exactly the same level on both sides 
of the walk, and this can only be done by levelling across. The use of the 

level implies also the use of poles, homing pieces, and 
other articles belonging to surveying, which, as every 
one who can take levels must necessarily be familiar 
with, we do not stop to describe. Fig. 106 is a more 
convenient form for a garden level than that used 
by bricklayers ; because, by the curvature on the un- 
derside, the operator can more readily level across 
raised gravel walks. 

458. Thermometers are requisite, more especially where there are plant 
structures of any description ; and it will be very desirable to have terrestrial 
thermometers for ascertaining the temperature of the soil in the open garden, 
as well as of the soil, and of tan or dung beds, under glass. It is true that 
a knowledge of the temperature of the soil in the open garden will not often 
enable us to increase that temperature, but it will assist us in accounting 
for particular effects ; and sometimes, as in the case of coldness produced 
from the want of drainage, or from a non-conducting covering repelling the 
rays of the sun, we have it in our power, by removing the cause, to remedy 
the evil. To ascertain the temperature of the soil with reference to plants 
growing in it, the bulb of the thermometer should be sunk to such a depth 
as may correspond with the great mass of the roots, or between eight inches 
and a foot. For plant-houses, a registering thermometer is a very desirable 
instrument, as a check upon the attendants in the absence of the master, and 
more especially in the night-time. That of Six is considered the best, and 
requires no explanation. 




Fig. 106. Garden level. 



170 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



459. An Hygrometer of some kind is almost as necessary as a thermometer, 
more especially now, when, as we have seen (251), the importance of keeping 
the atmosphere of plant structures saturated with moisture is beginning to 
be understood. 

460. Other articles of various kinds are required in gardens, of which it 
will be sufficient to enumerate those which are most important. A grind- 
stone is essential in every garden ; because, unless tools and instruments are 
kept at all times sharp, it is impossible that operations can either be properly 
performed, or a sufficiency of work done. Whetstones are also necessary for 
scythes and knives. Portable shoe-scrapers of cast-iron, for using when 
coming off dug ground in wet weather on the gravel walks. One or more 

^— - — "--.^^^ bridge- planks, fig. 107, for wheeling across box 

/\^^ edgings. Common planks for wheeling on 

WilillillllP^ ^ when the soil is soft, or when injury would be 

Fig. 107. Bridge plank for wheeling done by the sinking of the wheels ; and trestles 
across box or other edgings. {qj. raising them as Scaffolding. Some hundreds 
of bricks and flat tiles for forming traps for bu'ds or mice, and for a variety 
of purposes. A pair of leather bearing-straps for relieving the arms in 
wheeling or in carrying hand-barrows, fig. 108. Old fisher- 
men's-netting, for protecting rising seeds from birds, and for 
covering currant or cherry trees for the same purpose, or 
for protecting wall trees, or for shelter. Live moss, com- 
monly sphagnum, for packing plants and for other purposes. 
Lime unburned, but broken into small pieces, in order to 
be burnt in the hothouse fires, to supply quicklime as 
wanted for making lime-water : quicklime will answer, if 
kept compressed m a cask or box, so as to exclude the air. 
Potash, for using as a substitute for quicklime, in preparing 
a caustic fluid for destroying worms, snails, &c. Refuse 
tobacco, tobacco paper, or tobacco liquor, from the tobacco- 
nist's, or tobacco of home growth, for destroying insects. 
Sulphur in a state of powder, for destroying the mildew, 
and for sublimation to destroy the red spider. Soft soap, 
tar, gum, glue, &c., for suffocating the scfde, and for coating 
over the eggs of insects to prevent their hatching. Gun- 
powder, for bruising and mixing with tar to deter insects 
by smell. Bird-lime, for entrapping birds. Baskets, ham- 
Fig. 108. Leather pers, boxes, and cases of various kinds, for packing vege- 
bearing straps, tables and fruits, and sending them to a distance. A cabinet 
or case for the office, or for the seed-room, for containing seeds ; another 
for bulbs, if collections of tulips, &c. are grown. Canvas for bags, which 
may be used as a substitute for boxes for containing seeds. Paper of different 
kinds, twine and cord, cotton, wool, hay, fern-leaves, the male catkins of 
the beech, or sweet chesnut, to aid in packing fruit. Straw, reeds, tan, 
common sand, pure white or silver sand, oyster-shells as coverings to the 
holes in bottoms of pots ; pieces of freestone, for mixing with peat soil used 
in growing heaths ; leaves and leaf mould, grafting-wax, grafting-clay, com- 
mon paint, and probably various other articles which we cannot recall to 
mind, — might be enumerated under this head. But it is scarcely necessary 
to observe, that no gardener ought to confine himself to those implements 
of his art, which have hitherto been in use, whether as regards the con- 




PORTABLE, TEMPORARY, A'ND MOVEABLE STRUCTURES. I7I 



struction of particular instruments or utensils, or their number and kinds, 
for particular operations. Let him at all times think for himself; and 
if he can devise any tool, instrument, or utensil, for performing any 
operation better than those hitherto in use, let him not fail to do so. Such 
are the variety of operations required in extensive gardens, where a great 
many different kinds of culture are carried on, that this power of invention 
in the gardener becomes essentially requisite, and is, in fact, called forth by 
the circumstances in which he is placed. 



CHAPTER 11. 



STRUCTURES AND EDIFICES OF HORTICULTURE. 

Structures and edifices are required in horticulture for the more perfect 
cultivation of hardy plants, or for bringing them earlier to perfection ; for 
the protection of exotics that will not endure our winters in the open air ; 
for preserving and keeping horticultural articles ; for the enclosure and 
defence of gardens, and for gardeners' dwellings. 

Sect. I. — Portable^ Temporary^ and Moveable Structures. 
Portable structures are such as can be readily moved about by hand, such 
as the common hand-glass, or substitutes for it, wicker-work protectors, &c. ; 
temporary structures are such as are taken to pieces every time they are 
removed from place to place, such as temporary copings, canvas screens, 
&c. ; and moveable structures are those which can be removed entire, such 
as the common hotbed frame. 

461. Wicker-work structures for protecting plants may be of any conve- 
nient form. Fig. 109 consists of a rim about two feet high and a semicir* 

cular cover for taking off during fine days : it 
has been used at Britton Hall to protect half- 
hardy Rhododendrons. Fig. 110 shows vari- 
ous forms which have been used for protecting 
tender plants during winter, at Abbotsbury, 
in Dorsetshire : a is a semicircular hurdle, to 
protect plants trained against a wall, especially 
if newly planted and exposed to a sunny or 
Fig. 109. w^^y quarter; h is a double semicircular 

hurdle, or split cylinder, with loops on each 
side forming hinges or clasps. This is useful to put round the stems of 
young trees whose branches are too spreading to allow of a circular hurdle 
being passed over them from above. It is used as a protection against hares 
and rabbits in a shrubbery ; c is a large cylindrical basket to cover tall 
shrubs, with a viiior, or window, to be turned towards the sun or away from 
the wind, but to admit air. These three forms are chiefly adapted for 
permanent defences in the winter season; the following are for use in 
spring : d is the simple form of basket or circular hurdle, close on every side 
and at top, intended to protect low bushes, or growing herbaceous plants 




172 PORTABLE, TEMPORARY, AND MOVEABLE STRUCTURES. 



coming into flower ; e is a bell-shaped wicker case with a handle, for covering 

during the night plants that shoot early 
in spring. All these forms are con- 
structed of stakes of hazle, oak, or other 
wood, strong and pointed so as to be 
firmly fixed in the ground, and the 
wattled work is of willow wands or 
young shoots of hazel, snowberry, or 
whatever can be most conveniently got 
from the woods. Those structures used 
for the more tender plants may be filled 
with straw or hay, provided the plants 
are on a lawn where grass-seeds drop- 
ping from the hay will not prove in- 
jurious ; or they may be covered with 
mats or canvas. Besides these forms, 
which may be made of any size, accord- 
ing to that of the plants to be pro- 
tected, small semiglobular, close- wove 
chip baskets, not above a foot high, are 
used at Abbotsbury as shades for deli- 
cate Alpine plants in sunny or windy 
weather. Where baskets of this kind 




Fig. 110 



Wiciceruork protectors of various cannot be conveniently procured, very 
good substitutes may be found in bass 
mats, canvas, or oil-cloth, supported by rods forming skeletons of suitable 
sizes and shapes. 

462. Portable substitutes for hand-glasses. — Hand-glasses, from their 
great liability to breakage and the quantity of glass they contain compared 
with the ground they cover, become very expensive articles. A common 
square hand-glass, it has been shown by Mr. Forsyth, Gard. Mag. 1841, 
contains seven square feet of glass to light or shelter two and a quarter square 
feet of ground, being a little more than three times as much as is really 
necessary for the plants usually cultivated under them : hence he proposes 
to substitute boards well painted, pitched or tarred, to increase their dura- 
bility, in place of upright glazed sides to the hand-glass ; and instead of a 
conical or pyramidal roof, to employ a square cast-iron sash, twenty-four 
inches on the side. Fig. Ill shows the sash glazed with small panes, say 




Hand-box, as a substitute for a hand-glass. 



Sash, as a substitute for 
a hand-glass. 



Side view of hand'box. 



four inches and a half wide, on account of their cheapness, and greater 



PORTABLE, TEMPORARY, AND MOVEABLE STRUCTURES. 173 

Strength than larger- sized panes. The frame, fig. 112, may be six to nine 
mches high in front, and from fifteen to eighteen inches high at back. 
These small sashes, when not wanted for hand-glasses, or rather hand-frame 
coverings, Mr. Forsyth proposes to use as roofing to peach- houses, vineries, 
&c., and for various other purposes ; and he anticipates, and we think with 
reason, great economy from their adoption in gardens. Fig. 113 is an end 
view of the box, showing the uprights at the angles for supporting the sash, 
either close over the box, or raised to different heights to admit more or 
less air. By means of the notched uprights, the sash may either be raised 
six inches above the box at top and bottom, or it may be raised three or 
six inches at the back, and not raised, or raised only three inches in front, so 
as to admit more or less air at pleasure, and yet throw off the rain ; the sash 
being in any of these cases held firm in its place, so as not to be liable to be 
disturbed by wind. The pivots which fit into the notches are square, in 
order to admit of their being mounted on rafters of different kinds, so as 
to form coverings to frames, pits, or even forcing- houses. Supposing, says 
Mr. Forsyth, a bed of violets, running east and west, in the open air, twelve 
feet long and three feet six inches wide : drive seven notched pegs two feet 
apart down the centre of the bed to stand one foot above ground, and seven 
down each side at the same distance apart, but only four inches out of the 
ground : then, to make the sides and gable ends, take a piece of turf four 
feet by four feet, shaped out with the edging-iron, and taken up with the 
turfing or floating spade, an inch and a half thick, of the proper shape, so 
that it may be set on edge and kept so by a peg on each side, and having the 
green side out ; Avhen the lights are put on with every alternate one higher 
than and embracing the iron edges of the two under it, you will have a very 
elegant little flower-house, which a labourer might erect in an hour w^ith 
sixpennyworth of building materials, and the finished structure would have 
thus every other light hinged and ready to admit air or allow of watering 
and gathering flowers like a complete forcing-house. We regard this as 
promising to be one of the most useful and economical inventions that have 
been introduced in horticulture for some time. This box may be used in 
the open ground for forcing sea-kale, rhubarb, and for a variety of other 
purposes. See Gard. Mag. 1841. 

463. Canvass coverings for glazed structures or detached plants require 
for the most part to be in framed panels, as well to keep them tight as to 
throw off the rain, and to prevent them from being blown and beat about 
by the wind. To render the canvass more durable, it may be oiled, tanned, 
or soaked in Kyan's or in Burnett's anti-dry rot composition. When applied 
to cover the glass sashes of frames or pits, it should be in panels in wooden 
frames of the size of the sashes ; and this is also a convenient and safe mode 
of forming temporary structures for protecting standard plants or trees ; but 
by suitable arrangements, to be hereafter described, canvass or netting for 
protecting walls may be hooked on and fastened without wooden frames. 
This is done in a very efficient manner in the garden of the Horticultural 
Society of London, to protect a peach- wall. The stone coping of this wall 
projects over it about an inch and a half, w^ith a groove or throating under- 
neath. Coping-boards nine inches broad, fitted to join at their ends by 
means of plates of iron, are supported on iron brackets built into the wall. 
Fig. 1 14 shows one of these brackets, in w^hich a is an iron which is built 
into the wall, the thickness of a board below the stone copina* ; and &, the 



174 PORTABLE, TEMPORARY, AND MOVEABLE STRUCTURES. 



hole for the kon pin which secures the wooden coping. To these brackets 
« P^^^^^^^J;^ coping-boards are secured by broad-headed 

■ ~ P"^^' passing through corresponding holes, 

^^^^ ^5 in the board and bracket, a slip of iron, or 
" spare-nail," being then introduced through an 
^ eye in the lower end of the pin. The upper edge 

Fig. 114. ironbracket for support- of the board is slightly bevelled, so as to fit as 
ing a temporary wooden coping, closely as possible to the Under side of the coping 
of the wall, in order effectually to obstruct the radiation of heat, 
and the ascent of warm air. From tliis coping, woollen netting of various 
kinds, common netting, such as fishermen use, bunting, and thin can- 
vass, have been let down, and tried experimentally, in the course of 
the last fifteen years ; and we are informed by Mr. Thompson, that after 
repeated trials, the thin canvass was found the preferable article for utility, 
appearance, and dui-ation. This description of fabric costs about M. per 
yard, procured from Dundee. It requires to be joined into convenient 
lengths, or into the whole length of the wall to be covered, and bound with 
tape at top and bottom, and to have loops or rings sewed to it at top, by 
which it is secured to small hooks screwed to the upper side of the coping- 
boards. These hooks serve also for attaching the ends of pieces of twine, 
which are stretched down to pegs driven in a line four feet from the bottom 
of the wall. These twine-rafters are stretched at intervals of twelve feet, 
and support the canvass at a uniform slope, the appearance being that of anr 
elegant light roof, reaching to within three feet of the ground. The coping- 
boards are put up before the blossom-buds of the peach-trees have swelled so 
much as to exhibit the tips of the petals ; and before the most forward buds 
open, the thin canvass (or netting, if that should be preferred) should be at- 
tached to the hooks. The covering is generally put up about the beginning 
of March, and it remains on without being opened or altered, till all danger 
from frost is over, which is generally, in the climate of London, about the 
middle of May. The coping is entirely removed at the same time as the 
canvass, because the trees are found to thrive much better when exposed to 
perpendicular rains and dews. The canvass is found to be of great utility in 
bright sunny weather, when the trees are in full blossom ; for the peach and 
other stone fruit, which in their native country blossom at an early period 
of the season, whilst the air is yet cool, do not succeed so well in setting 
when the blossoms are exposed to as much as 100°, which they frequently 
are, against a south wall. The thin canvass admits also plenty of air ; while 
woollen netting, which it might be thought would admit still more air, was 
found to render the leaves too tender, in which case they suffer from the in- 
tensity of the light when the netting is removed. Common thread netting 
is not liable to produce this effect, being much more airy ; and this netting 
has the advantage, when not placed farther than a foot from the wall, of ad- 
mitting of the trees bemg syringed through it. Very little syringing, how- 
ever, is required till the trees are out of blossom, and none while they are 
in blossom ; and when the space between the canvass and the wall is nine 
inches wide at top, and four feet wide at the bottom, as in the Horticultural 
Society's garden, the syringing can be very well performed in the space 
within. Perhaps it would be an improvement in the case of the Horticul- 
tural Society's wall to have the coping as much as eighteen inches wide, as 
no frost, unless very severe indeed, would injure the blossoms of fruit-trees 



PORTABLE, TEMPORARY, AND MOVEABLE STRUCTURES, 175 



trained against a wall with such a projection ; but the iron fastenings for 
such a coping would require to be much stronger than for nine-inch copings, 
on account of the greater power which the wind would have over them. 

464. Canvass Shades to Hothouses. — A very complete mode of rolling up 
and letting down canvass over the roofs of hothouses was put in practice in 
the kitchen-garden at Syon by Mr. Forrest ; and as it is equally well adapted 
for covering awnings for tulip-beds or other florist's flowers, and for a va- 
riety of other garden purposes, we shall here give such details as wUl enable 
any intelligent blacksmith or carpenter to construct the apparatus. The 
canvass is fixed to a roller of wood, fifty or sixty feet in length, the length 
depending on the diameter of the pole or rod, fig. 115, a, and the toughness 




Fig. 115. Apparatus for rolling up and letting down canvass shades- 

of the timber employed, as well as the dimensions and strength of all the 
other parts. On one end of this rod, and not on both, as is usual, a ratchet- 
wheel, &, is fixed, with a plate against it, c, so as to form a pulley-groove, 
between, to which a cord is fastened ; and about three inches further on the 
rod is fixed a third iron wheel, about six inches in diameter and half an 
inch thick, e. This last wheel runs in an iron groove, /, which extends 
along the end rafter or end wall of the roof to be covered. The canvass or 
netting being sewed together of a sufiicient size to cover the roof, one side of 
it is nailed to a shp of wood placed against the back wall — that is, along the 
upper ends of the sashes ; the other side is nailed to the rod, a. When the 
canvass is rolled up, it is held in its place under a coping, ^r, by a ratchet, 
h ; and when it is to be let down, the cord, of the roll is loosened with 
one hand, and the ratchet cord, pulled with the other, when the canvass 
unrolls with its own weight. The process of pulling it up again need not be 
described. The most valuable part of the plan is, that the roll of canvass, 
throughout its whole length, winds up and lets down without a single wrinkle, 
notwithstanding the pulley-wheel is only on one end. This is owing to the 
weight of the rod, and its equal diameter throughout. 

n2 



176 



WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS -WORK. 



465. The common hotbed frame is a bottomless box, commonly six feet 
wide, and three, six, or eighteen feet in length, formed of boards from one 
to two inches in thickness. The height at the back may be two feet, and 
in front one foot. The bottom should be level, so that the sides and the 
sashes laid on the frame may slope from back to front. A three-light or 
three-sashed frame is divided by two cross bars or rafters, so as to leave a 
space between them from two feet nine inches to three feet for the width 
of the sash. It is placed either on the open ground, or on a mass of 
heating material, according to the purpose for which it is wanted, and, ex- 
cepting for particular purposes, facing the sun. As the great object of frames 
is to increase temperature without excluding light, the soil on which they 
are placed, or the dungbed or other means of heating which they cover, 
ought to be as dry as possible, either naturally or by artificial drainage ; and 
the glass ought to be clear, and so glazed as to permit as little air a? possible 
to escape between the laps. When common crown glass is used, small panes 
are found to be less liable to breakage than large ones of this kind of glass ; 
but when the sheet window-glass is used, from its greater thickness, the 
panes may be two or three feet m length, without much danger of breakage. 
The boards used for the frame should be of the best red deal ; and if, after 
being prepared for fitting together, they are thoroughly dried on a kiln, and 
afterwards soaked with train-oil in the manner which we have described (452) 
for preparing wooden props, the duration of the frame w^ill be greatly in- 
creased. All frames and sashes, when not in use, should be kept in an open 
airy shed, and there raised from the ground a few inches by supports of bricks 
or other suitable materials. In gardens where cucumbers and melons are 
grown extensively, there are commonly one or more small frames with single 
lights for raising seedlings, and others of two or three lights for winter or early 
spring crops ; the smallness of the frame allow^ing a greater command of the 
heating material beneath it, by the application of outside casings of warm 
dung. The back, front, and ends of frames are generally permanently 
fixed together by tenons and mortices, and by being nailed to posts in the 
four inner angles ; but in some cases the back and sides are fastened together 
by keyed iron bolts, which readily admit of separating the frame into pieces, 
and laying these away under cover, and in little space, when not required 
for use. From the short duration of frames, and from the great quantity 
of dung required to heat them, as well as from the waste of heat incurred 
in preparing that dung, frames are now, in most British gardens, being re- 
placed by pits, which may be called fixed frames, with brickwork substi- 
tuted for wood. 

Sect. 1 1. — Fixed Structures used in Horticulture. 

The fixed structures required in gardens are chiefly walls, espalier rails, 
trellis and lattice-work, and structures for containing growing plants. 

Subsect. 1. Walls, Espalier-rails, and Trellis-work. 

466. Walls are used for the protection of gardens, and also as furnishing 
surfaces on which fruit-trees and ornamental plants may be trained, with a 
view to producing increase of temperature and protection from high winds : 
they may be considered in regard to direction, material, height, foundation, 
coping, and general construction. 



WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS- WORK. 177 

467. Direction and material. — Boundary walls take the direction indi- 
cated by the form of the ground to be enclosed ; but walls built purposely 
for training trees, in the interior of a garden, are varied in direction according 
to the aspects which are considered most desirable. A wall in the direction 
of east and west, gives one side of the wall fully exposed to the sun for the 
finer fruits, or for fixing against it glass structures : while the north side of 
the wall may be employed for inferior fruits, for retarding crops, as well of 
fruit against the wall, as, in some cases, of vegetables on the border. A wall 
in the direction of north and south furnishes two good aspects for the second- 
ary fruits, such as apricots, plums, and the finer pears. Walls have been 
built in a curvilinear direction, but no advantage has been found from them 
excepting a saving of material, in proportion to the length of the wall, the 
curves having the same effect in resisting lateral pressure as buttresses ; but 
walls in situations exposed to high winds, built with projections at right 
angles, of the height of the wall and the width of the border, but somewhat 
sloped down from back to front, have been found beneficial in checking the 
course of the wind when in a direction parallel to the wall. Screen walls of 
this kind are frequently built at the exterior angles of the walls of kitchen- 
gardens ; and sometimes they occur at distances of from 100 to 200 feet along 
walls having a south aspect ; and in the case of east and west winds they 
are found very beneficial. Walls with piers at regular distances, allowing 
room for one trained tree between every two piers, have also been found 
beneficial from the shelter afforded by the piers, which at the same time 
greatly strengthen the wall, and admit of its being built thinner. In general, 
however, a straight wall, without projections of any kind, is most conve- 
nient, most suitable for training, and for protecting by temporary copings, 
and most agreeable to the eye. 

4G8. The materials of walls are brick, stone, mud, and wood ; but the first 
is by far the best. Brick retains warmth, in consequence of its much 
greater porosity than stone ; forms a very strong wall wdth comparatively 
little substance, from the rectangular shapes of the bricks, and the firnmess 
with which mortar adheres to them ; and it is the best of all walls for training 
on, from the small size of the bricks and the numerous joints between them. 
Add also, that from the porosity of the bricks, nails may even be driven 
sufficiently far into them to hold branches, as securely as nails driven into the 
joints. Stone walls are good in proportion as they approach to brick walls. 
For this reason, if the stone is not naturally porous and a bad conductor of 
heat, the walls should be built of extra thickness, and the stones should not 
be large, nor so rough as to make coarse joints, The warmest walls of this 
kind are such as are of sufficient thickness to allow of the interior of the 
wall being built without mortar, in consequence of which much air is re- 
tained, and heat is not readily conducted from the warm side of the wall 
to the cold side. A stone wall, with a facing of bricks on the warm side, 
forms the next best wall to one entirely of brick ; and next to this, a stone 
wall stuccoed, plastered over with a mixture of stone lime and sharp sand, 
or coated over with Roman cement of good quality. Walls formed of earth 
or mud are still better non-conductors than brick walls; but though they are 
warm, yet as surfaces for training trees on they are attended with several 
disadvantages. They cannot conveniently be built high, and whatever may 
be their height, they require the coping to project farther than is beneficial 
to the plants trained on them at any other season than in early spring ; and 



178 



WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS- WORK. 



they require a trellis on which to fasten the plants. Nevertheless the vine 
and the peach have been successfully grown against such walls at various 
places in the neighbourhood of Paris, though they are now rapidly giving 
way to stone walls. These walls are commonly built without mortar, ex- 
cepting to close the outside joints, or to plaster over the surface of the wall 
as a substitute for a trellis, which is always used when this is not done. 
The grapes at Thomery, near Fontainebleau, are chiefly grown on trellised 
walls of this kind ; and the peaches at Montreuil, near Paris, are chiefly on 
stone walls stuccoed. Walls formed of boards are frequent in the north of 
Europe, where timber is abundant ; but, except when the boards are five or 
six inches in thickness, they are very cold. In Holland, and more particu- 
larly in Sweden, when such walls form the backs to hothouses, they are 
thatched from top to bottom. In Britain, were it not for the expense of 
the material, boarded walls might in many cases be adopted instead of brick ; 
more especially in the case of walls built in the direction of north and south, 
because in them the air is of nearly the same temperature on both sides : 
whereas in an east and west wall, the heat produced by the sun on the south 
side is being continually given out to the much colder north side. Boarded 
walls two or three centuries ago afforded the only means, in the neighbour- 
hood of London, of forcing the cherry, the only fruit which at that time was 
attempted to be produced out of season. The boarded wall or fence was 
placed in the direction of east and west, the cherries planted against it on 
the south side, and casings of hot dung on the north, close to the boards. To 
derive the full advantage from the south side of an east and west wall, it 
ought to be of greater thickness than a south and north wall under the same 
circumstances ; because, from the much greater cold of the north side, the 
south side is continually liable to have the heat abstracted from it in that 
direction. A south and north wall, on the other hand, can never become 
so hot on either side as an east and west wall does on the south side ; and as 
it receives its heat equally on both sides, so it loses it equally. Where a 
east and west wall is thin, and consequently cold, it might become worth 
while, when it was desirable to retain as much heat on the south side as 
possible, to thatch it on the north side during the winter and spring months. 
The great advantage of covering with some protecting material the north 
sides of walls in spring, when trees are in blossom, may be inferred from the 
case of trees trained against dwelling-houses, which invariably set their 
blossoms better than trees against unprotected garden-walls. 

469. The height of garden-walls may vary according to the object in view, 
but it is rarely necessary to be more than twelve or fifteen feet, or less than 
six feet. In kitchen-gardens the highest wall is generally placed on the 
north side, as well to protect the garden from north winds as to admit of a 
greater surface for training on exposed to the full sun, and to form, if ne- 
cessary, a back sufficiently high for forcing-houses. The east and west 
boundary walls are commonly made two or three feet lower than the north 
wall, and the south wall somewhat lower still. The usual proportions in a 
garden of three acres are 17, 14, and 12 ; for gardens of one acre, 14, 12, and 
10 ; that part of the north wall against which the forcing-houses are placed 
being in small gardens raised somewhat higher than the rest. Tw^elve 
feet is found to be a sufficient height for peach and apricot trees ; but for 
pears and vines it may be one half more ; and indeed for vines there is 
scarcely any limit. 



WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK. 



470. The foundations of garden- walls should be at least as deep as the 
ground is originall}^ dug or trenched. The wall is sometimes supported on 
arches ; but this is not in general desirable, more especially in walls built 
in the direction of east and west, because the roots of the trees planted on 
the one side of the wall are liable to extend themselves to the border on the 
opposite side, which not being exposed to the same temperature as that on 
the other side, the excitement which they receive from atmospheric tempera- 
ture must necessarily be different, and consequently unfavourable to growtli 
and the ripening of fruit and wood. 

471. The copings of walls, for ordinary purposes, should not project more 
than two or three inches, because a greater projection would deprive the 
leaves of the trees of perpendicular rains in the summer season ; and in 
spring the trees can be protected from the frost by temporary wooden 
copings, as already mentioned (463). In order to admit of fixing these 
wooden copings securely, iron brackets should be built into the wall imme- 
diately under the coping : or, where temporary rafters are to be fixed to the 
wall for supporting sashes, stones, such as fig. 116, may be built in, to which 

the rafters may be fitted and fixed by a 
tenon and pin, as indicated in fig. 117. 
Along the front border, a row of stone 
or iron posts, not rising highei than the 
surface, may be permanently fix;ed, on 
which a temporary front wall or plate, 
for the lower ends of the rafters, may 
be placed. The garden-walls for ar- 
rangements of this kind should be flued. 
Fig. 116. stone for fixing temporary rafters. Stones for fixing rafters Can only be 
wanted on the south sides of east and west walls, because glass is seldom 
placed before walls with any but 
a south aspect. Iron brackets, 
to support temporary copings, 
may be placed on all aspects ex- 
cept that of the north. The per- 
manent coping is generally form- 
ed of flagstone, slate, artificial 
stone, tiles or bricks, and raised 
in the middle so as to throw the 
rain-water equally to each side ; 
and in the case of stone, a groove 
or throating is formed under- 
neath, an inch within the edge, 
to prevent the water from run- 
ning down and rotting the mor- 
tar. Where the coping is very x.. ^ • . ^, 
, , T„ , „2 ^ Fig 117. Mode of fixing temporary rafters. 
broad, and formed of flagstone, 

it is sometimes hoUowed out along the middle, so as to collect the rain-water, 
from which it is conveyed to a drain along the foundation of the wall by 
pipes ; but this mode is only necessary in the case of conservatory Avails. 
Where no trees are planted on the ntrth side of an east and west wall, the 
coping is sometimes bevelled, so as to throw the rain-water to the north side 
as in fig. 117 ; but this can never be advisable where trees are trained there. 





180 



WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS- WORK. 




Fig. 118. Plan of a hollow brick wall 14 inches wide 
and 12 feet high. 



472. In the construction of walls they are generally built solid ; but 
when the wall is formed entirely of brick, a saving of material is obtained, 
as well as a warmer wall produced, by building them hollow. There are 
various modes of effecting this, but one of the simplest is that shown by the 
plan fig. 118, in which a wall fourteen inches wide, with a vacuity of five 

inches and a half, may be built 
ten or twelve feet high with 
little more than the materials 
requisite for a solid wall nine 
inches wide. Such walls may 
be carried to the height of ten 
or twelve feet without any piers, 
and one advantage attending them is that they can be built with a smooth face 
on both sides, whereas a solid nine-inch wall can only be worked fair on one 
side. A still more economical w^all may be formed by placing the bricks on 
edge, which will give a width of twelve inches that may be carried to the 
height of ten feet without piers. Walls of both kinds have been employed 
in the construction of cottage buildings, as well as in gardens. (See Encyc. 
of Cottage Architecture^ p. 168 to 172, where several kinds of hollow walls 
are described.) A very strong %vall, only seven and a half inches in thick- 
ness, may be formed of bricks of the common size, and of bricks of the 
same length and thickness, but of only half the wddth of the common 
bricks, by which means the wall can be worked fair on both sides. The 
bricks are laid side by side, as in .Hg. 119, in w^hich a represents the first 
course, and h the second course. 
The bond, or tying together of 
both sides of the wall, is not 
obtained by laying bricks 

across (technically, headers), ^^o- ^l^. Plan of a brick wall 7i inches thick. 

but by the full breadth bricks covering half the breadth of the broad bricks 
when laid over the narrow ones, as shown in the dissected horizontal section, 
fig. 119, at 6, and in the vertical section, fig. 120. Besides the advantage of 
being built fair on both sides, there being no headers, or through 
and through bricks, in these w^alls, when they are used as out- 
side walls the rain is never conducted through the wall, and 
the inside of the wall is consequently drier than the inside of a 
wall nine inches in thickness. These walls are adapted for a 
variety of purposes in house-building and gardening, in the 
latter art more especially. The only drawback that w^e know 
against them is, that the narrower half- breadth bricks must be 
made on purpose. For the division walls of a large garden, or 
for the boundary wall of a small one, such walls with piers 
I 1 projecting eighteen inches or two feet, to enable the walls to 

be carried to the heio-ht of ten or twelve feet, mi^ht be econo - 
mic;. 120. End . 7 0 
view of a 7h- mically adopted : the space between the piers ought not to be 
in. thick brick greater than can be covered by a smgle tree. It must be 
acknowledged, however, that piers are not desu'able in fruit- 
walls, because w-hen the wall is newly built it cannot so soon be covered 
with trees, the piers standmg in the places w^here temporary trees 
would be planted. Piers, however, on conservatory walls may be turned 
to good account, both as assisting in supporting the temporary copings or 



i L 




a 


! ' r 


1 > 









WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK. 



181 



glass, and as heightening architectural effect. Walls are almost always 
built perpendicularly to the horizon, but they have been tried at different 
degrees of inclination to it, in order to receive the sun's rays at right angles 
when he is highest in the firmament during summer ; but though some 
advantage may probably have been obtained from such walls at that season, 
yet the great loss of heat by radiation during spring and autumn would 
probably be found greatly to overbalance the gain during summer. Nicol 
informs us that he constructed many hundred feet of boarded walls which 
reclined considerably towards the north, in order to present a better angle to 
the sun, but he does not inform us of the result ; a German gardener, how- 
ever, has found advantage from them. (See Nicol' s Kal. p. 149, and Hort. 
Trans, vol. iv. p. 140.) 

473. Treliised walls. — Where the surface of a garden wall is too rough, 
or is formed of too large stones to admit of conveniently attaching the 
branches of trees to it, by nails and shreds, it becomes necessary to fix to the 
wall trellis- work of wood or of wire. The laths or wires are generally placed 
perpendicularly six or eight inches apart, because the branches are generally 
trained horizontally, or at some angle between horizontal and perpendicular. 
Wires stretched horizontally, however, and screwed tight, form the most 
economical description of trellis; and if occasionally painted, they will last 
a number of years. Trellis-work of wood is more architectural, and the 
branches are more readily fixed to them by ties, which are apt to slide along 
the small wire unless the double operation is performed of first attaching the 
tie to the wire, and then tying it to the shoot of the tree. The colour both 
of the wire and the woodwork should not differ much from that of the stone 
of the wall, otherwise it will become too conspicuous. 

474. Colouring the surface of walls blacky with a view to the absorption 
of heat, has been tried by a number of persons, and by some it has been con- 
sidered beneficial ; but as the radiation during night and in cloudy weather 
is necessarily in proportion to the absorption during sunshine, the one ope- 
ration neutralizes the other. If, indeed, we could insure a powerful absorp- 
tion from a bright sun during the day, and retain the radiation by a canvass 
or other screen during the night, a considerable increase of temperature 
might probably be the result ; but the number of cloudy days in our climate 
in proportion to those of bright sunshine is not favourable to such an ex- 
periment. 

475. Flued walls are either built entirely of brick, or with one side of 
brick and the other of stone ; the latter being the north side of east and 
west walls. In the case of north and south walls which are to be flued, the 
thickness is equal on both sides, and the wall is built entirely of brick. The 
flues, Avhich are generally from six to eight inches wide, commence about one 
foot above the surface of the border ; the first course is from two to three 
feet high, and each successive course is a few inches lower, till the last flue, 
within a foot of the coping, is about eighteen inches high. The thickness 
of that side of the flue next the south should, for the first course, be four 
inches, or the width of a brick laid flatways ; and for the other courses it is 
desirable to have the bricks somewhat narrower, on account of the heat being 
less powerful as the smoke ascends. All the bricks, however, whatever may 
be their width, must be of the same thickness, in order to preserve uniformity 
in the external appearance of the w^all. As where garden walls are to be 
built a large supply of bricks is requisite, no difficulty need occur in getting 



182 



WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS- WORK. 



such a quantity as miglit be requisite for the flued walls made of any con- 
venient width. To prevent the risk of overheating the trees by the flues, 
trellises are sometimes applied against them for training on ; but where the 
wall is properly constructed, and only moderate fires kept, they are unneceS' 
sary. A great improvement in flued walls has been made by Mr. Shiells, 
gardener at Erskine House, Renfrewshire, who, though the garden is in one 
of the worst climates of Scotland, has been singularly successful in ripening 
grapes, figs, peaches, &c., on these walls without the aid of glass. Mr. 
Shiells places the furnace, as usual, at the back of the wall, about eighteen 
inches from it, and two feet below the surface of the ground. To prevent 
the roots of the trees on the south side of the wall from being injured by the 
heat, a wall of four-inch brickwork is carried up opposite the furnace with 
a two-inch cavity between them. From the furnace the smoke and heated 
air enter the wall at c, in fig. 121, over which, at a, there is a damper, by 




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Fig. 121. Longitudinal section of a Jlued wall. 

means of which the heat throughout the whole wall is regulated. When 
this damper is drawn about four inches, a sufficient portion of the smoke 
and heated air pass through the two under flues to produce the necessary 
degree of heat in them ; while another portion of the smoke and heat rises 
directly to the third flue, by which it, and the fourth or upper flue, are 
heated a little more than the two lower ones. This Mr. Shiells considers 
a great advantage, because the upper part of the wall is more exposed to the 
cold air, and less benefited by the reflection of heat from the ground than the 
lower part ; besides, the shoots there are generally more luxuriant and 
spongy, and would be later in ripening than those on the lower part of the 
wall, if they did not acquire an extra degree of artificial heat. Sometimes, 
therefore, it is desirable to warm only the upper part of the wall, and this is 
readily done by withdrawing the damper, when the whole of the smoke and 
heated air will rise direct to the third flue ; and thus, more especially if only 
a small fire is made, the desired result will be obtained without warming the 
lower part of the wall at all. By reducing the communication between the 
first and the second flue at a, to about thirty square inches, the damper may 
be dispensed with : because in that case a sufficient portion of the heat would 
rise direct through this opening to the third flue, and so heat as effectually 
the upper part of the wall as the lower part ; but by retaining the damper, 
the heat can be regulated more eff^ectually. The depth of the first or lowest 
flue is two feet six inches; of the second, two feet ; of the third, two feet 
three inches ; and of the fourth, one foot six inches : the width of all of 
them is seven inches and a half. The bottom of the lowest flue is about one 
foot above the surface of the ground, and the top of the upper flue within 
seven inches of the coping : the total thickness of the wall is about one 
foot nine inches; viz., the width of a brick in front, the length of a brick 
behind, and the remainder for the width of the flue. About two yards of 
the front of the wall at the warm end of the flues is built rather thicker on 



WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS-WORK. 



183 



the front side, to prevent any risk of the heat injuring the trees, wliich 
thickness is taken partly off the width of the flue and partly off the back 
part of the wall. The flues are not plastered, and in each there are four 
places for cleaning it out, 9 in. wide and 1 ft. deep ; each of these is filled 
with four bricks lengthways, not laid in mortar, but only pointed on the 
outside, so as to be readily taken out to free the flues from soot. There are 
twelve divisions of flued wall at Erskine House ; four planted with peach 
and nectarine trees, three with the finer pears, two with apricots, one with 
cherries, one with figs, and one with vines. Fires are applied both in spring 
and autumn, and the trees are covered by double or single netting at both 
seasons, according to circumstances. — See Mr. Shielis, in Gard. Mag,^ 1841. 

476. Conservative Walls. — Flued walls for growing half-hardy or green- 
house shrubs require a somewhat different arrangement from those intended 
for fruit-trees ; chiefly because in the former case it is necessary, in order to 
preserve the plants through the autumn and winter, to keep the border from 
perpendicular rains, at least to the width of three or four feet. For this 
purpose a temporary roofing is made to project over the border, immediately 
from under the fixed coping. This temporary roofing may be formed of 
hurdles thatched with straw, or reeds fixed by hooks close below the coping 
of the wall, and resting on a front rail, supported by posts at regular dis- 
tances. The posts may either be poles with the bark on let into the ground, 
or prepared from sawn timber and let into fixed stone bases. The straw on 
the hurdles should be disposed lengthways in the direction of the slope, in 
order to throw ofi^ the rain ; and the eaves ought to drop on a broad gutter of 
boards or tiles, or in a firm path from which the water may be carried off^ 
in drains, so as not to moisten that part of the border which is under the 
hurdles. The border should be thoroughly drained, and an under-ground 
four-inch wall may be built at the same distance from the wall as the bases 
to the posts, on which wall these bases may be placed. In order to enjoy the 
full advantage of flues to a conservatory wall, glass frames should be used 
during the autumn, instead of thatched hurdles, so as to admit the light at 
the same time that rain was excluded ; and afterwards the glass might be 
covered so as to retain heat, or thatched hurdles might be substituted. 

477. A Protected Trellis, with Moveable Glass Sashes, for ripening early 
fruit, has been long in use at Hylands, Bulstrode, and Strathfieldsaye ; 
having been originally imported from Holland, — {See Gard. Mag., vol. ix., 
p. 675.) Some of these protected trellises are double, wdth reeds in the 
centre, so as to form a kind of wall. One erected at Hylands, in Essex, the 
plan of which is shown in fig. 122, and the section in fig. 123, may be 



• 


a ct 
























<2- 













h 

Fig. 122 Flan of a reed wall. 



described as ten feet high, and consisting of a double trellis, a, &, composed 
of horizontal laths about eight inches apart ; a coping-board, c, nine inches 
broad ; the reeds placed endwise within the trellis, d, and supported about a 
foot from the ground to keep them from rotting ; this intei-val of a foot 
being filled up with slates, placed on edge, e. The trellis rods are nailed 
to posts, fig. 122,/, and by taking off" a few of these rods on one side, the 
reed mats can be taken out and removed. Russian mats would no doubt 
answer very well, and last a long time, and they might be taken out with 



184 



WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS- WORK. 



still less trouble. 



Straw mats (445) would also do, where reeds could not 
be got ; and heath, as being of a dark colour and 
• very durable, would make the best of all struc- 
tures of this kind. Peaches, grapes, and other 
fruits, ripen just as well on these structures as 
on brick walls, both in Holland and England. 
The trellis at Strathfieldsaye resembled low pits 
when we saw them in 1833, with the glass on, 
and the peaches, apricots, and figs, ripened on 
them about a month sooner than on the open 
walls. Similar stmctures (made, for economy, of 
coarse wood, rough from the saw,") have lately been 
erected by Mr. Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, and 
Mr. Bellenden Ker. 

478. Espalier-rails are substitutes for walls, 
commonly placed in borders parallel to walks. 
The commonest form is nothing more than a row 



of perpendicular stakes driven into the soil, about 
eight inches apart, centre from centre, about five 
feet high, and connected by a rail at top. When 
the stakes are of larch with the bark on, or when 
they are of oak with their lower ends chaiTed, 
they last five or six years ; but in general they 
are of shorter duration, and continually requiring 
repair. Framework of prepared timber well 
painted, supported from the ground by sockets 
of stone, are much more durable, and still more 
so espalier-rails formed entirely of cast iron. In 
every case, however, when either wooden or cast 
iron framework is used, the stones which support 
it ought to be raised two or three inches above 
the surface of the ground, not only because this is 
more architectural, but because it contributes to 
the preservation of the iron or the wood. When 
the stone bases are to support timber, the posts 
should not be let into the stone, because in that 
case water is apt to lodge and rot them ; but the 
stone should be bevelled from the centre, and a 
dowel of iron or wood inserted in it, so as to pass 
into the lower end of the post. If the post is let into the stone, it should be set 
in lead, pitch, or asphalte. In our Villa Gardener^ pp. 231 and 232, we have 
shown two very economical espalier- rails formed of hoop iron and iron wire, 
which we have had in use upwards of fifteen years, without requiring any other 
repairs than that of being once coated over with gas liquor. A very light and 
elegant espalier-rail, and perhaps the most economical of any, consists of iron 
standards let into blocks of stone, strong wires being stretched through the 
standards ; and at the extremities of each straight length the standards are 
braced by stay bars, and a connecting bar holding the two together ; the 
upper end of the stay bar being screwed to the main post. The triangle thus 
formed at each end of a straiglit line of trellis admits of straining the wires 
perfectly tight. A structure of this kind was first used as an espalier for 
trees at Carclcw, in Cornwall ; but it has been frequently put up in various 




Fig. 123. Section of a reed wall. 



WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS- WORK. 



185 



parts of the country in pleasure-grounds, to separate the lawn from the 
park, by Mr. Porter, of Thames-street, London, and others, at a charge 
of from 2^, to 6s. a yard, accordmg to circumstances. The chief difficulty 
in erecting this fence is to strain the wires perfectly tight ; but this is effected 
by screws and a peculiar apparatus which it is unnecessary here to describe. 
Those who wish to study the details will find them in the Gard. Mag. 
vol. xvi. p. 16. Fences or espalier rails of this description are most easil}^ 
erected when in a straight line; but by means of under-ground braces, either 
of iron, wood, or stone, they may be erected on any curve whatever. Where 
effect is any consideration, the braces should in every case be concealed 
under ground. When trellis-work is placed against walls, or against any 
object which it is deshed to conceal, it may be wholly covered by the 
plants trained on it ; but where it is placed in any position by which it will 
be seen on both sides (such as when it forms the supports to a verandah, or 
a summer-house, or a trellised arcade over a walk), the surface must not be 
entirely covered by the plants ; because it is desirable that leaves and blos- 
soms should be seen on both sides, and this can only be done effectively by 
the partial admission of direct light through the interstices or meshes of the 
trellis- work. A trellised walk closely covered with the most ornamental 
roses will show no more beauty to a person walking within, than if it were 
covered with the most ordinary plants ; but let partial openings be made 
in the covering of roses, and their leaves and blossoms will be seen hanging 
down over the head of the spectator, forming a perspective of flowers and 
foliage, instead of one present mg only the branches and the footstalks, and 
backs of the leaves. 

479. Trellises and lattice-work are constructed either of wood or iron, or of 
both materials combiued ; and though lattice- work, by which we mean 
trellis-work with the meshes or spaces between the intersections smaller 
than is usual for the purposes of training, is chiefly required m ornamental 
structures, yet it is occasionally used for supporting fruit-trees, and for culi- 
nary plants, such as Cucumbers. In order to render trellis- work durable 
and architectural, it ought never to rise directly out of the soil, but always 
be supported either by the wall or frame against which it is placed, or when 
it is independent, by bases of stone. This is almost always neglected both in 
kitchen and ornamental gardens, in consequence of which the construction is 
unsatisfactory to the artistical eye, and the posts, or other parts which rise 
out of the soil, decay long before the superstructure. Where espalier-rails 
of this, or of any other kind, are put up in flower-gardens for supporting 
shrubs which come early into flower, such as the Pyrus japonica, Wistaria 
sinensis, China roses, &c., they may be easily protected by a moveable 
coping of boards, like an inverted gutter, which can be dropped on or taken 
off ui a very few minutes. Trellis- work in kitchen-gardens is commonly 
employed against walls, to which it is attached by iron bolts through the 
wall, or by holdfasts driven into it ; and the laths are about an inch 
square, and placed vertically, and let into horizontal bars of larger 
dimensions, placed three or four feet apart, and fixed to the wall in the 
manner just mentioned. The distance of the laths from the wall need 
not be above half an inch, as that is sufficient to allow the ties to be passed 
behind them and the wall. In order to economise space in small gardens, 
Mr. Alexander Forsyth proposes to cover the walks with trellis- work for 
the support of fruit-trees. "Every species of hardy fruit-bearing tree and 



186 WALLS, ESPALIER-RAILS, AND TRELLIS- WORK. 



shrub," he says, " may be trained on curvilinear trellises, as in figs. 124 and 
125, over the walks and thoroughfares of the garden ; which walks, when 





Fig. 124. Trellised arcade for Fruit-trees. 



Fig. 125. Trellis for Climbers. 



once properly drained, paved, and trellised with cast-iron arches and wire 
rods, will remain cost-free, painting excepted, for twenty years ; at the end 
of which term, independently of the increase of fruit, and of the grateful 
shade and pleasing promenade that they will afford, they will be found 
cheaper than the walks made of gravel, in the same way that a slated roof is 
far cheaper in the long-run than one thatched. Besides the difference in daily 
comfort and annual expenditure in walks paved with slate, slabs, or flag- 
stone, at all seasons clean, and ready to be traversed by the foot or the wheel- 
barrow alike in frost and in thaw, there will be no more danger of dessert 
strawberries or garnishing parsley, when grown as edgings, being mingled 
with the coal-ashes in the walks ; no more cleaning and rolling of gravel ; 
and no planting and clipping of box." Fig. 126 shows the plan of the paving 

and pillars at the intersections of the 
) I I walks, with the small foot-paths outside, 

for conducting the culture of the com- 
partments. In open, airy situations 
where hedges for shelter are desirable, 

- trellises of this sort might frequently be 

adopted as substitutes both in kitchen 
and flower gardens. Single lines of 
trellis-work, or even of frames to be 
filled in with wire network, might also 
be adopted as sources of shelter in spring ; 
and in summer they might be covered 
T7,„ 'o/. D, ,■ ^ with kidney-beans, peas, gourds, toma- 

Fsg. i26. Plan showing the intersection of ^ c ml. • xx* 

trellised walks. tas, uasturtiums, &c. 1 he Wire nettmg 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 187 



to fit into such framework can be made by common country workmen and 
their families, as is the case in various parts of Norfolk, both with hempen 
and wire netting, for hare and rabbit fences, and for folding sheep. — (See 
Gard. Mag. vol. xv. page 222.) 

Subsect. 2. Fixed Structures for growing plants with glass roofs. 

480. Plant-houses are required in gardens for forcing the productions of the 
open air into maturity earlier than would otherwise be the case ; for retard- 
ing these productions, as in ripening grapes late and preserving them through 
the winter hanging on the tree ; and for the growth of plants of warm 
climates. Hence it follows that all the requisites for growing plants in the 
open air in their natural climate must be imitated in plant-houses. As the 
grand difference between one climate and another lies in difference of 
temperature (135), hence one principal desideratum in hothouses is to 
supply heat, without which nothing can be done either in forcing hardy 
plants, or in preserving those of warm climates. Next to heat, moisture is 
the most important agent in growth (140, 144), and that element is readily 
supplied both to the soil and the atmosphere ; but though heat and water 
are sufficient to induce growth, it cannot be continued or perfected without 
the influence of light, and unfortunately this is only in a very limited degree 
at the command of art. All that can be done in plant-houses with reference 
to light is, so to construct them as to admit the degree of light which is pro- 
duced in the atmosphere of the particular climate and locality ; and this, as 
every one knows, is effected by roofing plant-houses with glass. For grow- 
ing certain fungi, and for forcing some roots, very little light is necessary ; 
and where ripened crops of fruit are to be retained on the trees and 
retarded, light, at least direct solar light, may be in a great measure dis- 
pensed with. The retention or production of heat therefore, and the admis- 
sion of light, are the great objects to be kept in view, in deciding on the 
situation, form, and construction of hothouses. 

481. Situation. — In choosing a situation with reference to the surrounding 
country, the north side of a sheltered basin, on the south side of a hill and 
open to the south, with a dry warm soil, is to be preferred. The object of 
this choice is to have as little heat as possible carried ofi^, either by the 
evaporation of surface water, or by N., N. E., or N. W. winds. If the 
surface of the soil is hard and smooth so as to carry off the winter rains and 
thawing snows, without allowing them to sink into and cool the soil, so much 
the better. It is seldom, however, that these conditions can be fulfilled to 
their utmost extent ; because not only such situations are not frequent in 
nature, but that even where they do exist, the situation for the hothouses is 
determined by the artificial circumstances connected with the house, offices, 
and grounds. For ornamental structures the situation chosen is generally 
some part of the pleasure-ground, or flower-garden, not far from the dwelling- 
house ; and forcing-houses are generally placed in the kitchen- garden, or in 
some place intermediate between it and the stable offices (^Suh. Arch, and Land- 
scape Gardener^ p. 412). Wherever the situation may be, the soil and sub -soil 
ought to be rendered perfectly dry by drains so placed as to intercept all sub- 
terraneous water, from whatever direction it may come ; and by surface- 
gutters, or the surfaces of walks, &c., so arranged as to carry off the water 
of cold rains and thawing snows, without allowing it to sink into and cool 
the soil. The next point is to produce artificial shelter, by walls, or other 
buildings, so placed as to check the winds which blow from cold quarters 



]88 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



without obstructing the south and south-east winds, and the morning and 
evening sun. The amount of heat carried off by winds which are at a lower 
temperature than the surface they pass over, is great in proportion to the 
velocity of the wind, and the moisture of the surface, and hence the much 
greater ease with which the temperature of a greenhouse may be kept up 
when it is placed in a sheltered, rather than in an exposed situation ; for 
example, in the concave side of a curvilinear wall, rather than against a 
straight wall. 

482. The Form, — The most perfect form for the admission of solar light 
and heat is that of a semi-globe of glass, because to some part of this form the 
sun's rays will be perpendicular every moment while he shines, and at every 
time of the year ; and by it a maximum of light will be admitted at those 
periods when he does not shine (281) ; but this form excepting under parti 
cular circumstances, that, for example, in which there was a double glass 
dome, or in which only a temperature of a few degrees above that of the open 
air was required to be kept up, would occasion too great a loss of heat, either 
for economy or the health of the plants ; for when heat is rapidly conducted 
away and rapidly supplied by art, it is found extremely difficult to obtain a 
sufficient degree of atmospheric moisture for healthy vegetation (267 to 271) 
For these reasons a semi-dome is preferable to a semi-globe, because the 
glazed side being placed next the sun the other side may be opaque, so as to 
reflect back both heat and light, and it may be made so complete a non-con- 
ductor as not to allow the escape of any heat. There is an objection, however, 
to the general adoption of the semi-dome, because it is found (281) that the 
rays of light after passing through glass-roofs, lose their influence on the 
plants within in proportion to their distance from the glass. Hence for 
general purposes a long narrow house is the best ; and hence also herbaceous 
plants are grown best in pots in frames ; and were it not for the quantity of 
glass that would be required, all shrubby and climbing plants would be 
grown to the highest degree of perfection if trained on trellises parallel to the 
glass roofing, and at no great distance Avithin it. In pits and frames, herba- 
ceous or low plants are nearer the glass than they can ever be in large houses, 
in. which, unless they are placed on shelves close under the roof, they are 
either at a distance from the glass, as in the body of the house, or they pre- 
sent only one side to it, as when they are placed near the front glass. 
There is another reason in favour of narrow houses where perfection of 
growth and economy is an object, which is, that a considerable portion of the 
heat by which tlie temperature of hothouses is maintained, is supplied by 
the sun. The power of the sun therefore will be great on the atmosphere 
within, inversely as its cubic contents, compared with the superficial con- 
tents of the glass enclosing it. Thus, suppose one house to be twenty feet 
high and twenty feet wide, and another to be twenty feet high and only ten 
feet wide, the contents of the former will be exactly double that of the 
latter ; at the same time, instead of containing double the surface of glass on 
its roof, it will contain scarcely one third more ; being nearly in the propor- 
tion of twenty-eight for the house of double volume, to not fourteen, or 
one half, but twenty-two, for the one of half the internal capacity. In 
the wide house every square foot of glass has to heat upwards of seven 
cubic feet of air; in the narrow house only about four and a half 
feet {Gardeners Magazine^ volume xiii. page 15). There are, however, 
plant-houses erected not merely for growing plants, but for walking into 
in order to enjoy them ; and in these, other considerations interfere with 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



189 



rigid economy both in heating and lighting. The form of plant-houses, 
therefore, must be determined by the object in view, and the means at com- 
mand. For early and for late forcing, narrow houses with upright glass, or 
glass at a very steep slope, are preferable, as giving but a small volume of air to 
be heated, and as admitting the sun's rays at a right angle, at those seasons when 
he is low in the horizon, and above it only for a short time. For summer 
forcing the angle of the roof may be larger, and of course its slope less steep ; 
for greenhouses and plant stoves, in which plants are to be grown all the year, 
there should be a portion of the roof with the glass very steep, or upright 
front glass, for admittmg the sun's rays in winter. The roofs of such houses 
may be at a large angle, say from S5^ to 45^ with the horizon, which is more 
favourable for throwing off rain, and also for resisting 
hail, than a flatter surface. For growing herbaceous 
plants and young plants, and for the general pur- 
poses of propagation, whether by seeds, cuttings, or 
layers, a low flat house, in which the glass shall be 
near to afU the plants, as in pits and frames, is the 
most convenient form ; though, when fruits are to be 
ripened in such houses in the winter season, the 
flatness of the glass, and consequent obliquity of the 
sun's rays to it, is a great disadvantage. Hence, 
when such plants can be conveniently grown in pots, 
as in the case of strawberries, or bulbous or other , 
flowers, it is desirable to have very steep glass, and 
to place the plants on shelves immediately within it, 

as practised by Mr. Wilmot, and other market-gar- ^.^ steep-roofed House. 
doners, in such structures as fig. 127 ; or, when the for winter forcing of plants 
plants are climbers, as the cucumber and melon, P^^^- 
to train them up trellises parallel to the glass, and at a short distance 
within it, as in Ayres' cucumber-house, 

483. Curvilineal roofs. — The ordinary form of the roofs of plant -houses is 
that of aright-lined plane,like the roof of any other building, but they have been 
also formed with curvilineal roofs, which, as compared with roofs having up- 
right glass with standards and wall-plates, more especially when the sash-bar 
is of iron, admit much more light. The ends of plant-houses are generally 
vertical planes, but in curvilineal houses they are sometimes of the same 
curvature as the front, which adds greatly to their beauty, as well as being 
favourable to the admission of the sun's rays, morning and evening, and to 
the transmission of diffused light when the sun does not shine (282). The 
only disadvantages attending curvilineal ends to plant-houses is, that the 
doors cannot be placed in these ends without some intricacy of construction ; 
but when such houses are placed against walls, as in fig. 128, they may be 









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Fig. 128. Curvilineal glass roofs. 

entered through a door made in the wall to a recess taken from the back 
shed, as shown by fig. 129, in which a, a, represent the plans of portions of 

0 




190 FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 

two curvilineal houses, 6, &, back sheds to these houses ; and c, lobby 
common to both. These houses may be ventilated by openings in the upper 




Fig. 129. Grozifid plan of a curvilineal plant-house, with the entrance through a lobby in the back 

wall, 

part of the back wall, the orifice within being covered with pierced zinc, 
and wooden shutters moving in grooves sympathetically. \Fhere a lobby 
cannot conveniently be made in the back shed, one door may be made in the 
centre of the front of each house, as at Messrs. Loddiges' ; and where the end 
is semicircular, a door might be made in it in a similar manner, or with a 
projection brought forward so as to form a porch : the mode represented in fig. 
129 is, however, greatly preferable, as occasioning no obstruction to light. 

484. Ridge and furrow roofs. — Roofs formed in the ridge and furrow 
manner, and even glass sashes so formed for pits, were tried by us many 
years ago {Encyc. of Gard. 1st edit.) : and the idea has been improved on, 
and applied in the happiest manner, by Mr. Paxton, at Chatsworth ; and 
adopted by Mr. Marnock in the Sheffield Botanic Garden ; Jedediah Strutt, 
Esq., at Belper; William Harrison, Esq., Cheshunt ; John Allcard, Esq., 
Stratford- Green ; and at various other places. The advantages of this descrip- 
tion of roof are : — 1. That the roof does not require to be raised so high 
behind, in proportion to its width, as in flat roofs ; because the descent of the 
water does not depend on the general slope of the roof, but on the slope oi 
the ridges towards the furrows ; and the water in these furrows, being con- 
fined to a narrow deep channel, and in a larger body than ever it can be on 
the glass, passes along with proportionate rapidity. — 2. That the morning 
and afternoon sun, by passing through the glass at right angles, produces 
more light and heat at these times of the day, when they are, of course, 
more wanted than at mid-day. — 3. The rays of the sun striking on the house 
at an oblique angle at mid-day, the heat produced in the house at that 
time is less intense than in houses of the ordinary kind, in which it is often 
injurious, by rendering it necessary to admit large quantities of the external 
air to lower the temperature. — 4. More light is admitted at all seasons, on 
the principle that a bow window always admits more light to a room than 
a straight window of the same width (283). — 5. The panes of glass, if crown 
glass be employed, may be smaller than in houses the roofs of which are in 
one plane, and yet, from there being a greater number of them, admit an 
equal quantity of light ; from their smallness, also, they will cost less, 
and be less liable to be broken by the freezing of water between the laps. 
■ — 6, By the employment of sheet window-glass, which is much thicker than 
crown-glass, panes of three or four feet in length may be used, so that only 
one pane need be requu-ed for each division, and consequently no lap being 
required, no breakage by frost can take place, and no heated air can escape. 
— And 7. That wind will have much less influence in cooling the roof, 
because the sides of the ridges will be stieltered by their summits. Mr. 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS, 



191 





Paxton, to whom the merit of this mode of roofing is entirely due, 
has also adopted an improvement in the construction of the sash -bar, 
viz., having grooves for the panes instead of rebates (see figs. ]30 and 181) ; 
the advantages of which grooves are, 
that lees putty is required, and that what 
is used does not so readily separate from 
the wood, and thus admit the wet between 
the wood and the putty. The roofs of 
such houses are entirely fixed, and venti- 
lation is effected either by having the 
perpendicular ends of the ridges moveable 
Fig. 130. Section of an on hiuges, or by the front glass and ven- 
iron sash-bar, with ^jjators in the back wall. The expense 

grooves for the glass. - 3 ^ 

of this mode oi rooting is doubtless greater 
than by the common flat mode, but not so much so as might 
be expected, because the sash-bar can be formed lighter, and ^'f/j^^ 
where crown-glass is used the panes may be much smaller, with grooves for the 
For plant-houses the advantage of admitting the sun's s^'"**- 
rays perpendicularly, early in the morning and late in the afternoon, will 
much more than compensate for any additional expense. In an archi- 
tectural point of view, the merits of this mode of roofing are perhaps as 
great as they are with reference to culture : the roofs being lower, are less 
conspicuous, and the common shed-like appearance is taken away by the 
pediments which form the ends of the ridges, and appear in a range as a 
crowning parapet to the front glass. Indeed, if it were desirable, the tops 
of the ridges might be made perfectly horizontal, and all the slope that was 
necessary for carrying the water from back to front, or to both the sides, 
given in the gutters between the ridges, as is done in roofing common 
buildings of great width. Fig. 132 is a perspective view of a house 




192 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



direction parallel to the pediments, but oblique to it. This is done to pre- 
vent the water from mnning down on one side of the glass, which it would 
do in consequence of the general slope of the ridge from the back to the 
























Fig. 133. Vertical profile of part of a ridge and furrow roof. 



front if the bars were placed at right angles to the ridge. The angle at 
which the bars are fixed will vary with that formed by the slope of the ridge, 
and the mode of determining it is to place the bars so that the lap of the glass, 
which is in square panes, may form, when the panes are fitted in their places, 
lines trul}^ horizontal. There are many persons, however, who attach no 
great importance to causing the water to run down the middle of the glass 
instead of one side ; and they will, of course, place the bars for holding the 
glass, parallel to the pediments, in order to avoid the short bars at the ends 
of the ridges, as seen in fig. 183. For more minute details respecting this 
mode of construction, we refer to Paoctons Magazine of Botany^ vol. ii. 
p. 80 ; and Gard, Mag. vol. xv. p. 452, and also for 1841. 

485. The materials used in the construction of plant-houses differ in 
nothing from those used in other buildings, except that where as much 
light as possible is required to be admitted, the framework for containing the 
glass is formed of iron or other metal, as supplying the requisite strength 
with less bulk than wood. The proportion of opaque surface of an iron 
roof may be estimated at not more than 7 or 8 per cent, while in a wooden 
roof it is upwards of 20 per cent ; both roofs being in one plane and of the 
ordinary construction (279 and 281). Where sheet-glass is employed, and 
the panes made of more than ordinary length and width, as in the large 
conservatory recently erected in the Horticultural Society's garden, the pro- 
portion of light admitted in the case of iron roofs will be found still greater. 
Ridge and furrow roofs, if M^e take the area of the bases of the ridges as the 
total area of the roof, and then deduct from it the space occupied by the 
bars forming the sides of the ridges, and the ridge-pieces and gutters, will 
not appear to admit the same proportion of light as a roof in one plane ; 
but the practical result will be different, in consequence of the sun's rays 
being twice in the day perpendicular to one half of the roof, the advantage 
of which to the plants will far more than compensate for the obscuration 
produced by the greater proportion of sash-bars, which operating chiefly at i 
mid-day and in very hot weather, is rather an advantage than otherwise, i 
To prove this, it is necessary first to know the law of the reflection of light [ 
from glass. 

486. The law of the reflection of light from glass was calculated by i 
Bouguer, a French philosopher, in 1729, and is exhibited by the following! 
figures; the first line representing the angles of incidence, and the second! 
the number of rays reflected, exclusive of decimal parts. 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



193 



Angle of incidence 85°, 80°, 70^, 60°, 50°, 40°, SO", 20°, 10^ 1°. 

Per centage of rays reflected 50, 41, 22, 11, 5, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2. 
Now if we suppose a roof in one plane with the sun shining on it at six 
o'clock in the morning, and at six o'clock in the afternoon, at an angle of 85°, 
which would be the case in March and September, fully one half the rays 
which fell on the roof would be reflected ; while, in the case of a ridge and 
furrow roof, if he shone on half the roof, that is on one half of each of the 
ridges, at any angle with a perpendicular not exceeding 80°, at the same 
periods, only 2 per cent of the rays would be reflected. Suppose, then, the 
area of the entire roof taken as one plane to be 100 square yards, and, to 
facilitate calculation, that only 100 rays fell on each yard, then the total 
number which would enter through the roof in one plane would be 50,000, 
while those which would enter through the ridge and furrow roof would be 
S9,000, or very nearly double the number. If we compare a roof in one 
plane with the framework of wood, with a similar one with the framework 
of iron, and take the space rendered opaque by the wood at 21 per cent, 
and by the iron at 7 per cent, then the greater number of rays admitted at 
all times by the iron roof over the wooden one will be as three to one. 

487. Iron roofs have been objected to from their somewh it greater 
original expense, from their supposed liability to break glass by contraction 
and expansion, and from the iron being liable to conduct away heat in winter, 
and to become hot to such a degree as to be injurious to the plants in sum- 
mer. With respect to expense, that is, we believe, now considered the chief 
objection ; but though it may be heavier at first, yet it is amply compensated 
for by the greater durability of iron houses, when properly constructed, and 
when the iron is never allowed to become rusty for want of paint. As a proof 
of the durability of iron houses, we may refer to the iron Camellia house at 
Messrs. Loddiges', erected in 1818, and the iron houses in the Horticultural 
Society's garden, which were erected, we believe, in 1823. The breakage of 
glass supposed to result from the contraction or expansion of the metal was 
at one time considered a very weighty objection ; but the severe winter of 
1837-8 did not occasion so much broken glass in iron as it did in wooden 
houses. A bar of malleable iron 819 inches in length, at a temperature of 
■32°, only increases in length one inch, when heated to 212" ; but this differ- 
ence of 180° of temperature is more than plant-houses are liable to ; indeed 
50° or 60° are as much as is necessary to be taken into account. If we sup- 
pose the iron-work is fitted at a period of the season when the temperature 
is 55°, then 50° lower would be within 5° of zero, and 50° higher would be 
105° ; extremes which the iron roof of a hothouse will seldom exceed. Now, 
according to the above data, a bar ten feet in length would extend or contract, 
by the addition or reduction of 50° of heat, l-25th of an inch as nearly as 
possible. An iron sash-bar, half-an inch thick between the tAvo edges of 
the glass, would not expand in thickness, from 50° of heat, much more than 
one six-thousandth part of an inch. It may easily be conceived, there- 
fore, that the lateral expansion of sash-bars, which are in general not quite 
half an inch in thickness, by any heat which they can receive on the roof of 
a hothouse, will never have any eff"ect on the glass between them. To guard 
against all risk of breakage from this cause, however, it is only necessary 
not to fit in the panes too tightly. Indeed, the objection may now be con- 
sidered as given up by all experienced hothouse-builders. The liability of 



194 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



iron to conduct away heat in winter, and to attract too much in summer, is 
also found to be an objection more imaginary than real. It is true that iron, 
from its being a powerful conductor, is liable to undergo sudden changes of 
temperature, which must doubtless render it less congenial to plants that come 
in contact with it than wood or brick ; though plants do not appear to suffer 
when the iron is in small quantities, such as the rods to which vines are 
attached under rafters, wire trellis-work, &c. ; but when the rafters are of 
iron, and when plants are trained round the iron pillars used in supporting 
hothouse roofs, it may readily be conceived that they will be injured by 
them. This will also be the case, more or less, when tender plants are grown 
close under the glass in hotbeds or pits covered with iron sashes. Indeed, 
when we consider the much greater weight of iron sashes than wooden ones, 
and the constant occasion that there is for moving the sashes of pits and 
hotbeds, we would recommend them in most cases to be made of wood. 
The injury done to plants in the open air by iron coming in contact with 
them, can only take place when the iron is of considerable thickness ; because 
we do not find it in the case of cast-iron espalier-rails, or of dahlias, roses, 
and other open-air plants tied to iron stakes. In plant-houses it probably 
takes place after the iron has been highly heated by the sun, and then 
watered, when the chill produced by evaporation will contract the vessels 
and chill the juices. The greatest objections that we know to iron roofs are, 
the expense, and the difficulty of forming them with sliding sashes which 
shall not rust in the grooves in which they slide : but this last objection can 
be obviated, either by forming the styles and rails, or outer frame of the 
sash, of wood, and the rafters of iron, or the reverse. In the greater pro- 
portion of plant-houses, however, sliding sashes in the roof may be dispensed 
with, air being admitted during winter through apertures in the upper angle 
of the house in the back wall, or by raising a hinged sash in the upper part 
of the roof; and in the hottest weather in summer, by these and the sliding 
sashes or other openings in front. The materials used in the interior of 
plant-houses, such as shelves for supporting pots of plants, pathways for 
walking on, walls for enclosing tan or other fermenting matter in pits, are 
bricks, flagstones, slates, wood, and cast-iron. The paths are sometimes 
covered with open gratings of cast-iron, which admit of the soil under them 
being occupied with the roots of vines, climbers, or other plants. Mr. 
Paxton prefers a flooring formed of loose pieces of board laid across the 
path ; each piece as long as the path is wide, and about four inches broad, 
with a one-inch space between. One advantage of this plan is, that the 
dust and other matters lying on the paths when they are swept, descend 
immediately without raising a dust in the house to disfigure the leaves of 
the plants, and encourage the red spider, which dust deposited on the leaves 
is always found to do. 

488. Heat. — The natural heat of the locahty is retained in plant-sti-uctures 
by the roof and sides forming a covering wliich repels radiation from the 
ground ; and it is increased in them at pleasure, by fermenting substances 
applied within or externally, by the consumption of fuel, and the convey- 
ance of the heat so produced in smoke and hot-air flues, by steam, or by hot 
water in pipes or cisterns. In every mode of suppl^ang heat artificially, the 
following desiderata ought to be kept constantly in view : — 1. To maintain a 
reservoir of heat which shall keep up a sufficient temperature for at least 



PLANTS, WITU GLASS ROOFS. 



195 



twenty-four hours, under ordinary circumstances, in the event of the supply 
of heat from the consumption of fuel, or the action of the sun, being discon- 
tinued through neglect or accident, or through cloudy weather. — 2. To provide 
means of speedily increasing the supply of heat, when the sudden lowering of 
the external temperature, or the action of high cold winds, or a cold humid 
atmosphere among the plants, requires it. — 3. To provide the means, by an 
adequate surface of flue, or steam, or hot-water pipes, of supplying a suffi- 
ciency of heat in every house, according to the temperature required, not 
merely under the ordinary external temperature, but when that temperature 
shall fall as low as 10°, or in situations exposed to very high cold winds to 
zero. — 4. To make arrangements for supplying atmospheric moisture in pro- 
portion to the supply of heat, and for withdrawing this moisture at pleasure. — 
5. Where no means can be provided for supplying extra heat on extraordi- 
nary occasions, to provide the means of conveniently applying extra external 
coverings for the same purpose. It is proper to remark, that in every plant- 
structure there is a reservoir of heat and of moisture, to a certain extent, in 
the soil in which the plants are grown, whether that soil is in pots or in a 
bed ; and that all the paths, shelves, and other objects within the structure, 
being heated to the proper degree, part with their heat, whenever the air of 
the house falls below the temperature of these objects. This source of heat 
might be considerably increased in houses where there is abundance of room : 
for example, below a greenhouse stage, by placing objects there of moderate 
dimensions and separated from each other ; such as parallel w^alls of four- 
inch brick- work, flag-stones set on edge two or three inches apart, or slabs 
of slate set on edge one inch apart. These, by presenting a great extent of 
surface, would absorb a powerful reserve of heat, and give it out whenever 
the other sources of heat were defective. 

489. Fermenting substances^ such as stable-dung, tanner's bark, leaves, 
&c., are either applied in masses or beds under the soil containing the plants, 
as in the common hotbed ; or in casings or linings exterior to the soil or 
structure to be heated, as in M'Phail's and other pits. A steady reservoir 
of heat is thus provided, and instead of an extra supply for unexpected cold 
nights, extra coverings of bast mats or mats of straw are provided, for re- 
taining heat that would escape through the ordinary covering. An additional 
supply of heat for extra cold weather may also be obtained by different 
means. Where exterior casings of dung are employed, if the heat of the dung 
is admitted through a pigeon-holed wall to an inside flue with thin covers ; 
or if the dung is brought into close contact with thin plates of stone or slate, 
instead of the pigeon-holed wall, w^hich, like the flues, are made to enclose 
the son containing the plants ; then by keeping a part of these warm surfaces 
generally covered with soil, or with boards, or with any other material which 
shall operate as a non-conductor, when extra heat is wanted unexpectedly, 
all that is necessary is to take ofl^ the non-conducting covers. Even in the 
case of a common hotbed, heated only by the bed of dung beneath the plants, 
extra heat may be provided for by bedding a plate of stone, slate, zinc, or 
cast-iron, on the dung, in one or more places of the interior of the frame, 
according to its size, and covering these with boards, supported at the height 
of two inches or three inches above them, so as to enclose a stratum of air, to 
act as a non-conductor ; the sides being closed by a rim previously formed of 
cement, or brick-on-edge,on the stone or slate, or by a rim two or three inches 
deep, cast on the edges of the iron. By taking off the wooden covers, an extra 



196 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



supply of dry heat M^ill immediately be obtained, which may be rendered 
moist at pleasure by pouring on water. Another mode of obtaining an imme- 
diate extra supply of heat from a dung-bed is, by beddiiig in it, when first 
made, an iron pipe of three or four inches in diameter, with the two extremi- 
ties turned up, and covered by flower-pot saucers. The length of the tube 
may be nearly equal to that of the bed, and the one end must be sunk a few 
inches deeper than the other, as in fig. 154. It is evident that by taking off 

the covers of this pipe 
there will be a draught 
created in it, in conse- 
quence of its sides being 
heated by the dung ; and 
an extra degree of heat 
will by this means be 
brought into the atmo- 

Fig. 134. Section of a dung-bed, with a tube for supplying hot air. gpj^gj.g j^g^^ This 

plan might also be adopted for putting the air of a plant-bed in motion, 
without the admission of the external air. 

490. Fermenting materials and fire-heat combined. — In pits and low-forcing 
houses heated chiefly by dung, provision is frequently made for the supply of 




extra heat, by the addition of smoke-flues or hot- water pipes. 



Fig. 135 is a 




Fig. 135. Pinery heated by dung linings. 

perspective elevation and section of a house, jn which a bed of leaves within 
is heated by a dung lining placed on the outside of a pigeon-holed wall, and 

extm heat is provided for by 



three turns of a flue, one above 
the other, in the back path: 
a is the pit in which the dung 
lining is placed and covered 
with a hinged shutter ; &, the 
surface of the bed of leaves, 
in which pine-apples, or cu- 
cumbers, or melons may be 
grown, or strawberry plants or 
flowers forced ; c, door ; d^ 
flues ; e, front pigeon-holed 
wall ; and /, end pigeon-holed 
wall. Fig. 136 shows a mode 
of applying dung under a bed 
of soil without coming in im- 
mediate contact with it, and 
by which no heat whatever 
produced by the dung is lost ; 
a is the bed of soil in which 




Section of a vinery heated by dung' 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



197 



the vines are planted, and which is supported by cast-iron joists and Welsh 
slates ; and h shows the openings furnished with shutters by which the dung 
is introduced. Beds on the same plan, but wider, have been used for growing 
pine-apples and melons, and for various similar purposes. An extra supply 
of heat from the dung may be obtained by having panels of slate in the inside 
wall, c, to be kept covered by wooden shutters, except when extra heat is 
wanted ; or by tubes, as in fig. 1 34 ; or it may be rendered unnecessary by 
extra coverings. The first forcing which we read of in the history of British 
gardening was effected, as Switzer informs us, by placing casings of hot 
dung against the north side of walls of boards, against the south side of which 
cherries were trained. 

49 1 . Heating from vaults^ or from stacks of flues. — The oldest and simplest 
mode of applying fire-heat to hothouses was by means of a pit in the floor, 
or a vault under it. The vault was of the same length and breadth as the 
floor, with the chimney at one end ; or it occupied a smaller space in the centre 
of the floor, with a stack of flues rising over it, and forming a mass of heated 
material in the body of the house. The fire was of wood and made on the 
floor ; or of charcoal or coal, and made in an open portable iron cage, like that 
used by plumbers, when soldering joints in the open air, with a plate of iron 
over it to act as a reverberator, and prevent the heat from rising directly to 
the roof. The flue by which the smoke escaped had its lower orifice on a 
level with the floor of the vault, so that the air and smoke did not enter it 
until they had parted with most of their heat. These modes are capable of 
great improvement, and in various cases would perhaps be found more eligible 
and economical than any other, by a gardener who is aware of the importance 
of connecting with them an efficient means of supplying atmospheric mois- 
ture : by placing cisterns of water over the hottest part of the floor, or by 
having dripping fountains formed on the siphon principle, by inserting the 
ends of strips of woollen cloth in open vessels of water, and placing these in 
different parts of the house. See on this mode of heating, Mr. Forsyth, in 
Gard. Mag. for 1841. 

492. Flues. — As the mode of heating by vaults could only be adopted when 
the plants were to be grown in pots or boxes, as soon as the practice of forcing 
fruit-trees trained against walls, and having their roots in the border or floor 
of the house, was introduced, flues in the wall against which the trees were 
trained, and afterwards detached flues along the front of the house, became 
necessary ; and when these last are properly constructed, and the dry heat 
which they produce is rendered moist by placing water over them, they form a 
convenient and economical mode of heating. The flue is always most efficient 
when carried along the front and ends of the house, because the air imme- 
diately within these is more liable to be cooled by the external air than that 
next the back of the house, the back being generally a wall of brick or stone. 
Where the house is glass on every side, as well as on the roof, the flues will 
be most efficient if carried round it, for obvious reasons ; while the air imme- 
diately under the roof, in every case, will be kept sufficiently warm by the 
natural ascent of the heated air from the flue, in whatever part it may be 
placed ; though when the flues are placed in the lower part of the house, 
there will be a greater circulation than when they are elevated ; and this 
arises from the greater number of particles which must be put in motion by 
the ascent of warm, and the descent of cold air. The quantity of flue 
requisite for heating a house to any required temperature has not been 



198 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



determined. One fire with a flue in front, and a return in the back, 
is generally found sufficient for a greenhouse of thirty feet or forty feet 
in length, and from twelve feet to fifteen feet in width, and two fires, 
one entering at each end, for a stove or forcing-house of similar dimen- 
sions ; the flues in both cases being twenty inches high, and twelve inches 
wide, outside measure. Perhaps one square foot of flue for every two 
feet in length of iron hot- water pipes, found according to the rule given in 
Art. 500, would be a near approximation to the quantity wanted, reckoning 
the top and sides of the flue, but not the bottom. The furnace or fireplace 
from which the flue proceeds should be one or two feet lower than the level 
of the bottom of the flue, in order to assist in creating a draught, as that 
depends on the length and height of the space allowed for the heated air to 
ascend before it is permitted to escape into the atmosphere ; and the flue gene- 
rally terminates on the top of the back wall, for the same reason. The fire- 
place is generally formed behind the back wall for the sake of concealment : 
but when this is not an object, the best situation is at one end of the house, 
in a sunken area, which can be covered with shutters ; because, the smoke 
and heat not receiving the check given by a turn in the flue made so near 
the furnace as it must necessarily be when it enters from behind the house, 
the heat is more equally diff'used along the front. A very desirable arrange- 
ment for flues, where it is practicable, is to have two from the same furnace, 
with the power of throwing the whole or any part of the smoke and heated 
air into either flue at pleasure, which is easily efi^ected by a damper at the 

throat of the flue, close to 
the furnace, as shown in fig. 
137, in which a is the upper 
or extra heat flue ; 6, the 
under or reserve flue ; c, 
the damper ; the fur- 
nace ; e, the cover to the 
feeding hopper; and / is 
the ash-pit. One of the 
flues should be conducted 
through a solid mass of 
brickwork or masonry, or 
through a box or bed of 
sand, in order to produce 
a reservoir of heat ; and 
the other flue should have 
thin covers and sides, and 
Fig. 137. Section of a furnace and double flup. quite detached, in Order 

to furnish an extra supply of heat, when the external air suddenly became 
much colder than usual, or at particular times to dispel damp, &c. Both 
flues ought to be near the front of the house, and, in most cases, the one 
might be over the other. Wherever flues are sunk below the level of the 
floor, they will be found to giv-e out their heat very slowly ; or, if given out, 
to lose it in the adjoining ground, from the want of a current of air to carry 
it oft\ But this may generally be supplied by underground cross drains, as 
in fig. 138, in which g is the floor of the house ; A, the reservoir flue, three 
feet broad, which is sunk so that its top is on a level with the floor ; an air- 
drain from the back of the house ; /<:, an upper flue for additional heat ; /, 




PLANTS^ WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



199 



front path ; 7n, front shelf ; n, stage ; and o, path on the npper part of the 
stage, for watering the plants. 

493. The best materials 
for building flues are bricks 
and paving tiles, the latter 
for the bottom and top, and 
the former for the sides. 
The advantages of bricks 
over stone are, their greater 
adhesion to the mortar ; 
their narrowness, by which 
little space is occupied ; and 
their being greater non-con- 
ductors than stone, by which 
means the heat is more 
equalised throughout the 
length of the flue than it 

Fig. 138. Sec/ion of a greenhouse, with reserve flue and WOuld be by the USC of that 

common flue. material. A slight disad- 

vantage attending the use of bricks and tiles arises from the earth of which 
they are made ; clay absorbing and entering into chemical combination with 
the moisture of the atmosphere, especially when the latter is at a high tem- 
perature. This evil, however, can always be counteracted by placing water 
over the flues, or in some other hot part of the house. For this purpose, the 
covers of flues, whether of tiles or stone, ought to be made with sunk panels 
to contain water ; or, what is much better, a shallow cistern of ii'on, lead, 
or zinc, as in fig. 139, may be placed over them for the same purpose. In 
Germany the flues are sometimes entirely covered with plates of cast-iron ; 
and if these were formed with turned-up edges, they would serve at 
once as covers and cisterns. Flues are always detached from the ground, 
by being built on piers, either connected by low flat arches, or so close 
together as to be joined by the square tiles which form the floor of the flue. 
Neither the inside of the flue nor its outside ought to be plastered, when 
it is desired that they should give out a maximum of heat at a mini- 
mum of distance from the furnace; but when the flue is to be of great 
length, plastering either in the inside or outside, or both, by rendering the 
walls of the flue greater non-conductors, tends to equalise the heat given 
out. Plastering is also useful to prevent the escape of smoke from the 
joints, which is liable to take place where the materials and workmanship 
are not of the best quality, and to prevent the absorption of moisture by the 
bricks. Narrow flues are preferable to broad ones, as occupying less hori- 
zontal space in the house, and also because as flues part with their heat 
chiefly from their upper surface, it is better equalised by a narrow flue than 
a broad one. Hence also narrow deep flues are found to " draw " better than 
broad shallow ones. The ordinary dimensions of narrow flues are eight inches 
in width, and fifteen inches in depth ; and they are formed by tiles one foot 
square for the bottom, and ten inches square for the covers, and three paving- 
bricks, which are only two inches thick, on edge, for each of the sides, as in 
fig. 139. The joints of the sides and covers are formed by lime putt}^ and 
the bottom tiles are set on bricks on edge. In fig. 139, a is the brick on 
edge, which supports the one-foot tile 6, which forms the bottom of the flue ; 




200 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



Fig. 139. Section of a 'o: 
man brick fiuH, with 
zinc cistern over it. 



c is the smoke chamber, and d the zinc cistern over the ten-inch tile cover. 

The inside plastering should be of the best mortar, mixed 
with lime, but without sand, as being less liable to crack. 

494. The furnace^ when built in the usual manner, 
should have double iron doors to prevent the escape of 
heat ; and the fuel- chamber should be about double 
the area of that portion of it which is occupied by the 
bars or grate, in order that the fuel not immediately 
over the grate may burn slowly. A damper in some 
accessible part of the flue, and as close to the furnace as 
is practicable, affords a convenient means of regulating 
the draught ; and there ought always to be a register 
valve in the ash-pit door for the same purpose. Where 
cinders, coke, or anthracite coal only are burnt, no hori- 
zontal opening to the grate containing the fuel is neces- 
sary* It may be put in by an opening at the top, as in 
fig. 137, which will contain a supply for an}'^ length of 
time, according to the height and width of the opening, 
and the bars of the grate can be freed from ashes with a 
hooked poker applied from the ash-pit. By this kind of 
construction less heat is lost than by any other. Indeed, 
this kind of fireplace, with a reserve flue, will be found 
b}'- far the most economical mode of heating hothouses ; but it will not answer 
where the practice is to depend on the sudden action of the flue, which is pro- 
duced by stirring up the fuel : in lieu of this, the damper must be drawn so 
as to admit the heated current into the extra heat flue. Whatever may be 
the construction of the furnace, no air ought ever to be admitted to the fire, 
except through the grating below it ; because air admitted over the fuel 
can serve no purpose but that of cooling the flue ; unless in very rare 
instances, where it might assist in consuming the smoke. Where this 
object is a desideratum, Witty 's smoke-consuming furnace, described in 
Gard, Mag. vol. vii. p. 483, which roasts or cokes the coal, before it is put on 
the fire, may be had recourse to. This and various other details, liowever, 
must be left to the bricklayer or mason employed. All flues ought to have 
flag-stones of the width and height of the interior of the flue, or iron doors 
built into them at the extremities of each straight -lined portion, which may 
readily be taken out or opened in order to free the flue from soot ; an opera- 
tion which will require to be performed at least once a year in all houses, 
and in stoves twice a year, or oftener, according to the kind of fuel used. 

495. As substitutes for smoke-flues^ earthenware pipes, or can- flues, as they 
are called, have long been in use in Holland and France ; and as the fuel 
used in these countries is almost always wood, which produces little soot in 
comparison with coal, they are found to answer as perfectly as brick flues. 
When they are only occasionally employed, the entire surface of the pipes 
is exposed ; but when they are used constantly, as in houses for tropical 
plants, they are embedded in a casing of dry sand, which forms a reservoir 
of heat capable of being increased to any extent, even to that of the entire 
floor of the house, over which a flooring for plants may be placed. Pipes 
of this kind might also be conducted through a bed of small stones, so as 
to form a very efi^ective mass of heated material as a reservoir, while a portion 
of naked pipe might serve for raising the temperature on occasions of extra- 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



201 



ordinary cold. In country situations, where wood for burning is not very 
dear, or where coke from coal could be readily obtained, can-flues might be 
economically employed for drying up the cold damp of greenhouses, and for 
a variety of purposes. — We have said more on the subject of smoke-flues 
than may be thought necessary at the present time, when they are being 
so generally relinquished for hot -water pipes ; but our object is to prevent our 
readers from being so completely prejudiced against flues as not to have re- 
course to them in particular situations and circumstances. The principal 
reason why so much has been said against smoke-flues is, that gardeners 
tUl lately were not fuUy aware of the importance of supplying moisture to 
the atmosphere of plant-houses in proportion to the supply of heat, and of 
having reserve flues, in consequence of which excessive heat would not be- 
come so frequently requisite, and noxious gases would have less chance of 
being driven through the top and sides of the flue into the atmosphere of 
the house. 

496. Steam was the first substitute for flues employed in this country ; 
and, under some circumstances, it may deserve a preference to either flues 
or hot water. For example, where the heating apparatus must necessarily 
be at a great distance from the structure to be heated, steam can be con- 
ducted to it in a tube not more than an inch or two in diameter, which may 
be so encased in non-conducting matter as to occasion far less loss of heat 
than if either smoke or hot water were employed. The disadvantages 
attending the use of steam in ordinary cases are, the necessity of heating the 
water to the boiling-point, by which more heat is driven up the chimney 
and lost than if the water were raised to only half that temperature, and 
the want of a reservoir of heat when the steam is not in action. The last 
disadvantage has been supplied by passing the steam-pipes through brick 
flues filled with stones, through pits, or through other large masses of stones, 
or through tubes, cisterns, or tanks of water. By arrangements of this kind, 
steam can be made both to supply heat permanently and expeditiously. 
The various details of these modes of heating by steam will be found in 
the Gard. Mag. vols. viii. and ix. ; and in the Encyc. of Gard. edit. 1832, 
p. 593. 

497. Hot water is the medium of heating plant-structures now generally 
adopted, and it is without dispute far preferable to any of the preceding 
modes. Water is such an excellent carrier of heat, that a house warmed by 
hot- water pipes is not hotter at one end than at the other, which is almost 
always the case when smoke -flues are employed : none of the heat which the 
water derives from the fuel is lost, as in the case of flues, which when coated 
internally with soot convey a great part of the heat out at the chimney-top ; 
no sulphureous or other disagreeable effluvium is ever given out by hot- water 
pipes when they become leaky, as is the case with flues when they are not 
air-tight ; and the hot water in the pipes serves as a reservoir of heat when the 
fire goes out ; but smoke-flues, when the fire goes out, are rapidly cooled from 
within by the current of cold air which necessarily rushes through them 
till it has reduced the temperature of their tops and sides to that of the 
open air. Whether heating by hot water is more economical than heating 
by smoke-flues, will depend chiefly on the kind of apparatus employed ; but 
in general we should say that it was not attended with any advantages of 
this kind. Mr. Rogers is of opinion that with a well-constructed and well- 
managed apparatus, the saving of fuel may amount to 25 per cent over well- 



202 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



constructed and well-managed flues ; but he allows tliat in a large pro- 
portion of the hot-water apparatus now in use the consumption of fuel 
greatly exceeds that of common furnaces. The cause of the circulation of 
water in pipes is the same as that which produces the ascent of the air in 
flues, viz. : difference of specific gravity produced by heat. In water, the 
particles at the bottom of the boiler being heated become lighter and rise 
to the surface, while their place is taken by cold particles from the water 
in the boUer itself, or in the pipes that communicate with it, which are 
heated in their turn, and ascend to the surface of the water in the boiler 
and the surface of that in the upper pipe. In like manner, the air heated 
by the consumption of the fuel in the furnace becomes lighter, and ascends 
along the flue, while its place among the fuel is supplied by cool air, which 
enters through the grating beneath it to supply combustion. Neither air 
nor water will move along readily in very small flues or pipes : for smoke- 
flues seven inches by ten inches are the smallest dimensions, and hot water 
does not circulate so rapidly in pipes under two inches in diameter as to 
give out heat equally throughout their whole length. 

498. The modes of heating by hot water are very numerous, and it would 
occupy too much room in this work to enter into a detailed description of 
them, which however is the less necessary as the best modes are sufficiently 
known for all ordinary purposes by most ironmongers ; and those who wish 
to make themselves masters of the subject will have recourse to Hood's 
Practical Treatise on Warming Buildings by Hot Water^ published in 1837.- 
The simplest form of applying this mode of heating is by havuig one 
boiler to each house in a recess in the back wall, or ia some other situation 
where it will be out of the way, and an upper or flow-pipe proceeding from 
it on a level, with an under or return-pipe also on a level. Fig. 140 will 

tgive an idea of this mode 
of circulation, a repre- 
senting the boiler, b a 

Ti^.Wa. A hot-water apparatus for circulation on a level. cistcrn at the extreme 

end of the house to serve as a reservoir, and e the flue and return-pipes. 
^Vhen the water is to be circulated m pipes or on diff"erent levels and above 
the level of the boiler, or on difi'erent levels but never below the level 




Fig. 141. Boiler and furnace for heating by hot water in rising and falling pipes. 
Fig. 142. Apparatus for circulating water below an above the level of the boiler. 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



203 




of the bottom of the boiler, then a closed boiler is requisite ; or one open, 
but carried to a height equal to that of the highest point in the line 
of the pipes, as in fig. 141 ; and when water is to be circulated below the 
level of the boiler, a closed boiler with particular arrangements (see 
Hood's Treatise, figs. 10 and 11, pp. 44, 45) may be employed, or the form 
of open boiler shown in fig. 142 may be resorted to. In this figure, a repre- 
sents the boiler, h an open cistern at its top, in which the orifice of the 
heatmg-pipe terminates. Now it is obvious that when the water passes 
from the orifice of the boiler into the orifice of the pipe, the circulation 
must go on from the difference in the specific gravity between the water in 
the pipe at c, and that at provided that a small open pipe be placed at e, 
to admit of the escape of the air which will accumulate in that part of the 
pipe. Hot water has also been circulated on the siphon principle witli 
great success by Mr. Kewley ; the advantage of which mode is, the rapid 
communication of heat along the whole length of the pipe, in consequence 
of which it is never necessary to raise the water in the boiler to so high a 
temperature as by any of the other modes ; and hence this mode of heating 
is the most economical of all in the consumption of fuel. Fig. 143 will give 
a correct idea of the 
^stem '.ace repre- 
sent the two legs of 
the siphon ; the up- 
per leg, commencing Fig. us. Siphcm mode of circulating hot water. 

at c, being that through which the heated water ascends, and the lower leg 
being that by which it returns. The disadvantage of this system is, that 
aft€r the pipes have been some time in use they become leaky, and the 
slightest leak, by admitting the ah-, instantly empties the siphon ; nor is the 
leak easily discovered afterwards. The siphon mode of heating, were it not 
for this disadvantage, would deserve the preference over every other. Hot 
water has also been cu'culated in hermetically-sealed pipes by Perkins ; but 
this mode is attended with great danger, and the heat produced is much too 
high for the plants. All these, and other modes of heating, will be found 
impartially examined in Hood's Treatise. 

499. A reservoir of heat is very readily formed in heating by hot water, 
whatever may be the kind of apparatus adopted, by placing a cistern or 
series of cisterns at different parts of the house, either close to or at any 
convenient distance from the water-pipes, and connected with them by 
smaller pipes, having stop-cocks to interrupt the connexion at pleasure. 
Whan it is desired to heat the house with as little loss of tune as possible, 
all connexion between the pipes and the reservoirs should be cut ofi^ by 
turning the stop-cocks and as the house becomes sufficiently heated, the 
connexion ought to be restored by opening the upper and irnder stop- cock 
of one cistern at a time. In some cases, the cistern might be a long trough 
about the bulk of a common flue, placed parallel with and close to the 

pipe, as in fig. 
144, in which 
a is the pipe, 
h the cistern, 
and c the con- 
Fig. 144. Hot-water pipe, and reserve cistern of hot water. nCCting pipCS 

with stop-cocks. Fig. 145 is a cros,s section of the pipes and resei-ve cistern, 




204 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



which requires no explanation. Where the circulating pipes are below the 
level of the floor of the house, and where there is to be 
a raised pit for containing plants, a tank or cistern might 
be formed under it of the length and width of the pit, and 
of a depth equal to the distance between the upper and 
lower heating-pipes ; and with this tank the pipes might 
communicate by means of stop-cocks : so that whenever 
reserve cistern and there was morc heat in the pipes than was wanted for heat- 
hot-water pipes. j^g the air of the house, it could be transferred to the 
reservoir tank. To save the expense of stop-cocks where the cisterns could 
be wholly or partially uncovered, the orifices of the connecting pipes might 
be stopped by plugs ; and when the reservoir tank is above the level of the 
heating-pipes, the connexion between them might be made by means of 
siphons with stop-cocks. 

500. The pipes employed are generally of cast-iron, and round, as being 
more conveniently cast ; but any other metal and form will answer ; and 
when there is no great pressure on the pipes earthenware may be used, the 
joints being made good with cement ; and at the angles, where elbow-joints 
would be necessary, small cisterns could be employed, or elbows of earthen- 
ware might be made on purpose. For obtaining a large heating surface, flat 
cast-iron pipes have been used in some cases, placed vertically, and in 
others horizontally ; but round pipes of four inches in diameter are in 
most general use. When the object is to obtain a supply of heat in the 
shortest time, then the boiler and pipes should be of small capacity ; 
and this is generally desirable in the case of greenhouses, where heat is 
occasionally wanted for a few hours in damp weather, not for the sake of 
raising the temperature, but for drying up cold damp : nevertheless, even in 
greenhouses it is desirable to have a reservoir of heat for supplies in very 
severe weather. In stoves in which fire-heat is employed the greater part 
of the year, both boiler and pipes may be of large capacity ; and this should 
also be the case in early forcing-houses. Whatever mode of heating or kind of 
pipes may be adopted, the pipes should always have a gradual ascent from the 
place where they enter the house, or are intended firstto give out heat, towards 
the farther extremity; otherwise, the circulation will be less rapid, and conse- 
quently the heat less equally distributed. The quantity of pipe required to 
heat any house depends on various circumstances ; such as the form and con- 
struction of the house, the temperature that is to be kept up in it, and the 
temperature of the external air. Various calculations have been made on the 
subject by different engineers, and more especially by Mr. Hood, who says, 
" It may be taken as an invariable rule, that in no case should pipes of a 
greater diameter than four inches be used, because, when they are of a larger 
size than this, the quantity of water they contain is so considerable, that it 
makes a great difi^erence in the cost of fuel, in consequence of the increased 
length of time it will require to heat them, which is four and a half hours 
for four-inch pipes, three and a quarter hours for three- inch pipes, and two 
and a quarter hours for two-inch pipes, supposing the water to be at 40° be- 
fore lighting the fire, and the temperature to which the water w^as raised 200°. 
Pipes of two or three inches diameter therefore are to be preferred for green- 
houses and conservatories which only require fire-heat to be applied occasion- 
ally." After calculating the loss of heat from exposed surfaces of glass under 
different circumstances and situations, Mr. Hood gives the following rules for 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



205 



determining the quantity of pipe as a sufficient approximation for ordinary 
purposes : — " In churches and very large public rooms, which have only 
about an average number of doors and windows, and moderate ventilation, 
by taking the cubic measurement of the room, and dividing the number thus 
obtained by 200, the quotient will be the number of feet in length of pipe, 
four inches in diameter, which will be required to obtain a temperature of 
about 550 to 58°. For smaller rooms, dwelling-houses, &c., the cubic mea- 
surement should be divided by 150, which will give the number of feet of 
four-inch pipe. For greenhouses, conservatories, and such-like buildings, 
where the temperature is required to be kept at about 60°, dividing the cubic 
measurement of the building by 80 will give the required quantity of 
pipe : and for forcing-houses, where it is desired to keep the temperature 
at 70° to 75°, we must divide the cubic measurement of the house by 20 ; but 
if the temperature be required as high as 7^^ to 80^, then we must divide by 
18 to obtain the number of feet of four- inch pipe. If the pipes are to be 
three inches diameter, then we must add one third to the quantity thus ob- 
tained ; and if two-inch pipes are to be used, w^e must take double the length 
of four-inch pipe. 

" The quantity of pipe estimated in this way will only suit for such places 
as are built quite on the usual plan." (^Treatise, &c., p. 125.) The above 
calculations for heating are made on the supposition that the lowest external 
temperature will be 10^ ; but in situations " exposed to high winds, it will 
be prudent," Mr. Hood observes, " to calculate the external temperature 
from zero, or even below that, according to circumstances ; and in very warm 
and sheltered situations, a less range in the temperature will be sufficient." 
Local circumstances, therefore, may require from 5 to 10 per cent to be 
added to, or deducted from, the length of pipe found according to the fore- 
going rules. As a proof of the soundness of Mr. Hood's calculation, we may 
state that the great stove at Chatsworth is heated at the rate of one super- 
ficial foot of heated pipe to thirty cubic feet of air; and the temperature kept 
up during the severest weather of the winter of 1840-41 was 60°, though 
there were frequently from 20° to 85° of frost during the night. This house 
is sixty feet high, with glass on all sides, exposing a surface of 60,000 feet, 
and enclosing 1,050,000 cubic feet of air. The quantit}'- of coal consumed 
wasabout two tons per night. {Gard. Chron. April 17, 1841, p. 243.) 

501. The situation in which the pipes are placed is, in general, what we have 
stated to be that most suitable for smoke-flues (492), viz , along the front 
and ends of houses placed against a back wall, and entirely round detached 
or span-roofed houses. In the case of pits or frames with flat roofs, the pipes 
may be either placed in front or in the middle, always bearing in mind 
that heated air ascends, and that the quantity heated in a given time will, 
all other circumstances being alike, depend on a regular supply to the 
heating body, by a current distinct from that by which the heated air 
escapes. Such a current is formed by the cross drains adopted by Mr. Penn, 
and exhibited in various sections of plant-structures given in this work. 
For the same reason it is desirable, when practicable, and under certain circum- 
stances, to confine the pipes on each side, so that the air which passes up among 
them may not escape without being heated. To illustrate the effect of this 
arrangement, we may take Perkins's double boiler, and compare it with the 
common boiler. It would not occur to any person who had not reflected on 
the subject, that water could be boiled any sooner in one boiler than another, 

p 



206 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 




both boilers being of the same dimensions, made of the same material, set in 
the same manner, and with a fire beneath them of the same power. Yet 
such is the case ; and this exactly on the same principle that we recommend 
confining the sides of hot- water pipes, and supplying the air to be heated from 
a distinct channel. Suppose we have a common boiler, such as is used in 
common wash-houses, then place another boiler wuthin it, of such a size as to 
leave only a few inches between the inner boiler and the outer boiler all 
round, and support it in this position by stays, as shown in fig. 146 ; let this 
inner boiler have a hole in its bottom about one- 
third of its diameter, and let its rim be two inches 
below the level of the water to be heated. These 
arrangements being made, and the heat applied 
below, a circulation instantly takes place and con- 
tinues, the water coming into contact with the 

Fig,U6^1ZiZ^^eboaer. ^^^^^^ ^'^^^ outor boilcr, rising 

rapidly to the surface, and descending through the 
inner boiler, which thus necessarily contains the coldest portion of the 
liquid. (Gardeners Magazine^ vol. xvi. page 325.) The heat commu- 
nicated by the fire to the bottom and sides of the outer boiler is rapidly 
carried off by the current that is created, exactly on the same principle 
that wind, which is a current of air, cools any body exposed to it more 
rapidly than air at the same temperature but quite still. The under-ground 
drains should either have vacuities at the sides and over the top to prevent 
them from absorbing much heat, or they may be carried through the 
bottom of the tan- pit, where there is one. In general, we would not cover 
the heating-pipes, nor would we adopt the upright tubes which Mr. Penn 
originally used, but has since dispensed with. There may be situations and 
circumstances where it would be more desirable to have the heat of the pipes 
or flues carried off" by radiation with the usual degree of slowness rather than 
by conduction ; such, for example, as when the attendant on the hothouse was 
likely to be a long time absent, or when some danger from overheating was 
anticipated ; and this can always be attained by covering the orifices by which 
the air enters to the cross-drains. It is proper to state, that at the present 
time the opinions of a number of persons are against the use of air as a car- 
rier of heat in hothouses, on account, they say, of the difficulty of maintaining 
it in exactly the proper state of moisture. This, however, can be effected with- 
out difficulty, by keeping the bottoms of the cross-drains covered with water, 
or by having cisterns of w^ater over the pipes, or both. A few years' experi- 
ence is probably required to set the matter at rest ; in the mean time, the 
reader who wishes to examine both sides of the question, may consult the 
Gard.Mag. for 1840-41, and the Gard. Chron., more especially an article by 
Mr. Ainger, April 3d, page 212. Our opinion is, that the power of producing 
motion in the air, even though it should be onl}'' wanted occasionally, and 
obtainable at an extra expense of heat, is of so much value for setting blos- 
soms, equalizing heat and moisture in some cases, drying up damp in others 
or producing a feeling of coolness, that no plant-structure of large dimensions, 
and where fire heat is employed, ought to be without it. To explain the 
manner in which the motion of heated air in hothouses produces a sensation 
of coolness, without being altered in its temperature, we make the following 
quotation from Lardner s Cyclopcedia : " The air which surrounds us is 
generally at a lower temperature than that of the body. If the air be calm 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



207 



and still, the particles which are in immediate contact with the skin acquire 
the temperature of the skin itself, and having a sort of molecular attraction, 
they adhere to the skin in the same manner as particles of air are found to 
adhere to the surface of glass in philosophical experiments. Thus sticking 
to the skin, they form a sort of warm covering for it, and speedily acquire 
its temperature." Agitation of the air, however, " continually expels the 
particles thus in contact with the skin, and brings new particles into that 
situation. Each particle of air, as it strikes the skin, takes heat from it by 
contact, and being driven off, carries that heat with it, thus producing a 
constant sensation of refreshing coolness." 

502. The boiler for heating by hot water need never be large, because no 
advantage is gained by having a large quantity of water in it, further than 
that of acting as a reservoir, which will be more conveniently and economi- 
cally placed within the house. A boiler of small capacity, and with a large 
superficies for the fire to act on, will be the most economical in first cost, and 
also in fuel. " The extent of surface which a boiler ought to expose to the 
fire should be proportional to the quantity of pipe that is required to be 
heated by it ; " and Mr. Hood has calculated a table, which, like various 
others in his excellent work, will be referred to by the intelligent inquirer, 
or by the gardener who intends to direct the construction and putting up of 
his own heating apparatus. By this table it appears : 

That 3^ square feet of surface of boiler exposed to the fire will heat 200 
feet of 4-inch pipe, or 266 feet of 8-inch pipe, or 400 feet of 2-inch pipe. 

That 7 square feet of surface of boiler will heat 400 feet of 4-inch pipe, 
583 feet of 3-inch pipe, and 800 feet of 2-inch pipe, and so on in the same 
ratio. 

" A small apparatus," Mr. Hood observes, " ought perhaps to have rather 
more surface of boiler, in proportion to the length of pipe, than a larger one ; 
as the fire is less intense, and bums to less advantage, in a small than in a 
large furnace." (p. 71.) 

503. The furnace for a hot-water apparatus has also been subjected to 
calculation by Mr. Hood. For generating steam, an extremely brisk fire 
and rapid draught are required ; but a very moderate draught will sufiice 
for heating a boiler where the temperature of the water is rarely required 
to be above 180° or at most 200°. The following observations on the con- 
struction and management of furnaces are valuable both with respect to a 
hot- water apparatus and the furnaces to common smoke-flues. " The heat 
should be confined within the furnace as much as possible, by contracting 
the farther end of it, at the part called the throat, so as to allow onl}^ a 
small space for the smoke and inflamed gases to pass out. The only entrance 
for the air should be through the bars of the grate, and the heated gaseous 
matter will then pass directly upward to the bottom of the boiler, which will 
act as a reverberator, and cause a more perfect combustion of the fuel than 
would otherwise take place. The lightness of the heated gaseous matter 
causes it to ascend the flue, forcing its passage through the throat of the 
furnace with a velocity proportional to the smallness of the passage, the 
vertical height of the chimney, and the levity of the gases, arising from 
their expansion by the heat of the furnace." (p. 77.) After giving a table 
of the area of bars required for pipes of diff'erent dimensions and lengths, 
Mr. Hood observes : " In order to make the fire bum for a long time without 
attention, the furnace should extend beyond the bars both in length and 

p 2 



208 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



breadth ; and the coals which are placed on this blank part of the furnace, 
in consequence of receiving no air from below, will bum very slowly, and 
will only enter into complete combustion when the coal which lies directly 
on the bars has burnt away." (p. 80.) 

504. Rogers s Conical Boiler and Hot-water Apparatus is believed to be 
the most perfect and generally applicable in the case of houses of moderate 
dimensions that has yet been invented, and as such we shall describe it 
somewhat in detail. It is the result of a series of experiments made by 
John Rogers, jun. Esq., F.R.S., &c., with the assistance of Mr. Shewin, iron- 
monger, Sevenoaks, Kent, who manufactures the apparatus for sale. The 
boiler was originally formed of tinned iron, afterwards of copper, and lastly 
it was cast in iron in one piece. 

Fig. 1*47 is a front view of the boiler as at present constructed in cast-iron. 

The interior, a sugarloaf-shaped cone (indi- 
cated by the dotted lines), being the furnace, 
which is filled with fuel through its upper 
orifice, a. A cii'cular fire-grate is fixed just 
within the bottom of the boiler ; and the 
aperture 6, seen in front, is intended solely 
to remove clinkers which may form, or fuel 
when the fire is extinguished ; at other times 
it is closed with a fire-brick plug, and should 
never be opened except when absolutely ne- 
cessary. For a side view of the boiler see 
fig. 150, where it is represented as attached 
to a range of pipe ; / and r are the flow and 
return pipes, and d a flange for examining 
and cleaning the boiler when necessary. 
Into this flange is fixed a small pipe, which, 
being connected upwards with the supply 
cistern e, and downwards with the cock or 
tap ^, serves to fill and empty the apparatus. 
The supply cistern e acts also as an expansion cistern, to receive the volume 
of water increased by heat. 

Fig. 148 shows the most convenient mode of setting the above, exhibited by 




Fig. 147. Rogers's conical boiler. 




Fig. 148. Mode of setting Rogers's conical boiler. 

a front view. A solid base being built with an aperture in its centre open to 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



209 



the front, as high as the desired depth of the ash-pit, the boiler is fixed upon 
it, and the brick- work carried up to its lower flange or rim. The side-walls 
should then be raised, in four-inch work, level with the top of the boiler, as 
represented in fig. 148 : a is the ash-pit, h the boiler, c the aperture in front 
of the boiler, closed with fire-brick, e e and d d two bars, one supporting the 
fire-brick plug, and the other fitting to the rim of the boiler to support a slate 
which closes the front as in fig. 149 ; ff^ fig. 148, is the chamber around the 
boiler, filled with sawdust as a non-conductor of heat ; and a layer of saw- 
dust extends over the top of the boiler, under the slate slab g g, which is fitted 
over the brickwork, an aperture being cut in it to allow the throat of the fur- 
nace to pass through. 

Fig. 149 gives the same view farther completed : the front of the chamber 

is closed with a slab of slate, and on the slab 
which covers the boiler is erected a chimney, 
having a feeding- door, through which fuel 
is supplied, placed in its sloping face directly 
over the mouth of tlie furnace. This chim- 
ney must not exceed four or five feet in 
height, and its area must in no case exceed 
the area of the mouth of the furnace. That 
here represented, viz., a brick base, with a 
piece of four-inch iron pipe about three feet 
in length, will probably be found most con- 
venient, unless a moveable chimney be pre- 
ferred. This chimney should be fitted with 
a damper just below the iron part, to give 
greater command of the draught. The 
aperture of the boiler, which is closed with 
fire-brick, and the front of the ash-pit, 
should also be closed by a door or blovrer. 
having a regulator to admit or exclude 
draught. A blower is preferable to a door, 
as hinges are always liable to rust, and 
then break or strain ; and it is important to 
be able to close the ash-pit pretty accu- 
rately. 

Fig. 149. Rogers's boiler set, with the chim- Fig. 150 shows the relative position of 
ney added. the boilcr and pipes, and the mode of at- 

taching and arranging them. In the first place, the whole of the pipes 
should, if possible, be above the boiler. One foot is sufficient, but, when con- 
venient, the higher the better. When two or three-inch pipe is employed, 
the pipes may rise uniformly about one inch in twenty feet, from a and 6 to 
c; on which, being thus the highest point of the pipes, an air-cock is placed. 
But if four-inch pipes be employed, it is better that a should be the highest 
point, and the air -cock placed there ; and that the pipes should fall uniformly 
one inch in twenty feet from a to c, and from c to & : indeed this is generally 
the best arrangement, where not inconvenient. From h the return-pipe, r, 
should descend either perpendicularly, or with as steep an inclination as pos- 
sible, to the bottom of the boiler. The supply cistern, e, must be so placed 
that its bottom is not lower than the highest point of the pipes. The top of 
the steam-valve, v, should be level with the top of the supplj^ cistern. Just 




2J0 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 




may be steamed. In small apartments this will happen pretty frequently, but 
in large houses, in order to insure this advantage, a stopcock or sluice should 
be placed on the flow-pipe, /, to intercept the circulation, by which means the 
water in the boiler may at any time be raised to the boiling point in a few 
minutes. 

Fig. 151 represents a contrivance which is not liable to any of the defects 
of stopcocks, which impedes the circulation less than any except large sluices, 
and which is comparatively unexpensive. The hollow plug fig. 151, is 
fitted with a valve, perfectly watertight. This valve is opened and shut hj 
the handle /, sliding through a stuffing-box in the end of the plug. By closing 
it the gardener may at any time cause the water in the boiler to boil, when, 
by opening the cock A', he admits as much steam to the house as may be de- 
sired. A small pewter pipe, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, is suffi- 
ciently large to conduct steam into the house ; and its flexibility renders it 
very convenient. Where this arrangement is adopted, the supply- cistern 
must be larger than is otherwise necessary, and should contain ten or twelve 
gallons. The steam-pipe, also, should be placed on the top of the boiler, and 
be of sufficient diameter to allow the water and steam to separate, that the 
former may not be blown out through the pipe along with the steam ; and 
the valve should be loaded with a few ounces of lead. 

Fig. 152 exhibits the apparatus, with the addition of a reservoir; this in 
small pits is very desirable. The letters indicate the same objects as in fig. 
150, except w, the reservoir, which may be formed of thiu copper in the form 
of a cylinder, and should be packed in a wooden or brick case, in sand or saw- 
dust, which supports its shape, protects it from accident, and prevents the 
heat from escaping. All the communication pipes in this case may be of 
lead, and fitted with union joints, which renders the fitting exceedingly easy. 
In Mr. Rogers's apparatus a lead pipe of an inch and a quarter in diameter 
supplies forty feet of radiating surface, and his reservoir contaias about four 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



211 



times as much as the pipes. Reservoirs may be made of iron, but, though 
rather less expensive, they are so heavy and unwieldy that they could hardly 




Fig. 152. Rogers's hot-water reservoir. 



be used; and the expense of attaching the pipes would greatly exceed the 
cost of copper. Mr. Rogers has a seventy-two gallon reservoir, a cylinder 
four feet long by two feet in diameter, which cost complete, with two one- 
fourth-inch union joints, £5. 5s. 

The foregoing directions will enable any intelligent gardener to plan and 
put up an apparatus for himself. 

It remains to say something respecting fuel : any sort except wood and 
caking coal may be employed. The best of all is anthracite or Welsh coal, 
but a little coke is necessary to light it ; the next best is coke ; and next to 
this, cinders. Mr. Rogers arranges them thus, in the order of their strength ; 
but for ordinary purposes nothing is better than cinders : nay, even coke breeze, 
or small refuse coke, the value of which is next to nothing, may be burnt in 
these furnaces, but in that case they require eight or ten feet of chimney. 
Where it is required to produce strong heat rapidly, coke must be employed ; 
but it is not a good fuel to maintain heat, as it allows too much draught, and 
burns away. Welsh coal has not this fault, and is a very durable fuel, 
peculiarly well suited to these boilers. When the fire is first lighted it should 
be allowed to burn brisk and clear, till the fuel in the bottom is well ignited; 
it may then be filled up to the throat of the furnace, when it will last through 
the night. In filling, care, of course, must be taken that the fuel is not so 
small and dusty as to stop the draught. Where cinders are used they should 
be well sifted. The proper management of these boilers may be best secured 
by explaining the principle upon which they are constructed. As fuel can- 
not be consumed without air, if a furnace be constructed of considerable 
depth, and filled with fuel, and air be admitted only at the bottom, that fuel 
alone is consumed which lies immediately on the bars, and first receives the 
draught of air. The fuel above, provided it transmits the air, becomes red- 
hot, or nearly so, but does not consume until that below it is destroyed. In 
this manner, one of these conical furnaces being lighted and filled with fuel, 
that portion in the upper part of the furnace which cannot burn absorbs the 
heat of the burning fuel below, and radiates or transmits it to the water on 
every side. So perfect is this absorption of heat, that for several hours after 
the furnace has been filled up with cinders, though there may be a fierce fire 



212 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



below, little or no heat escapes by the chimney, the whole being taken up by 
the surrounding water. The economy, therefore, of fuel in such an apparatus 
is very great : and it is also evident that excess of draught must be carefully 
guarded against, so much only being allowed as will consume the fuel 
steadily, which is easily learned by experience. The necessity, also, of keeping 
the aperture in front close, so that air enters the furnace only through the ash- 
pit, is hence evident. The water, it will be observed, is in close and immediate 
contact with the red-hot fuel on all sides, no black smoking coals intervening, 
as in most kinds of boilers ; hence the great power in proportion to their size. 
Economy of fuel is not, however, the sole or principal advantage of these 
boilers ; their great recommendation is the long duration of steady heat which 
they insure without attendance. When properly managed, they may be 
depended upon for maintaining heat twelve hours untouched. This, to many 
amateurs who do not command the services of a resident gai'dener, is invalu- 
able. In the next place, they are applicable to houses and pits on the 
smallest possible scale ; a three-light pit may be kept at a temperature as 
uniform as that of the largest hothouse, without any trouble by night. It 
was for a purpose of this kind that Mr. Rogers was originally led to devise 
them, and he has for three years past cultivated Orchidese in a small house 
not twelve feet square in this manner. Mr. Rogers's gardener does not live 
on the premises ; and the temperature, as ascertained by a double self-regis- 
tering thermometer, rarely varies 5° during the night. 

It is to be observed, that, as the quantity of heat produced depends upon 
the quantity of fuel consumed, each boiler must contain, at one charge, fuel 
sufficient to supply the pipes to which it is attached with heat for twelve 
hours ; it is therefore necessary that the size of the boilers be proportioned to 
the work they have to do. They are cast of the following sizes, which have 
been found most generally useful : — 

10-iuch furnace, 'working 40 ft. to 60 ft. 4-inch pipe, price £4 10. 
13-iuch do. do. 60 ft. to 120 ft. do. price 6 0. 
IS-inch do. do. 120 ft. to 200 ft. do. price 7 10.* 

Where the quantity of pipe exceeds the above amount, two boilers have 
hitherto been employed ; but there is no reason why an eighteen-inch should 
not be cast, if a sufficient demand arose for them : boilers of this size have 
beenfound very effective in copper ; and a twenty- one-inch, cast in iron for Mr. 
Wilmot of Isle worth, worked exceedingly well. The numbers affixed to the 
boilers above are such as they will work properly and efficiently at all times. 
Some boilers of the above dimensions have been found to do a good deal more 
work than is here allotted to them ; but this has only been by increasing the 
draught, and producing more intense combustion, a great deal of heat at the 
same time escaping by the chimney. When thus employed, the peculiar 
advantages of these boilers are lost; fuel is burnt to waste, and consumed so 
rapidly that they do not maintain their heat as long as is desu-able. Duration 
of heat and economy of fuel are considered by Mr. Rogers as paramount objects. 

The only case in which stronger draught may be allowed is where the fire 
works into a flue in the house : but the objection of the rapid consumption of 
fuel is not thus removed; nor can this arrangement be generally recom- 



* Ttie fittings, comprising doors, dampers, &c., all things, in short, peculiar to the appa- 
ratus as ahove described, vary from U. 5s. to 11. lbs., according to the size, and the 
articles required. The appendages for steaming the house are not included in this estimate. 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



213 



mended, though sometimes convenient. When the ten-inch boiler is em- 
ployed to small quantities of pipe, it must be fitted with a reservoir, as in fig. 
152. In this manner it may be made to work as low as fifteen or twenty feet 
of four-inch pipe. Four- inch pipe is taken as a standard, because each foot 
of it contains about one square foot of radiating surface : of three-inch, one 
third more, and of two-inch, double the quantity, may be considered as the 
equivalents of the above amounts. 

These boilers are so constructed that they can be cleaned out ; and, if ne- 
cessary, they can be taken to pieces, to remove any calcareous deposit which 
may in time take place in them. It is, however, particularly desirable, in 
these, as in all hot-water apparatus, that nothing but pure rain or pond water 
should be employed. Where the boilers are employed for steaming, this 
precaution is particularly important, otherwise calcareous incrustation must 
take place. To prevent leaves, dirt, &c., getting down the pipe of the supply 
cistern, it should be guarded by a double cap of pierced zinc ; one moveable, 
that the gardener may cleanse it if clogged, and the other fixed. 

The advantages of these conical boilers are no longer matter of speculation 
or experiment. Very many have been erected in the course of 1839 and 1840, 
and are highly approved ; although few of them possess all the advantages 
which experience has since combined in the form now described. They are 
peculiarly adapted for those purposes where perpetual heat is required ; for 
plant-stoves, pineries, and forcing-frames ; also for small propagating-houses, 
or preserving-pits. To pits in general, from their small size, and from the 
small expense incurred in setting them, a recommendation not heretofore 
noticed, they are peculiarly applicable, and have been extensively applied. 
(Gard. Mag., 1840, p. 1390 

505. Rain-water should, as we have just seen, always be used in hot- 
water apparatus ; for hard water deposits a sediment or incrustation, which 
if not removed, will form a coating of several inches in thickness, which coating 
acting as a powerful non-conductor, will allow the bottom of the boiler to 
become red-hot without sufficiently heating the water it contains ; and ulti- 
mately, from the cracking of the deposit in consequence of the greater 
expansion of the red-hot iron, the water comes in contact with the red-hot 
metal, and an explosion takes place. (See Gard. Mag. vol. ix. p. 206 ) 
Hence the necessity of having all boilers where hard water is to be used 
constructed so as to admit of being readily cleaned out. As the deposit con- 
sists of calcareous matter, it may be removed by a weak solution of muriatic 
acid aided with a slight mechanical agitation : but it is much better to 
prevent its taking place by using only soft water. 

■ 506. To prevent the water in the apparatus from freezing, salt may be 
added to it ; but this may be rendered unnecessary in the case of horizontal 
pipes by drawing off a portion of the water, so that they shall not be quite 
full, because in that case the w^ater has room for that expansion which takes 
place when it passes into ice. The quantity of salt put into water to keep 
it from freezing, Mr. Hood observes, may vary from 3^ per cent, the quantity 
contained in sea- water, which will not freeze when it is above 28^, to 85 per cent, 
the greatest amount of common salt which water will hold in solution. With 
4*3 per cent of salt, water freezes at 27^^ ; with 6'6 per cent of salt, at 25^° ; 
and with 11 '1 per cent, at 21^^. The effect which would be produced 
on cast-iron pipes and boilers by any of these quantities of salt, Mr. Hood 
states, would not be of much importance. As salt does not evaporate, when 



214 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



a sufficient quantity is once added for the purpose required, the waste which 
takes place can be supplied by fresh water. (^Hood's Treatise, p. 167.) 

507. Open gutters have been employed, either partially or wholly, instead 
of closed pipes, for circulating hot water in hothouses, and by a number of 
gardeners this is considered a very superior mode where great atmospheric 
moisture is required. The earliest apparatus of this kind is one which was 
put up in Knight's Exotic Nursery, Chelsea, in 1830, and described in the 
Gardener s Magazine for that year, pp. 374 to 376. It has since been 
erected by Mr. Weekes at several places, and a patent was taken out for 
some modifications of it by Mr. Corbett in 1838. Instead of the upper or 
flow-pipe, an open gutter of iron, wood, slate, or stone, is employed ; it is 
placed on a level, from the boiler to the furthest point where it is carried, 
and it commonly returns to the boiler in a closed pipe. It can be carried 
over doors or similar interruptions by siphons, and under them by inverted 
siphons ; and the open gutter has covers which can be taken off and put on 
at pleasure to diminish or increase the quantity of vapour admitted to the 
atmosphere of the house. (Gard. Mag. 1838.) There is an apparatus of 
this kind in Pontey's Nursery, Plymouth ; the boiler is one of She win's (Ro- 
gers's, 504) largest-sized conical ones, which appears to answer admirably. 
From the boiler the water flows in an open gutter, formed of slabs of slate 
(jointed very neatly together), to the further end of the house, from which 
point it returns in a four-inch iron pipe back to the boiler. From having 
the gutter open a very humid heat is produced, but by the use of slate covers 
it can be regulated so as to have little or much vapour, as circumstances 
may require. (^Gard. Chron. Jan. 2, p. 6.) At Cowley, near Exeter, Mr. 
Corbett's open system has been put up, and the gardener there finds it the 
most simple and efficacious means of heating that he has tried. For orchida- 
ceous houses he particularly recommends it, and he has found it far superior 
to close pipes in the pine stove. Mr. Glendinning also considers it the best of 
all systems. It combines, he says, the simplicity of the good old level system 
with the grand advantage of diffusing through the liouse, without trouble, any 
quantity of moisture required, or entirely withholding it. The cu'culation 
of the water in the gutters is quite as rapid as by any other system, if not 
more so, even when left entirely open. The invention is divested of all 
intricacy, as the water may be exposed to full view from its leaving the 
boiler until its return, and the apparatus is not liable to go out of repair. 
Its effectual application to every description of forcing-house is at present 
without a parallel ; as, by the partial or entire removal of any number of 
covers, an unvarying degree of moisture, always governed by the tempera- 
ture maintained, can, with the greatest ease and accuracy, be communicated. 
This alone, to practical men, will secure to it a decided preference. Red 
spiders, thrips, and all other insects, will be readily subdued ; and an atmo- 
sphere, at once invigorating and refreshing, at all times maintained. (^Gard. 
Mag. 1841, p. 57.) The opinion of Mr. Rogers is thus expressed : — " For 
OrchideaB, melons, and cucumbers, I should think it excellent ; for stove- 
plants, at certain seasons, equally so ; but, for other garden purposes, its 
utility must depend upon the power of completely covering the troughs, and 
regulating the escape of moisture. For greenhouses, as well as for forcing 
grapes and pines, it would require two or three years' experience to satisfy 
me of its advantages ; especially for the two latter purposes. Heat is often 
employed in gardens more to dry than to warm buildings ; as, in greenhouses 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



215 



and late vineries, during damp weather in autumn. It is also necessary to 
obtain dry heat to ripen the wood of all forced plants ; and, though I have 
no experience of pines, I do not imagine they will ripen, to be good for anything, 
except at a high temperature and in a pretty dry atmosphere. In all these 
cases, then, it is absolutely necessary to prevent the escape of moisture from 
the troughs. If this can be done, the only remaining objections are the diffi- 
culty and inconvenience of obtaining a perfect level for the troughs." {Gard. 
Mag. 1841, p. 152.) Where the level system of heating can be adopted, 
open gutters would appear to be preferable to closed pipes, as rendering more 
certain the supply of moisture to the atmosphere of the house, and super- 
seding entirely the use of cisterns, except in botanic stoves for growing 
aquatic plants. 

508. Retaining Heat by Coverings. — Whatever mode of heating plant- 
structures may be adopted, it should be constantly borne in mind that it is 
incomparably better for the health of the plants to prevent heat from escap- 
ing by non-conducting coverings during nights, than to allow it to be con- 
tinually given off into the atmosphere, and as continually supplied by fire- 
flues or hot-^vater pipes. Where coverings cannot be applied, and a high 
temperature must be kept up, reserve sources of heat, and abundant supplies 
of water to maintain atmospheric moisture, are the only means by which 
the plants can be kept healthy. " A weakly growth," Mr. Paxton observes, 
" is the sure consequence of a high temperature maintained by fire-heat, 
whatever plan of artificial heating be adopted." He therefore recommends, 
in all cases where practicable, the use of external coverings, by which, at 
Chats worth, a difference of from 10® to 15° is gained, and two thirds of the 
fuel that would otherwise be necessary are saved. (Gard. Chiton. Jan. 16, 
p. 40.) 

509. Atmospheric Moisture. — The necessity of proportioning moisture to 
temperature, and the causes which render the climates of our plant-structures 
unnaturally dry, have already been pointed out (251 to 257). To give an 
idea of the quantity of moisture requisite for an atmosphere at a high tem- 
perature, Mr. Rogers has shown that a vinery twenty-five feet long by thirteen 
feet six inches wide in the roof, maintained at 65° when the outer au^ is 35°, 
vtill condense on the glass, in twenty-four hours, 35^ gallons of water. (Gard. 
Mag. 1840, p. 282.) In devising the best method of procuring a constant 
supply of moisture for the air of a hothouse proportionable to the expendi- 
ture, Mr. Rogers finds the end may be most effectually attained by placing 
cisterns on the heating-pipes. As the temperature of the water in these 
cisterns would vary with tbat of the pipes, the evaporation from them w^ould 
be greatest when the pipes were hottest ; when the greatest degree of arti- 
ficial temperature was being obtained, and consequently the greatest di-ain upon 
it by condensation. The cisterns may be made of zinc, with their bottoms 
fitted to the curvature of the pipes, at least six inches deep to the top of the 
pipes, and of the same lengths as the space between the rings by which the 
pipes are joined. Where two pipes are placed side by side on the same 
level, the form shown in fig. 153 may be adopted, and a single pipe may 
have cisterns fitted to it in the same manner, or it may be made to embrace 
the sides of the pipe and cover it entirely with water, as in fig. 154. In 
some cases shallow cisterns are cast on the pipes, but their power is insuffi- 
cient, and in general zinc cisterns may be considered the best. Cisterns so 
placed on pipes heated to 200° will contain water at 140° to 145° ; but this 



216 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



will not be the case unless they are properly fitted, and luted on the pipes 
with wet sand ; for the smallest interstice is found to make a great difference 

in the heat transmitted. Mr. Rogers 
finds that cisterns fixed in this manner, 
with water at a temperature of from 
1200 to 1450, evaporate about three 
quarters of a gallon per square foot of 





Fig. 153. Zinc cistern for double pipes. Fig. 1.54. Zinc cislern for a single pipe. 

surface in twenty-four hours. The proportion which he employs in an 
orchidaceous stove is about one square foot of evaporating surface to ten 
square feet of glass ; and, in stoves and forcing-houses, he is of opinion 
(^Proceedings of the Horticultural Society., 1840, p. 149) that there ought 
to be one square foot of water for every fifteen square feet of glass. If 
houses heated by flues had this proportion of cistern placed over these, 
we should no longer hear so much of the dry disagreeable atmosphere pro- 
duced by this mode of heating. It is almost unnecessary to observe that 
the cisterns will be most effective where the flues are most eff'ective ; or that, 
as the covers of flues have not interruptions like the joints of pipes, the cis- 
terns may be made of any length. Slate cisterns placed above the pipes 
may be advantageously used for increasing the moisture, serving at the same 
time as a reservoir of heat, and of water for watering the plants, and also 
for growing aquatics ; but as the water in such cisterns will seldom exceed 
the temperature of 80° to 85°, a much larger surface is required than in the 
case of zinc cisterns accurately fitted to the curvature of the pipes. On 
smoke-flues the water in such cisterns will rise to a much higher temperature 
than on pipes, because the slate bottoms will come in close contact with the 
entire surface of the covers of the flue. 

510. Steaming., that is, the discharging into the atmosphere of a house, 
in large quantities, the steam of water heated to the boiling-point, has been 
adopted as a means of producing atmospheric moisture ; but it is objection- 
able on account of the high temperature of the steam, except in large 
houses where the volume of air aff"ords room for the steam to part with heat, 
so as to be converted into vapour before it reaches the plants. Steaming 
may also be useful in combination with fumigation, or the diffusion in the 
atmosphere of matters noxious to insects. Mr. Rogers proposes the fol- 
lowing method of using steam in such a manner as not to prove injurious 
to plants. "A shallow cistern, about six inches deep, and carrying at 
least four square feet of area, with a false bottom of wire or pierced zinc 
about one inch from the real bottom, being provided, the steam-pipe from 
the boiler should be introduced so as to discharge itself between the real and 
false bottoms ; the cistern should now be filled with water nearly to its 
brim, and the steam laid on. The water will soon be raised to a pretty 
considerable temperature, and yield an abundant supply of innocuous 
vapour." The use of the false bottom is to prevent the water from boiling 
up and flowing over before it is converted into steam. 




PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



217 



511. Ventilation and Aeration. — Till lately, the subject of giving air to 
plant-houses has been very imperfectly understood ; and, indeed, as it was 
generally supposed that a very small supply of air was sufficient for the 
growth of plants, ventilation was principally employed to lower the tem- 
perature of a hot-house when the heat was too great, or to let off sulphureous 
or other noxious gases which might be generated by the modes of heating 
employed. Now, however, that it begins to be well known that plants 
derive a great proportion of their carbon from the air, another and the 
most important use of ventilation has been discovered ; and gardeners are 
become aware that a constant supply of fresh air is almost as necessary to 
plants as water, and consequently that, without fresh air, no plants can be 
kept in a perfectly healthy and vigorous state. The admission of air for 
the purpose of nourishing plants has been very properly distinguished by 
Dr. Lindley under the name of Aeration, from ordinary ventilation ; and it 
requires to be regulated in quite a different manner. It has been already 
observed (253), that if the sashes of a hothouse are opened in front and in 
the upper part of the roof at the same time, so as to create a thorough 
draught, when the atmosphere is colder than the temperature of the house, 
a great injury is done to vegetation, not only by the sudden chill, which 
the admission of a current of cool air produces, but by the quantity of 
moisture which it carries off. Hence, aeration should be effected by the 
circulation of a constant supply of warm moist air (266, 267) ; and hence it 
is, that plants grown in houses heated by the Polmaise system are generally 
in a state of vigorous health. Ventilation is, however, frequently necessary as 
well as aeration. In greenhouses, pits, and frames, where there is a large pro- 
portion of earthy and moist surface to a small volume of air, the latter may 
become too moist, and fresh air may be required to dry it; and in every descrip- 
tion of plant-structure it may be required to lower the temperature. Hence, 
for houses heated by smoke-flues, and for pits and frames heated by fermenting 
dung, a greater power of ventilation becomes requisite than for houses heated 
by hot water in which, noxious vapours can rarely be produced, or the tem- 
perature raised much above 80° or 90°. For lowering the temperature of a 
hothouse, air is best admitted by opening sashes or ventilators in the upper 
part of the roof. In roofs with sliding sashes, the upper sashes along the whole 
line of roof may be let down uniformly, if the house be at an equal tempe- 
rature throughout, and rather more at the hottest part, if it is of unequal tem- 
perature. The width opened need seldom exceed half an inch or an inch in 
the winter time ; but in summer it may be much greater, according to the 
temperature to be kept up in the house, and other circumstances. If the roof 
should be a fixed one, then a narrow opening might be made in the upper 
angle of the roof along the whole length of the house ; and the cover to this 
opening might be raised simultaneously and uniformly by lines and pulleys or 
other means, which need not be here detailed. A portion of the heated air of 
the house will escape by this opening, while a portion of the outer air will enter 
to take its place, mixed, as it descends, with the heated air, and becoming, 
by this means, heated to a certain extent before it reaches the plants. The 
great object in ventilating houses which are kept at a high temperature is 
to avoid thorough draughts, which are always produced when ventilators in 
the front and back are opened at the same time. Even in houses kept at a 
low temperature, such as greenhouses and conservatories, it is thought 
desirable in the winter season to admit the air from the roof only, and not 
from the sides. In summer, when the temperature of the outer air is as 



218 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



high as that of the house ought to be, openings may be made in every 
direction at pleasure. In stoves the precaution of covering the openings 
of the upper part of the roof, by which air is given, with wire netting, might 
be taken, which, while it excludes wasps and flies in summer, would in 
winter act like Jeffrey's Respu*ator, in abstracting the heat from the 
heated air which escaped, and imparting it to the cold air which entered ; 
or the double tube, recommended by Dr. Arnott in his Treatise oil Warming 
and Ventilating^ might be adopted. The external au* may be heated in the 
w^inter season before it is allowed to enter the house, by enclosing a part of 
the pipes or smoke flues in a trunk or box, with a communication at the 
lower part of one end with the open air, and at the upper part of the other 
with the air of the house. So long as the pipes are kept at a temperature 
considerably above that of the house, fresh air will flow in, and a corre- 
sponding quantity will be displaced by the accidental crevices of the roof. 
In hotbeds it is customary to leave openings for the escape of moist vapour 
during the whole of the night ; this is generally done by raising the sashes 
behind, but, as by this mode the steam from the dung is sometimes driven 
in, some gardeners have a narrow opening in the upper part of the sash, with 
a lid to fit to it, hmged along the upper edge. 

512. Light is one of the elements of culture as essential as heat (278). 
When the object is merely to grow plants without fruiting them, the pro- 
portion of glass may be small, provided it be pretty equally'' distributed over 
the roof ; but when the object is to produce flowers and fruit, the proportion 
of glass to the wood or metal of the roof ought to be greater. In nursery- 
men's houses for growing plants, the ordinary size of the panes used to be 
five inches by three inches, and they were made of the common crown glass, 
which was very thin, a heavy duty being payable by the manufacturer on 
glass which was estimated not by the weight but the measure. When, 
however, the duty on glass was taken ofi^, manufacturers were enabled to 
make glass of any size and thickness that was required ; and gardeners 
wishing to give their plants as much light as possible, frequently used panes 
of the British sheet glass, two or even three feet long, and a foot or fourteen 
inches in width. Panes of this enormous size required to be of proportionate 
thickness, and accordingly the sheet glass generally weighed from 18 oz. to 
26 oz. the foot. As this glass was beautifully clear, the most beneficial 
effects were expected from the free admission of light to the plants ; but 
the result was not equal to what was anticipated. The surface of the thick 
glass was found unequal when examined through a powerful microscope, 
and every inequality was found to act as a lens in collecting the sun's rays, 
and scorching the leaves of the plants. To obviate this inconvenience the 
idea was suggested of using coloured glass, and green glass was used in the 
large conservatory at Kew. It was not, however, found to answer, and a 
kind of rough glass was introduced, which was found not only to diffiise 
the light equally, without scorching the leaves, but to render shading 
unnecessary. When this glass is used, the most convenient size for the 
panes is eighteen inches by six inches or nine inches, weighing sixteen ounces 
to a foot. As, however, the rough glass is very unsightly, some persons pre- 
fer crown glass in squares, from nine inches to a foot square, which in glaz- 
ing are made to lap over one another, from one-eighth to one-fourth of an 
inch. In general one-eighth of an inch is quite sufficient ; as the broader the 
laps, the greater is the quantity of water which they retain, and the more 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



219 



liable is the glass to breakage when the water so retained becomes frozen. 
This lap is sometimes entirely, and sometimes partially, rendered air 
and water tight by putty. In tlie former case it prevents the water which 
condenses on the inside of the glass from escaping to the outside ; and in the 
latter, while it allows the condensed water to escape, it also retains, by the 
attraction of cohesion, as much as fills the space between the lap ; and this 
water in severe weather is apt to freeze, and by its expansion when under- 
going that operation, the glass is broken. By having the laps unputtied, not 
only is there great danger from breakage by frost, but much heated air 
escapes during cold weather, and rain is apt to be blown into the house during 
high winds in certain directions. It is better, therefore, in the opinion of 
most scientific gardeners, to putty the laps and render them water-proof ; to 
accomplish which in an efficient and economical manner, Mr. Forsyth 
proposes a lap three eighths of an inch broad (in our opinion a greater 
breadth than is necessary), with the space between filled in with soft putty 
in the usual manner, and then carefully to paint the joinings of the glass, 
both the under lap and the over lap, and also the putty between, in the fol- 
lowing manner : — Let the upper edge of the paint on both sides of the lap 
run in the direction of d c, in fig. 155, thus directing all the water which 




c 



Fig. 155. Lap of glass panes puttied and painted. 

condenses on the inside or falls on the outside down the centre of the squares. 
The only disadvantage attending close-puttying the lap is, that the con- 
densed water, when the roof is very flat, sometimes drops on the plants : but 
if the house is kept at a proper temperature, the water that drops in this 
manner will do little injury, and wUl be speedily taken up by the dry air 
which has just parted from it. In particular cases, where the drip falls on a 
plant, it may be directed to a point where it will do no injury, by a simple 
process pointed out by Mr. Rogers, viz., to fix at places where the drip will 
do no injury, small pieces of cobblers' wax or putty, which, by interrupting 
the descending current, will cause it to drop down. The drip, however, is 
much more common from the bars between the glass than from the glass 
itself, and to these Mr. Rogers's plan is peculiarly applicable. One great 
argument for puttying the laps is, that the moisture of the atmosphere, 
though it may be condensed on the glass, is not, if proper means are taken 
to retain it at the bottom of the sloping glass, allowed to escape from the 
house, but must be reabsorbed by the air which deposited it, somewhat in 
the same manner that takes place in growing plants in closed glass cases. 
These cases being air-tight, when the temperature within is greater than that 
without, moisture is deposited on the glass, and after some time runs down 
and settles along the inside of the rim ; whence, when the temperature within 
is raised to the same height as before, it is again taken up and held in sus- 
pension in the form of elastic vapour. In the case of air-tight stoves, nearly 
the same process must be constantly going on ; but few have hitherto been 
built sufficiently air-tight for this purpose. One of the greatest improve- 



220 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWI^'G 



ments that have taken place in the glazing of plant-stviictures of every 
description, is the introduction of sheet window-glass, which, while it is 
nearly as thick and strong as plate-glass, is not much dearer than crown- 
glass. The thickness of this glass varies from one eighth of an inch to 
something more than one sixteenth, and either thickness may be used in 
lengths of from two feet to five feet. In the grand conservatory at Chats- 
worth, the panes are three feet nine inches in length, that being the length 
of the side of the ridge, and they are six inches in width, so that there is 
no occasion for a lap. Ridge and furrow houses, when this kind of glass is 
used, may be made nearly air-tight. In the grand conservatory in the 
Horticultural Society's garden, the same kind of glass is used, and the panes 
are sixteen inches by twelve inches. This house is remarkably well glazed, 
and the laps are all puttied. Indeed, if this were not the case, it would be 
almost impossible to heat such a lofty structure with glass on all sides ; 
but this glass being very even, as well as thick and strong, the laps are not 
more than three sixteenths of an inch, and do not retain any water, which, 
indeed, from the temperature within being seldom greater than that without, 
is not often deposited on it. 

514. Water is commonly supplied to plants in hothouses by hand ; but 
pipes, pierced with small holes, have been arranged under the roof, which, on 
turning on water from a cistern above the level, will throw down a shower 
at pleasure. For lofty houses, such as the palm stoves of Messrs. Lod- 
diges, the inventors of this system, this mode of watering is very eligible, and 
it might also frequently be adopted in conservatories attached to dwelling- 
houses, the cistern being in the upper part of the house. As a luxury, the 
noise of the artificial shower, and the drops of rain, in a warm summer's 
evening when all is arid Avithout, will more than compensate for the expense. 
As water should never be applied to plants at a lower temperature than the 
mean of the atmosphere which they grow in, there should be a cistern in 
every house, of sufficient capacity to supply all the water which can be 
wanted at any one time, placed over the flues or hot-water pipes in such a 
manner as soon to be heated by them. In plant-houses these cisterns may 
be used to a certain extent for growing aquatics ; but in this case only a small 
portion of water should be taken from the cisterns at a time, so that the 
addition of cold water may not chill the plants. To prevent the rose of 
the watering-pot from being choked by the leaves or other matters in such 
water, watering-pots with the grating described by Mr. Beaton (425) should 
be used. 

515. The different kinds of fixed structures for plants, are — the pit, the 
greenhouse, the orangery, the conservatory, the botanic stove, the pine stove, 
and the forcing-house; and we shall conclude this section by shortly noticing 
the characteristic features of each of these, and their varieties. 

516. Pits are low buildings with glass roofs, but without glass in the sides 
or ends. The angle of the roof is between 15° and 25° with the horixon, 
and the surrounding walls are generally built of brick, and hollow, or in 
some kinds of pits they are pigeon-holed, or with thin panels to admit the 
heat of exterior casings. The provision for heating varies from the mere 
power of retaining natural heat by coverings of glass or other materials, to 
the obtaining of 70^ or 80^ or upwards of ai-tificial heat, which may be 
supplied either by fermenting materials or fire-heat or by both com- 
bined. The cold-pit is without any artificial source of heating, and in some 



PLANTS, WITH GLASS ROOFS. 



2-21 



its walls are of turf or earth ; and instead of glass sashes, frames of reeds, or 
boai-ds, or thatched hurdles, or other coverings, are substituted. The cold pit is 
used for protecting plants in pots not in a growing state, or for preserving culi- 
nary vegetates from the frost. In warm situations and dry soil, it has a thick 
mound of earth, or thick wall of turf, which in either case should be coped 
so as to be kept as dry as possible. Even in the case of brick pits, an outer 
casing of dry turf prevents to a very great extent the effects of frost, and 
sudden changes of temperature. The casing may also be made of boards, 
where great neatness is an object, leaving a cavity to be filled vv-ith coal- 
ashes, charcoal, dry sand, or other non-conducting materials. In pits of this 
kind, with glass sashes instead of opaque covers, many hard wooded greenhouse 
plants, such as camellias, myrtacaB, heaths, &c. may be preserved through 
the winter without any artificial heat, care being taken to adapt the nightly 
coverings to the weather. The usual width of such pits is from six to eiglit 
feet ; height of the back wall, three to five feet ; and of the front wall, two 
to three feet. A pit to be heated by a bed of tan within, and exterior cases 
of dung, may be of the same or larger dimensions, with the back and front 
wall pigeon-holed or panelled, (490), and with boarded covers to protect the 
linings from rain and wind, hinged to the wall -plate. Instead of exterior 
linings for supplying extra heat, flues or hot- water pipes may be introduced 
along the front and ends, or entirely round the pit ; sometimes with a plat- 
form of boards over them for plants in pots, or even for a bed of soil, but more 
frequently separated from the bed of tan by a narrow wall, or by a partition of 
slates or flag-stones. The width of the bark-bed in such pits is seldom less 
than five or six feet, and eighteen inches of additional width is necessary for 
the front flue, or six-inch pipes ; and double these widths if the flues or pipes 
are carried round the house. For the more convenient management of pits, 
they are sometimes constructed sufficiently high behind to admit of walking 
upright there ; and a passage for that purpose is left at the back, of three or 
four feet in width, and a door made in one end. 7'he roof over the 
passage is generally opaque and sloping to the north, as in fig. 157. To the 

possessor of a small garden, and 
an amaceur, this is a very de- 
sirable description of pit, as in 
it he may grow almost every- 
thing, provided he does not 
attempt too many kinds of 
culture at once. The form is 



very economical, from there 

Fig. 156. Spun-roofed pit, with the roof over the path opaque, being aS mUCll SurfaCC of pit aS 

there is covering of glass ; and the interior is very comfortable to work in, as 
the operator need not stoop. If the ends were made of glass, it would be an 
improvement, by admitting the morning and evening sun : it would then, 
however, be entitled to be called a small house, instead of a pit. The sashes 
of all pits are made to slide between rafters which are fixed to the plates of 
wood, which form, partially or wholly, the copings to the walls. There 
should be a bolt to each sash for fixing it when shut, and also when let down 
for giving air, in order that there may be no risk of its being blown off by 
high winds; and all the sashes ought to admit of being readily taken off^, for 
the purpose of taking out, and putting in dung, tan, or other materials. 
When the pit is ten or twelve feet in width the sashes may be in two lengths 

Q 




222 



FIXED STRUCTURES FOR GROWING 



the one sliding over the other; the upper sash sliding on ledges formed in the 
raftei-s, so as to render it independent of the lower sash. In general, short 
sashes for pits last much longer, and occasion much less breakage of the glass 
than long ones, from their leverage being so much less. The^jroofs of all 
pits ought to have coverings, and the best material, in our opinion, is boards, 
as, where glass is so flat as it generally is in pits and frames, it is apt to get 
dirtied by straw mats, unless these are put over a covering of bass mats. Fig. 
J 67 is an excellent plan of a pit or small house, with a span-roof all of glass, 

a. Back path. 

b. Bark pit, 50 ft. long in tlie 
clear. 

c. Exterior pit for dung 
casing, to revive tlie heat. 

d d. Gratings to di-ains. 
e. Stink-trap to drain. 

Fig. 157. Ground plan of a pit to be heated in Mr. Corbett's manner. 

designed by Mr. Glendinning, for general purposes, and heated by Corbett's 
hot- water apparatus. Mr. Corbett's system appears to be better adapted 
for pits than for larger and longer houses, where its heating power would 
probably not be sufficient, or be unequal from the slowness of the circulation 
in consequence of the water-troughs being necessarily on a dead level. Mr. 
Glendinning's pit, however, may be heated by any mode, not even excepting 
a smoke flue. Fig. 158 is a section of this pit, showing : 

/,/, Glass roof. g. Bark pit. 
h. Back path. 

I, Pit for dimg casing. k. Drain- 

Hinged cover of ledged boards, 

to protect the dung from the 

rain and wind. 
m. Ground line. 

n, Suspended shelf for strawberry 
pots. 

0, Slate shelf for pots. 
p. Stink-trap communicating with 

the cross-drain {7) , which leads to 

the main or barrel-built drain (A ). 
)•, Corbett's hot-water apparatus. 1 Jj_ ' ' 

Hollow wall of bricks on edge. ^^'-^Qy 

Fig. 158. Cross section of a pit to be heated on Corbetfs system, or by smoke'jlues. 

Pits or low houses have been formed with glass on all sides, and span roofs 
(see Gard. Mag. vol. vii. p. 290) ; but from the great quantity of glass in 
proportion to the surface of floor enclosed, they become too expensive for 
general purposes, and, unless furnished with a warm covering, the extensive 
surface of glass occasions an injurious degree of radiation. 

516. The greenhouse is a light, airy structure, with a glass roof at an angle 
of 35" or 40° with the horizon, and upright glass in front and at the ends ; and | 
with the means of heating sufficient to keep out frost, and in humid weather ' 
to dry up damp. The plants are grown in pots placed on a stage, or range 
of shelves rising one above another from a path in front, to within six or 
seven feet of the upper angle of the back wall. Between the front path and 
the upright glass, there is a broad shelf on a level with the lowest shelf of 
the stage, for small plants that require to be near the light. All the front 
and roof sashes are made to move, because it "is frequently necessary to 
admit a free circulation of the external atmosphere ; and coverings are 
seldom applied, because a very little fire-heat is found to exclude the frost. 





PLANTS WITH CLASS ROOFS. 



223 



This is the common or normal form of the greenhouse, when it is placed 
against a wall, or the side or end of a dwelling-house, and facing the south 
or some point between south-east and south-west ; but much more elegant 
forms, of the curvilineal or ridge and furrow kind (483 and 484), may be 
adopted, and where the expense of fire-heat is not an object, it may face 
the east or west, or be constructed of glass on all sides. For placing against 
a w^all in a flower-garden we should prefer a curvilineal structure, with ends 
of the same kind, and an architectural entrance, either in the back wall, as 
in fig. 129, p. 190, or in front ; but against a dwelling-house, and on a 
small scale, we should recommend the ridge and furrow construction, as 
from the ease with which the roof may be partially or wholly concealed, it is 
the most easily rendered architectural. 

517. The orangery is an architectural building, more like a living-room 
than a plant-structure, with large windows and nan-ow piers in front and at 
the ends, and with an opaque roof. It is used for preserving orange-trees 
and other large plants which are in a dormant state during winter ; and the 
power of heating is about the same as that for the greenhouse ; but, from the 
roof being opaque, less extent of flue or hot- water pipe is required. Plant- 
structures of this description are chiefly wanted in large establishments ; but 
as architectural appendages to a house they may sometimes be advantageously 
introduced in small villas, the area of the orangery being used in the summer 
time, when the orange-trees and other plants usually kept in it are set in 
the open garden, as a place for prolonging the beauty of plants in bloom, 
and for other purposes. 

518. The conservatory differs from the orangery and the greenhouse in 
being more lofty and arcliitectural, and in having the plants growing in a 
bed of soil which forms the floor of the house. As the plants in a conserva- 
tory are generally kept growing through the winter, a power of heating is 
required greater than that of the orangery; and when it is joined to a 
dwelling-house, and is to be frequently walked in by the inmates, greater 
than that of a greenhouse. The temperature during the night should not 
be under 45°, nor need it be raised higher during bright sunshine than 55° 
or 60°. The forms, and other particulars relative to the construction and 
adaptation of conservatories, have already been given in the Suburban Archi- 
tect and Landscape Gardener. 

519. Botanic stoves are of various kinds ; but with respect to temperature 
and moisture they may be reduced to the dry stove, the damp stove, and the 
intermediate or bark stove. The first requii-es abundance of light and a 
power of heating from zero to 60° in the winter season, and is chiefly used 
for growing succulents ; the second requires less intensity of light, but a 
power of heating equal to 80° in the winter season above the external air ; 
for although such will seldom be required, yet it is better to have too much 
than too little heating power. In the damp stove there must also be a power of 
saturating the atmosphere with moisture at all seasons ; as it is chiefly used 
for growing Orchidaceous plants and ferns. The intermediate or common 
botanic stove requires the same power of heating as the last, but more light 
and much more space, as it is used for growing the trees and shrubs of 
tropical climates. These are commonly kept in pots, and very frequently 
plunged in a bark-bed, whence this kind of house, before the use of damp- 
stoves, was called the bark-stove, to distinguish it from the dry-stove. 

520. The pine stove is a low stiaicture, always with a bark or other bed 

q2 



224 



EDIFICES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



in which the pots are to be plunged, and differing in little from a large pit 
(515), excepting that it is generally arranged so as to admit of growing crops 
of grapes as well as pines. The glass roof is generally placed at some angle 
between 25° and 85°, and the power of heating should be equal to 70° 
during winter. A power of communicating atmospheric moisture should 
be at command as in the common botanic stove. 

521. Forcing-houses are chiefly employed for bringing forward early 
crops of grapes, peaches, cherries, or other fruits, and for producing early 
culinary vegetables of different kinds, or flowers. The power of heating 
varies with the season of forcing and the kind of fruit to be forced ; but it 
should not be less than 60*', with a command of atmospheric moisture. 
Sometimes the trees are trained on trellises one or two feet within the glass ; 
and sometimes they are partly trained under the glass, and partly on the 
back wall. In either case, the narrower the house, the more readily is it 
heated either by fire or the sun. As these details var}^ with the kind of 
trees and plants to be forced, they belong more properly to the next division 
of this work. See Practice of Horticulture^ Forcing-Garden. 

522. A Plant-st7'ucture for all or any of the above purposes. — The pit, 
fig. 157 in p. 221, or that shown in figs. 158 and 159, p. 222, will answer for 
any one of the purposes for which orangeries, greenhouses, and stoves are 
erected. Orange-trees and similar plants, in a dormant state, may be pre- 
served through the winter in such pits with ample coverings, and scarcely 
any artificial heat ; greenhouse plants, with very little heat ; dry- stove plants, 
with a little more heat ; damp-stove plants, with increased temperature and 
moisture ; other stove plante, till they attain a certain size ; pine-apples, to 
the highest degree of perfection ; and fruit-trees trained to trellises under the 
glass may be forced, as may be also every description of culinary vegetable, 
not excepting mushrooms, which may be grown in a portion of the bark-bed, 
or in shelves against the back wall, or in arched recesses or vaults under 
the tan of the pit. In short, there is nothing in the way of culture that 
may not be carried on to the highest degree of perfection in these pits, 
provided that all the large-growing plants are trained on trellises close under 
the glass ; but the airy elegance of the greenhouse, the grandeur and pictu- 
resque luxuriance of the conservatory, and the tropical aspect of the lofty 
botanic stove, are not to be expected from them. 

Subsect. 3. — Edifices used in Horticulture. 

The edifices required in horticulture are chiefly the head gardeners 
house, the journeyman gardener's lodge, the fruit-room, the seed and herb- 
room, the root- cellar, the tool-house, and the potting and working sheds. 

523. The gardener s house, wherever there are many plant structures, 
should be as near the garden as possible ; but it should by no means form an 
object in the scenery of the garden. Like what the house of every man 
ought to be, the occupant should possess it as his castle for the time being. 
It may be wholly or partially veiled by trees ; but within whatever 
boundary it is placed perfect liberty should prevail; and this cannot be 
the case where the inmates are either constrained to remain in-doors, or 
when they go out are forced into contact with their superiors, to the 
annoyance of both parties. Besides a kitchen and sleeping-rooms, the gar- 
dener's house should contain at least one good parlour. All the fixtures and 



EDIFICES USED IN HORTICULTUKE. 225 

principal articles of furniture should be the property of the proprietor of 
the garden, and valued to the gardener on his entering on the situation, and 
again valued on his leaving it ; he paying any difference in value which 
may have been occasioned by use. This is not the general practice, though 
it is fast spreading, and deservedly so, because it must occasion less pain to 
a considerate master to part with a married servant imder such circumstances, 
and less inconvenience to the gardener when he leaves his place, without 
perhaps knowing where he shall find another. 

524. The journeyman gardener s lodge, and all the other edifices men- 
tioned, are generally included in the sheds behind the diff'erent plant- 
structures; because they tend to keep the latter warm, and because the 
high back wall of the hothouses existing at any rate, they can be erected 
there more economically than anywhere else. It has been observed, how- 
ever, by a number of gardeners, both in England and Scotland, that living- 
rooms at the back of liothouses are not healthy ; and that those that are 
situated at the back of stoves are still more unhealthy than those at the 
back of greenhouses, or other plant-structures where less heat is required. 
Damp and want of ventilation are the probable causes ; for which reason we 
should recommend the journeyman-gardener's rooms to be separated from 
the back wall of the plant-house against which they are built by a vacuity, 
communicating above and below with the open air. The floor should be 
raised at least a foot above the general surface, and should have an ample 
vacuity below it, which on the one side may communicate with the vacuity 
between the walls, and on the other with the open a'w. This will ensure a 
current of air through both these vacuities, which will be sufficient to carry 
off" damp, and to prevent the ill effbcts of the excessive heat from the plant- 
structure. Another point which ought to be attended to in the construction 
of living-rooms behind hothouses is, to have larger windows and more of 
them than is usual ; and always to have them carried up within a few 
inches of the ceiling, in order that air may be admitted from the top as well 
as from the bottom of the window. See note in the Appendix'. 

525. The fruit-room should have a double roof, or roof with a ceiling, a 
liollow front wall, and double doors and windows, so as to maintain an 
equable temperature. It should be divided into at least two apartments, 
so completely separated from each other as to prevent the air of that in which 
the early ripening fruits are placed from contaminating that in which the 
late ripening sorts are deposited. Both apartments should be fitted up with 
broad shelves of open work of white deal, or of some wood without resin or 
other qualities that would give a flavour to tlie fruit ; and there ought to be 
bins or portable boxes for preserving fruit packed in sand, fern, hay, bran, 
kiln- dried straw, leaves or blossoms of the beech or chestnut, or other ma- 
terials. The fronts of the shelves should have a narrow ledge, on which 
temporary labels can be pasted, indicating the names of the fruits, and when 
they ought to be fit for use, &c. Where fruit is to be frequently packed 
for sending to a distance, there should be a third apartment for containing the 
packing materials, and for packing in. Where there is danger from damp 
or heat, the back wall and floor can have vacuities as in the journeyman's 
room, with stoppers to the outlets, to be used in severe weather. 

526. The seed-room should adjoin the fruit-room at one end, and the 
tool-house at tlie other. It should contain a cabinet fitted up with drawers 
for seeds ; an open airy case, with drawers for bulbs ; shelves for catalogues. 



226 



EDIFICES USED IN HORTICULTURE. 



a book-case, partitioned off, because moths are apt to be introduced along 
with some kinds of seeds, for a garden-library, unless this is kept in the 
head gardener's house as a part of his furniture ; a press for compressing 
dried herbs into cakes, to be afterwards wrapped up so as to be air-tight in, 
paper, and kept in drawers to be taken out as wanted for the kitchen ; 
and a variety of minor articles, some of which have been mentioned (389), 
and others will occur in practice. 

527. Root-cellar and other conveniences. — Underneath the fruit or seed- 
room, if the soil is dry, there may be a cellar for preserving dahlia-roots, 
bulbs, potatoes, &c. ; though, on a small scale, the seed-room and some part 
of the sheds may serve as substitutes. A mushroom-house, and a house for 
forcing rhubarb and succory, and for producing early potatoes by a particular 
process which may be carried on in the dark, may also form part of the back 
sheds ; and a supply of water by a pump or well, or by a large cistern, sup- 
plied by an hydraulic ram, or other means ; and conveniences for liquid 
manure, lime-water, &c., &c., must not be forgotten. In short, whatever is 
wanting for the cultivation and management of a garden, exclusive of plant- 
structures and the gardener's house, should be provided for in the bacls sheds ; 
and, as a general principle, it may be laid down that every plant-structure 
that has a back shed should have a direct communication with it by means of 
a door in the back wall. By means of this communication much time is 
saved in conveying articles from the shed to the house, and the contrary ; 
fires can be more promptly attended to, and^ above all, plants in pots can be 
taken into the shed and examined or shifted, without exposing them to the 
open air. 

528. The tool-house should adjoin the seed-room, and should be fitted up 
as before indicated (389). The potting-sheds should contain, facing the 
windows, benches for potting on, and ample space for pots, crocks, potting 
trowels, stakes, ties, tallies, bell-glasses, and a variety of other articles. Soils 
are in general fresher, and in a better state, when kept m the open air ; 
but still there ought to be bins for sand, peat, leaf-mould, and some other 
kinds in constant use. 

529. Open Sheds. — A portion of the sheds open in front ought to be set 
apart for tanner's bark, and other portions for hotbed-frames and such like 
portable structures, or articles that would be injured by exposure to the 
weather when not in use ; one for sticks for peas, props for plants, mats, 
coal or wood for fuel, and for other purposes. In short, there can hardly be 
too much shed-room ; for besides all the ordinary purposes mentioned, a 
portion of it may be sometimes required for preserving deciduous greenhouse 
plants through the winter for which there is not room in the plant-structures, 
such as large Fuchsias, Brugmansias, pomegranates, and many other plants 
which are turned out into the open garden during summer. If there is no 
regular mushroom-house, that vegetable may be grown in the open shed, on 
dung ridges covered with hay and mats. Tart rhubarb and sea kale, may 
be forced there, protected by mats supported on hoops ; peas and beans for 
early crops may be germinated before being transplanted into the open 
garden ; and indeed there is no end to the objects that may be effected 
within open sheds, while on their roofs onions may be dried in wet seasons; 
a practice very general in Scotland and hi the north of England. . 



HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL. 



227 



CHAPTER III. 
OPERATIONS OF HORTICULTURE. 
The operations of Horticulture are very numerous, but they may be all 
included under operations in wliich strength and mechanical skill are chiefly 
required in the operator ; those which imply a considerable degree of know- 
ledge of vegetable physiology ; those in which to a knowledge of plants and 
their culture requires to be added some acquaintance with the principles of 
design and taste ; and those in which is required a knowledge of the general 
principles of business. The first may be called Horticultural Laboure ; the 
second, Operations of Culture ; the third, Operations of Horticultural Design 
and Taste ; and the fourth. Operations of General Management. 

Sect. I. — Horticultural Labours, 

530. Labours differ from operations in being of a coarser and commoner 
kind, and hence requiring but a small portion of that skill which may be 
strictly considered as professional : they are, in short, such as every person 
living in the country ought to be able to perform, either as a matter of 
business, as in the case of the working man ; or as a matter of recreation, as 
in the case of a man of wealth or leisure. All mechanical labours may be 
resolved into the elementary movements of lifting, carrying, drawing, and 
pushing ; and in whichever way these are combined, or to whichever imple- 
ments they are applied, the result will depend on the quantity of matter in 
the implement, and the rapidity or motion with which it is lifted, carried, 
drawn, or pushed. 

SuBSECT. I. — Horticultural Labours on the Soil. 

531. Object of labours on the 5027. — Before any labour on the soil is com- 
menced, the labourer, or his director, ought to bear in mind the relations of 
the soil to heat, air, and moisture, as laid down in Part I., chap. ii. The 
objects for which the soil is laboured are, pulverization, to render it more 
readily penetrated by the roots of plants, and by heat, air, moisture, and 
sometimes by frost ; to allow superfluous moisture to escape into the subsoil ; 
to mix the upper and lower parts of the upper stratum of soil together ; to 
mix the coarser and finer parts together ; to add or mix in earths or 
manure ; to free the soil from root or perennial weeds, stones, or other ob- 
jects unfavourable for culture ; and to destroy surface or annual weeds. The 
grand sources of heat to soil are the sun and the atmosphere, including rain 
at a higher temperature than the soil ; and the sources of cold, or of the 
abstraction of heat are, rain at a lower temperature than the soil, frost, snow, 
ice, and where draining has been neglected, subterraneous water. I'he 
greatest degree of cold produced by these causes, excepting the last, will 
always be found on the surface of the soil, and the best mode of supplying 
the heat that has been abstracted will be by leaving the surface to the action 
of the sun and of the air. By digging or trenching downi a cold surface heat 
is abstracted from the soil, the natural temperature of which will in that 
case be lowered ; and thus a plant grown in a soil so treated, will be, in so far 
as bottom heat is concerned, worse than if it were in a state of nature, in 
which heat abstracted by the air is always restored by ii The average tem- 
perature of the surface soil in most countries is believed to be nearly the 



228 



HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL. 



same as that of the atmosphere; bat by considering all the causes that con- 
tribute to the warmth of a soil, there can be little doubt but in many cases 
its average temperature might be increased. The colour and texture of some 
soils is better adapted for absorbing heat than others, and the inclination of the 
surface of soil is of as much importance in deriving heat from the direct 
action of the sun's rays, as we have just seen (482) the surface of glass roofs 
to be. Hence the advantage of laying up soil in narrow ridges, which, when 
in the direction of east and west, very soon become much drier and warm.er 
on one side than on the other. Rain, though in the cold season it abstracts 
heat from the soil, yet in spring and summer, being of the temperature of the 
atmosphere, it communicates heat more effectually than air, because, under 
ordinary circumstances, it penetrates deeper, in consequence of its greater 
specific gravity ; and as it requires 289 times as much coal to heat one cubic 
foot of water as would be required to heat the same bulk of air to the same 
degree, so is the quantity of heat which water of a given bulk will give out 
to soil greater than what will be communicated by the same bulk of air. 
Water, in a frozen state, though injurious as abstracting heat, is in many 
cases favourable by contributing to the pulverization of stiff soils, which are 
laid up in a rough state, in order to expose as large a surface as possible to be 
cooled and frozen during winter, and to be thawed and heated during spring. 
The retention of moisture by pulverization is an important object of labouring 
the soil. All properly cultivated soils hold water like a sponge, while in un- 
laboured soils the rains either never penetrate the surface, or they sink into 
the subsoil and are lost, or are retained by it and prove injurious. Wind, 
like rain, will communicate heat or abstract it from soil, according to its 
temperature and the rapidity of its motion ; but as in either case it carries off 
moisture in proportion to its dryness and velocity, it is in general in cold 
climates much more favourable than hurtful for soils, considered apart from 
the plants which grow in them. If possible no operation should be performed 
on the soil excepting when it is in a dry state, and when the weather is also 
dry. Moist soil cannot be dug mthout first treading on it, and thus making 
it into a kind of paste or mortar, which renders it unfit for being pierced by 
the fibres of plants, and prevents it from being penetrated either by moisture 
or air ; and water in the form of ice or snow, if dug in, abstracts that heat 
from the soil which, as we have already seen, it ought to derive direct from 
the atmosphere. A pound of snow (newly fallen) requires an equal weight 
of water heated to 172° to melt it, and then the dissolved mixture is only of 
the temperature of 32°. Ice requires the water to be a few degrees warmer 
to produce the same result. A\^hen ice or snow is allowed to remain on the 
surface, the quantity of heat necessary to reduce it to a fluid state is obtained 
chiefly from the atmosphere ; but when buried so that the atmospheric heat 
cannot act directly upon it, the thawing must be very slowly effected by the 
abstraction of heat from the soil by which the frozen mass is surrounded. In- 
stances have occurred of frozen soil not being completely thawed at midsum- 
mer when so buried. But this is not the whole of the evil : — the moisture of 
the air which fills the interstices of the soil will be continually undergoing 
condensation as it comes in contact with the cold portions, and these will be 
found in a very saturated condition, even after they have become thawed." — 
(Robert Thompson in Gard. Chron. Feb. 6, 1841, p. 89.) All these and similar 
facts ought to be kept constantly in mind while performing the operations of 
digging, trenching, forking, hoeing, raking, and rolling. 



nORTTCULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL. 



229 



532. Marking with the garden line is an operation preparatory to various 
others, and it consists in stretching and fixing the line or cord along the sur- 
face of the ground, or sometimes, as in clipping edgings and hedges, at some 
distance above it. When the direction is straight, two fixed points at the 
extremities are sufficient ; but when it is curved, a number of intermediate 
stakes or pins are requisite to bend and fix the line to the proper curvature. 
Also, when the line is raised from the ground, as when stretched for cutting 
straight the top of a hedge, it must be supported at a sufficient number of inter- 
mediate points, otherwise a deflection will take place more or less in proportion 
to the distance between the extremities of the line, its degree of tension, and 
weight of materials. The ground or plants are next marked, cut, or clipped, 
in the dii'ection of the luae. 

533. Digging. — The use of the lever and the pick, the former in moving 
large obstacles, such as stones, and the latter for perforating and raising up hard 
soils or subsoils, may be considered as preparatory operations for the more per- 
fect pulverization and mixture of the soil by digging. Previous to performing 
this operation, if the surface is uneven, it should be levelled ; but as we are 
treating of garden digging, we shall suppose that the surface is already in a 
fit state to be dug. The first step is to fix on those parts of the plot where 
the operation is to commence and finish ; which being done, a trench is to be 
opened at the foi-mer place, and the earth wheeled or carried to the latter. 
In most gardens where there is to be a regular course 

of cropping, the compartments are rectangular, and 
these are easUy divided into smaller figares of the 
same kind for temporary purposes, the number of 
which divisions, with a view to digging or trenching, 
for reasons which will presently appear, must always 
be even. For example, a piece of ground of a square 
form, fig. 159, a, &,c, d, may be throvra into two pa- 
rallelograms, a, /, and e, d, and the soil taken from 
the trench opened from a to e can be laid down from ^. ^ ^ . , ^ 

4. 1 -I .-I .11 1 /> . -I 1 TT J Fig. 159. A plot of ground pro- 

e to 6, where the operation will be finished. Had periy marked off for digging or 
the plot been divided into three parallelograms, trenching. 
as in fig. 160, the soil must have been removed from g to A, which would 
have more than doubled the labour of wheeling. A 
fourfold division would not, however, have been liable 
to the same objection, which confirms the rule, that 
the division ought always to be into equal numbers. 
Where a plot is circular or oval it may be divided into 
zones, and an irregular plot may be thrown into figures 
approaching as near as may be to regularity. In dig- 
ging for pulverization and mixture, the surface is re- 
versed by the operator, and broken at the same time. 
Fig. 160. A so that a new surface is exposed to the air. When a crop 

dtsadvantageously marked , ii i. f'li 

off for digging or trenching. IS to bc sowu or planted, tliis suiiacc IS broken more 
or less fine according to the kind of crop, and in very 
dry weather in summer, it is sometimes raked smooth as the digging 
proceeds, to lessen the evaporation of moisture. When the ground is not 
to be immediately cropped, it is commonly "rough dug," that is, laid 
np in unbroken spitfuls, so as to present as large a surface as possible 
to the action of the weather ; and afterwards, when a crop is to be intro- 




230 



HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL. 



duced on ground which has been " rough dug," it is " pointed," or slightly 
dug and smoothed on the surface. " Double digging " is in horticulture what 
subsoil ploughing is in agriculture ; the surface soil is kept on the surface, but 
the bottom of the trench is dug over as the work proceeds, and the soil turned 
over, but still kept in the bottom of the trench. By many this is called 
" bastard trenching." " Baulk digging" is an operation for rapidly exposing 
a large surface to the atmosphere, and consists in taking out a line of spitfuls 
and laying them on a line of firm ground, so that only half the gTound is 
moved. It is only used where economy is a main object, and where the soil 
being tenacious, will be much benefited by exposing a large surface to the 
frost. When soil, compost, or manure is to be dug in, it is previously distri- 
buted over the ground in heaps, by the aid of the wheelbarrow, and spread 
over the surface in moderate portions at a time, if loss will be sustained by 
evaporation ; but if soil, such as sand or burnt clay, or a compost of lime and 
earth, is to be dug in, the whole may be spread over the soil at once ; as the 
drier it becomes before being dug in, the better it will mix with the soil {see 
172). In every description of digging the trench should be in a straight 
direction, from one side of the plot to the other, and equally wide throughout ; 
or if curved, the same curvature should be maintained throughout ; for if the 
trench is increased in length, it becomes lessened in capacity, and the soil can 
neither be moved to the proper depth, nor sufiiciently mixed. It is unneces- 
sary to repeat what we have introduced as a general rule, viz., that digging 
ought never, if possible, to be performed when the soil is wet, or the surface 
frozen, or covered with snow or ice ; but it may be proper to add, that small 
stones or roots, or other rough porous bodies, ought seldom to be picked out 
of soils ; because the former retain moisture, and tend to consolidate light soils ; 
while the latter retain air, and have a tendency to lighten such as are too 
compact. Hence the practice occasionally resorted to, of mixing pieces of free- 
stone in peat soil, in wliich heaths are grown; and of digging in sawdust, spent- 
tan, or decayed branches and spray chopped up, in strong clays. Stones also 
having a greater capacity for heat than soil, form a source of that element, 
when the soil has been cooled by rain or other means. When stones lie on 
the surface of the soil they absorb more heat during the day than the soU will 
do, and give out more during the night, till they become of a lower tempera- 
ture than the atmosphere, when dew is deposited on them, anid hence they 
become a source of moisture as w^ell as of heat. 

534. Trenching. — The object of trenching is to increase the depth of soil 
fit for plants, by which means it becomes a larger reservoir of air, mois- 
ture, and of manure, and in the case of plants which do not permanently 
occupy the soil, it admits of entirely changing the surface, so as to bring up 
fresh soil every time the ground is trenched. The plot to be trenched is 
marked out by a line, exactly in the same manner as in digging ; but instead 
of a narrow fuiTOW which suffices for that operation, a trench at least as 
broad as the depth to which the ground is to be moved, say from two to three 
feet, is marked off" and opened, the soil being wheeled to the place of finishing, 
as in digging. The next point to determine is, whether the whole of the 
soil to be moved is to be equally mixed together ; whether the subsoil only is 
to be mixed, and the surface soU still kept on the surface; or whether the 
surface is to be laid in the bottom of the trench, and the subsoil laid on the 
top. 

585. In trenching ground that is to he crapped icith culinary vegetables for 



HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL. 



231 



the first time, the whole of the soil turned over should be equally mixed 
together, manure or compost being added and incorporated at the same time. 
When the ground of a kitchen garden has been originally trenched in this 
manner to the depth of three feet, a fresh surface may be exposed for cropping 
every year, by the following practice, recommended by Mr. Nicol : — " Take 
three crops off the first surface, then trench three spits deep, by which the 
bottom and top are reversed, and the middle remains in the middle ; take three 
crops off this surface, and then trench two spits, by which the top becomes the 
middle, and the middle the top ; and take also three crops off this surface, and 
then trench three spits, by which that which was last the middle, and now 
top, becomes the bottom, and that which is now the bottom, and was the 
surface at first, now becomes surface again, after having rested six years. 
Proceed in this manner alternately, the one time trenching two spits, and the 
other three ; by wliich means the surface will always be changed, and will 
rest six years and produce three." {Nicol' s Scotch Gardener, 2d edit., p. 202.) 

536. In the operation of trenching, when the object is to reverse the surface, 
the firm soil is loosened, lifted, and thrown into the trench in strata, which, 
when completed, will hold exactly the reverse positions which they did in 
the firm ground ; but when the object is to mix the soil throughout, or when 
the surface soil is to be kept uppermost, the face of the surface of the moved 
ground must be kept in a sloping position, in order that every spitful thrown 
on it may be deposited in the proper place, with a view to mixture. The 
siraj)lest and best mode of trenching, with a view to this object, and provided 
only one man is to be employed for every other object of trenching, is to line 
out the ground into an even number of strips of three or four feet broad ; to 
open a trench at one end of one of the corners of the plot, and to proceed from 
one end to another of the strips till the whole plot has been gone over. This 
mode saves much wheeling of soil, and where the plot is already level, and 
care is taken to leave no firm ground between the strips, it is then unobjec- 
tionable. Where the spade only is used in trenching, the operator stands on 
the surface of the firm ground ; but where the pick is rendered necessary, he 
for the most part stands in the bottom of the trench. " Ridge trenching" is 
the term applied when the surface of the moved soil, instead of being smoothed 
and levelled, is laid up in the form of a ridge, in order to benefit by exposure 
to the atmosphere. Whatever mode of trenchmg may be adopted, it is of 
great impoi-tance that the bottom of the trenches should either be level, or form 
one or more regularly inclined planes, in order to carry off the superfluous 
water of the surface soil. In a very retentive subsoil, if the bottom is 
trenched irregularly, the places marked a, &, c, in fig, 160*, would retain 




Fig. 160* Section illustrative of good and bad trenching. 



stagnant water injurious to the roots of trees, &c. ; but if the bottom were 
loosened so as to form a regular slope, as from d to e, the water would 
gradually follow that direction. 

537. Forking soil is simply stirring the surface with the broad-pronged fork, 
(fig. 34, in p. 185,) which is greatly preferable to the spade for working among 
the roots of growing crops. For working with litter or dung, the forks with 
round-pointed prongs are used ; the rotundity of the prongs diminishing fric- 
tion, both ui inserting the fork in the dung, and in discharging the forkful. 



232 



HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON THE SOIL. 



Soil cannot be stirred with advantage by the fork when in a moist state, but 
littery dung may be turned during rain. 

538. Hoeing is a mode of stirring the soil on the surface, and at the same 
time cutting up weeds or thinning out crops ; and it is effected either by the 
draw hoe or the thrust hoe. Soil is also drawn up to, or taken away from, 
plants ; and drills, or narrow furrows, are drawn by the former tool, of which 
there are several kinds, more or less adapted for these different purposes. In 
no kind of draw hoe should the plane of the blade form a right angle with 
the handle, as at «, in fig. 161 ; but it should alwa3^s be within a right angle, 

^ , — more or less, as at h or c. If 

" the ground be soft the angle 

' should be more acute than when 

r — 1 ~ it is hard, or when its surface is 

\ much matted with weeds. This 

variable angle should be pro- 
vided for, partly in the forma- 
tion of the eye or socket of the 

Fig. 161. Diagrams showing the angle which the blades of Jj^g partly by thc aPpHca- 

draw hoes ought to make with the handles, ,. '„ ^ ,i i ■• 

tion of a small wedge, the heel 
of which should be turned up, like those used for scythe-handles, in order 
that it may be driven out at pleasure. In short, the angle which the handle 
forms with the blade should be such, that when the latter is inserted in the 
soil to the required depth, the blade, in being drawn towards the operator, 
may retain that depth with the least possible exertion to his muscles in guiding 
it ; for whatever muscular exertion is required in this way, beyond what is 
necessary for overcoming the resistance of the soil, is a waste of power. 
When the blade is properly set, little more is necessary than simply 
drawing the tool ; but if badly set, it requires pressing down, or raising up, 
as well as drawing ; or, in order to keep the blade in a proper cutting direc- 
tion, one of the arms of the operator must be elevated or depressed out of its 
most effective position, which is, when the hands are never much below or 
above the centre of his body. The handle of the draw hoe should be held in 
such a position by the operator, as that the plane of the blade should coincide 
with the plane with which it cuts the soil to the proper depth, and with the 
least exertion of bodily labour ; and this plane will generally be found to be at 
some angle between 50° and 65° with the horizon. For this reason the handle 
of a hoe ought to be considerably shorter for a short person, or for a person 
stooping, than for one who is taller, or works in an upright posture ; or, in 

lieu of this, the short person should hold 
the handle nearer to the blade. For the 
purpose of cutting weeds, or thinning out 
crops in light sandy soil, a hoe with a broad 
blade may be used ; and of these the best 
that we know is the Leicestershire or shift- 
ing-blade hoe, the blades of which are 
pieces of the blade of an old scythe. This 
hoe is shown in fig. 162, in which d is the 
head, consisting of a socket for the blade, 
Fi,^ 162. The T eicestershire or shifting, and a tubular sockct or hose for the 
blade draw hoe, handle, without the blade ; h, one of the 

blades not inserted in the socket ; c, the socket with the kind of blade 




HORTICULTURAL LABOURS ON TITG SOIL. 



233 



inserted wliich is used for o;eneral purposes, and more especially for lioeing 
between rows of drilled crops ; and a, a socket with the blade h inserted, 
which is used chiefly for thinning turnips. — (See farther details of this hoe 
in Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 311.) For working in strong soil, a hoe with a 
narrow stout blade is required ; and for very stiff soil, the Spanish hoe 
(fig. 21, in p. 132) is the best tool. For hoeing, with a view to cut weeds, 
the different descriptions of thrust-hoes are the most effective tools, espe- 
cially among tall plants, but they are not calculated for stirring the soil to 
any depth. A thrust-hoe with a shifting blade, like the Leicestershire draw- 
hoe, would doubtless be a valuable implement. 

539. Raking is an operation used for separating the surface of soil from 
stones, roots, and other extraneous matters ; for rendering even dug surfaces 
or gravel ; for covering seeds ; for collecting weeds, leaves, or mown grass ; 
and, in general, for smoothing, covering, and collecting. The teeth of the 
rake are placed at nearly a right angle to the bar to which they are riveted, 
and somewhat bent towards the handle, so' that when the operator keeps the 
handle at an angle of 45°, the teeth will pass through the soil at nearly that 
angle, and consequently penetrate to nearly the whole length. The teeth of 
iron rakes should be made with a small shoulder, neatly formed, so as to rest 
flatly against the under side of the bar in which they are riveted. The 
holes made in this bar for their reception should be widened below to admit 
a thickening next the shoulder of the tooth, as showa in 
fig. 163, for there the stress lies, and there, in nine cases out 
of ten, the breakage occurs in the teeth. The rest of the 
perforation should be narrow, in order not to weaken the 
head-bar, a slight countersink only being required for the 
rivet or clench on the upper side. The neck of the tooth is 
exposed to a force, tending to bend or fracture it across ; but 
when once the neck is secured, the remaining part which 
passes through the head-bar has only a longitudinal tension. 
The two principal uses of raking are to prepare the soil for 
Fig, 163. Section of receiving seeds, and to render clean and even, surfaces among 
the head of a gar- plants which have been recently hoed to destroy weeds. 
tZ7etl'eth7oufd leaking is the operation which gives the finish to most others 
be inserted in it. that are performed on the soil, and without which, and the 
besom, no garden could be kept in high order. One of the most common pur- 
poses to which raking is applied, is covering small seeds sown broad-cast ; 
and this operation requires more care and skill in the operator, than any 
other which is performed with the rake. If the ground has been raked 
previously to sowing the seeds, its surface will be ribbed or covered with 
very small furrows left by the teeth of the rake, at regular distances and 
of uniform depth: the seed being scattered evenly over the surface, 
will fall one-half in the furrows, and one-half on the small ridges between 
them : if in raking afterwards the teeth of the rake could be made 
to split the ridges betw^een the furrows and do nothing more, the seed 
would be perfectly and equally covered; but owing to various causes, 
and principally to the unavoidable treading of the soil by the feet of 
the operator, it is next to impossible to effect this ; and in consequence of 
more raking being required in the hard and depressed places than in the soft 
ones, as well to loosen the soil as to raise it to the proper level, the seed there 
becomes too deeply covered ; and a part being drawn from the places from 




234 



GARDEN LABOURS WITH PLANTS. 



which the extra covering is taken, the seedling plants rise very irregularly 
There arc various modes of preventing this from taking place, the more 
common of which, when the surface of the soil is dry, is to "tread in" the 
seed by going over the plot with a kind of shuffling movement, holding the 
feet close together. Another mode is to roll the ground with a roller, more 
or less heavy according to the nature of the soil ; and a third is to form the 
ground into beds with narrow paths between, and to cover the seed with soil 
taken out of these paths. Perhaps the best of these modes for general pur- 
poses and on a large scale, is treading in, or rolling in, which is preferable to 
treading ; because raking in alone, if the soil is very dry and loose, even 
though the seeds should be covered equally, will admit the access of air and 
light to many of them in a greater degree than is favourable for germination 
(See Sowing^ 552.) In raking off weeds, and in raking oflF short grass or leaves, 
the rake requires to be held in such a position as that the teeth shall form a 
much more acute angle with the horizon than in raking dug soil ; becaoise the 
object in raking off grass or leaves is not to stir the soil, but merely to remove 
what is on its surface. All raking, excepting that of gravel, and newly mown 
grass, should be performed in dry weather. Wet weather is the most favourable 
for raking gravel, because if stirred in a wet state, and rolled afterwards when 
dry on the surface, it binds better ; and wet weather is most suitable for 
raking grass, because the leaves when wet adhere better together than when 
dry. 

540. Rolling is applied to walks to render their surface smooth, firm, and im- 
pervious to rain, and it is always most effective when the gravel is moist below and 
moderately dry above. When dry gravel is laid over the bottom of a walk that 
is in a very wet or puddled state, rolling should not be attempted till the whole 
is uniformly saturated, either by rain, which is preferable, or artificially ; 
otherwise it will long remain unconsolidated. Grass lawns are also rolled to 
render the surface of the soil smooth and even, for which purpose they are pre- 
viously raked or scraped to destroy such inequalities as are produced by worm 
casts, or other accumulations that would interfere with the scythe, the 
uniform pressure of the roller, or the uniform smoothness and colour of the 
lawn. The scraping and raking are best performed in dry weather, and the 
rolling as soon after rain as the surface has become somewhat dry. Rolling 
dug grounds in order to break and reduce a cloddy surface, or to press in and 
cover newly sown seeds, can only be performed to advantage when both soil 
and weather are dry. Beating^ which in many cases effects the same object 
as rolling, is also most effective when the body of the soil is moist and the 
surface dry ; and the same may be said oi Ramming, and of every other mode 
of consolidating soils, turf, or gravel. 

541. Screening or lifting soil or gravel is best performed when these mate- 
rials are dry ; but excepting for sowing seeds, or planting very small or tender 
plants or cuttings, sifted soil is seldom wanted, it being found that pieces of 
turf, roots, and stones in soil are useful to plants, as forming vacuities for air, 
or for accumulations of decaying vegetable matter; or, more especially in the 
case of freestone, sources of moisture. 

642. Other labours on the soil are either not peculiar to horticulture, such 
as picking, shovelling, sweeping, inserting stakes by perforators (391); or they 
are peculiar to particular departments of gardenuig, such as cuffing, which is 
a nursery labour, forming loam edgings, which is a local practice, &c. 



GARDEN LABOURS WITH PLANTS. 



235 



SuBSECT. 2. — Garden Labours vnth Plants. 

543. Garden labours with plants may be reduced to sowing, cutting-, 
clipping, mowing, and weeding ; all of which may be performed at most 
seasons, and during moist weather as well as dry. In the first three of 
these labours, it must be borne in mind that growing trees and large shrubs 
should not be deprived of their branches when the sap is rising in spring, 
on account of the loss of that fluid which would be sustained at that season ; 
that wounds can only be healed over when made close to a bud or shoot; and 
that the healing process proceeds from the alburnum and cambium, and not 
from the bark. For the operations of weeding and mowing with the scythe, 
wet weather is preferable to dry ; but the grass requires to be dry when the 
mowing machine is employed. Clipping may be performed in wet weather. 

544. Sawing is the most convenient mode of separating large branches, 
because it effects the separation with less labour than cutting with the axe 
or the bill, and also with less waste of wood. In sawing off large branches, 
whether close to the trunk, or at a distance from it, it is advisable to cut a 
notch in the under side of the branch, or to enter the saw for a few inches in 
depth there, and in the same plane with the proposed saw cut, in order to 
prevent the bark from being torn down when the branch is sawn through 
and drops off. It is also advisable to smooth over the section with a chisel 
or knife, in order that it may not retain moisture ; and to cover the entire 
wound with a cataplasm of some sort, or with putty, or with paint, in order to 
exclude the air, and by that means to facilitate the process of healing. 

545. Cutting and sawing are essentially the same operation; for the 
common saw is formed of a series of wedges cut in the edge of a thin plate 
of steel, and the knife only differs in having these wedges so small and so 
close together as not to be perceptible to the naked eye ; the asperities pro- 
duced in the edge of the knife by sharpening, acting in the same manner as 
the teeth of the saw. The blade of the knife thus becomes a sawing wedge. 
When a wedge is entered and equally resisted on both sides of the body 
separated, they are equally fractured ; but when it is so entered that the 
resistance is more on one side than on the other, the fracture will be 
greatest on that side which offers the least resistance. On these facts are 
founded the operation of cutting living plants, whether with the axe, the 
bill, the chisel, or the knife. As in cutting living plants a smooth unbruised 
section will less interfere with the vital energies of the plant, and conse- 
quently will be more easily healed over than a rough one ; hence, in all 
cutting or amputating, the rough or fractured section ought to be on the 
part amputated. In separating a branch, or cutting through a stem, with 
an axe, bill, or chisel, this result is effected by the obliquity of the 
strokes of the instrument to the direction of the body to be cut through, 
and with a knife by drawing it more or less obliquely across the shoot ; 
but principally by the non-resistance offered by the part of the shoot to 
be cut off. Hence, all shoots cut from living plants ought to have the cut 
made in an outward direction from the stem or root of the plant ; because 
if the reverse of this practice were adopted, as is sometimes done in plashing 
hedges, the fractured section would be left on the plant. Every cut made in 
a living plant ought to be sufficiently near a bud or a shoot to be healed 
over by its influence, and the section made should never be more oblique 
than is necessary to secure its soundness and smoothness. In general, 



236 



GARDEN LABOURS WITH PLANTS. 




therefore, the separation of all branches from living plants ought to be 
made by cutting or sawing across at very nearly a right angle to the direc- 
tion of the stem, or branch, in order that it may be the more rapidly 
healed over When due attention is not paid to this rule, and the cut is 
made very obliquely to the line of the shoot, a wedgelike stump is left 
protruding beyond the bud or branch as in fig. 184, a, which never can be 
healed over, and which, consequently, soon decays, and dis- 
figures and injures the tree, by retaining water and bring- 
ing on the rot ; but when the cut is made not more than 
the thickness of the branch above the bud or shoot, and 
nearly directly across as at &, the wound is healed over com- 
pletely and in the shortest possible time. It must be 
observed, however, that the distance of the cut above the 
bud must depend in a great measure on the porosity of the 
^7mprope'riy'cut^-'^ha wood of the shoot, and the proportion of its diameter which 
branch cut properly. IS occupied by the pith ; for if the raspberry and the vine 
were cut close above the bud, the shoot would dry up beyond the bud, and 
prevent it from developing itself. Hence, in all such cases, and even 
sometimes in common fruit-trees, it is customary to make the first cut an 
inch or more above the bud ; and when the shoot has grown and produced 
two or three perfect leaves, to cut off the remaining stump. This would be 
the best mode in every case, but as it occasions double labour, the risk of its 
not being attended to induces most persons to cut near to the bud at once. 
For the pruning of all branches, or the cutting over of all stems under two 
inches in diameter, the pruning shears which cut nearly directly across, 
and of which there are different sizes for branches of different degrees of 
thickness, are greatly to be preferred to the Imife, bill, or axe. (See 
fig. 47, p. 139.) 

546. Clipping in gardening is chiefly applied to hedges, and to the edgings 
of walks or beds, when composed of dwarf box or under shrubs. The com- 
mon hedge shears differ from the pruning shears in crushing the shoot 
which is clipped, on both sides of the section (see p. 189), and hence clipping- 
is not a desirable mode of pruning plants in general ; nor from the want 
of mechanical power are the common hedge shears applicable to any shoots, 
except those of one, or at most two years' growth. In clipping box or 
other edgings which are in a straight direction, a line is generally stretched 
close alongside the box at the height to which it is to be clipped. The 
top of the edging is then clipped down to the proper height, after which the 
line is taken up, and stretched along the centre of the top of the edging ; 
and the width of the top being determined on, the sides are cut accordingly, 
leaving the edging somewhat wider at the bottom than at the top. The 
height and width of edgings vary according to the width of the walks, or 
beds, and the taste of the gardener ; two inches wide and three inches high 
are ordinary proportions ; but some gardeners prefer having their edgings 
smaller, as less likely to harbour vermin. The ordinary time for clipping 
edgings is the spring ; before the shoots of the season are made ; but many 
gardeners prefer waiting till the shoots have been completed, and clip in 
June, after which the plants put out one or two leaves at the points of most 
of the shoots, which thus obliterate the marks of the shears on the other 
leaves. With box this appears to be decidedly the best mode. Where 
lines of edgings are not straight, they are of course clipped by the eye 



GARDEN LABOURS WITH PLANTS. 



237 



without the application of the line ; a matter of no difficulty to an expert 
operator. 

547. Clipping hedges is generally performed by the eye without the aid of 
the Ime ; but in the case of architectural hedges in gardens laid out in the 
geometrical style, both the line and the plummet are occasionally resorted 
to, to prove the exactness of the work. In the case of lofty hedges, for 
example, the beech and hornbeam hedges at Bramham Park, Yorkshire, 
and the holly hedge at Moredun, near Edinburgh, scaffolding is requisite, and 
this is adjusted to different heights ; the operation of clipping commencing 
at the bottom of the hedge, and being continued upwards in successive 
breadths, much in the same way that mowing is performed by several men 
following one another at regular distances. Hedges are generally clipped in 
the summer season ; immediately after the growth of the year has been 
completed. In some parts of the country instead of the hedge- shears, 
(fig. 46, in p. 139) the hedge-bill (fig. 42, in p. 138) is used. In this case, 
the ends of the shoots which form the surface of the hedge are not bruised 
as in clipping ; and hence they are not liable to rot, or to produce an exu- 
berance of small shoots, which, from the greater stimulus, are always more 
abundant from a fractured section, than from one cut smoothly over. That 
this result will take place is known to every cottager who has been in the 
habit of splitting the upper ends of the stumps or stems from which cabbages 
or other kale have been cut, in order to induce them to throw out sprouts. 
The width of a hedge at the base need seldom exceed two feet in gardens ; 
but where a strong fence is required, or where the height exceeds twelve 
or fifteen feet, three feet in width at least, will be required at the base ; 
for the closest and best clothed hedges are found to be those whose sec- 
tion forms the sides and base of a pyramid. If the sides are perpendicular 
the hedge sometimes gets naked at the bottom ; but if is wider at top than 
at bottom, no art will prevent it from getting every year more naked, till, 
at last, plashing, or otherwise securing the gaps, must be resorted to, and 
then its beauty as a live fence is gone. Another advantage is gained by 
sloping the sides of hedges, and that is, in respect of keeping them 
clean ; for when so cut the twigs at bottom, sharing in the dews and light, 
thrive and grow so close to the ground that few weeds can rise below 
them. Again, in fields, the uniformity of surface which can be maintained 
with ease in hedges cut on the sloping principle, prevents animals from 
readily attempting to leap or make a breach in them. If they observe the 
appearance of a breach they make towards it, and, crowding together at the 
spot, the foremost is " put to the horn," if he attempts to turn away. Of 
two evils he finds it perhaps the best alternative to dash forward through 
the hedge, leaving an easier passage for those behind him ; some of them 
being hurried after him by force, and others by a sort of instinct. If a 
stone fence is built of a uniform height, a hare will not readily leap over 
it of her own accord ; but if the wall be heightened excepting in some places, 
the hare will attempt these apparently more easy places without hesitation, 
and certainly without being aware that those places are not in reality lower 
than they were formerly. 

548. Mowing, like cutting, may be described as a species of sawing ; and 
it is perhaps the most laborious work which the gardener is called on to 
perform ; every muscle of the human frame being by this kind of labour 

R 



238 



GARDEN LABOURS WITH PLANTS, 



called into severe action. In mowing corn or long grass, the blade of the 
scythe may be moved along in a direction in which the plane of the blade 
forms an acute angle with the surface of the ground ; but in mowing short 
grass, the blade requires to be kept parallel to the surface, and, when the 
grass is kept very short, even to be pressed against it. The motion requires 
to be rapid and uniform, and the edge of the scythe to be kept very sharp by 
the frequent use of the whetstone. In the case of mowing lawns which 
contain scattered trees and shrubs without any dug space round them, the 
use of the grass- shears is required to cut the grass which comes in contact 
with the stems and branches. (416 and 417.) Mowing is chiefly used in 
lawns and pleasure-grounds, to keep the surfaces of grass short, smooth, and 
green ; but it is also employed to destroy weeds on grassy surfaces, and at 
the bottom of pieces of water, by cutting them over, as soon as they have 
advanced an inch or two in height in the spring, and repeating the opera- 
tion, with every triflmg increase of growth during the season, and every 
succeeding one, till the roots cease to have the power of throwing up leaves. 
The scythe for mowing at the bottom of water ought to have an iron handle, 
in order that it may pass more readily through the water from its small 
diameter, and sink readily from its weight ; and it must not be forgotten 
that the time at which weeds must be mown is not when they are an inch or 
two above the surface of the water, but every time that they are an inch or 
two above the bottom of the pond or river. In mowing lawns, the mow- 
ing machine (442.) is often used on a large scale; and the common 
hedge-shears on a small scale for shortening the grass at the roots of 
shrubs or trees, which the mowing machine or scythe cannot conveniently 
reach. 

549. Weeding is simply the pulling up of weeds, or any plants that are 
out of place ; and it is generally effected by the hand, more or less aided by 
weeding implements of the different kinds before described (400) ; to which 
we may add, the Guernsey weeding prong (described in the Gardener's 
Chronicle, vol. i. p. G6), which appears well adapted for preventing stooping, 
and the touching the weeds and q rubbing in the soil with the fingers. The 
head of this implement (fig. 165), is in the shape of a claw hammer; with 
the one end flattened into a chisel, an inch wide, and the forked or clawed 
end, consisting of two flat 

sharp prongs by which ^^^^ W 

the weeds are grubbed " ^""^^71/ 

up and lifted at the same [j 
time. The length of the head from the extremity of the chisel end to that 
of the prong end is nine inches, and it is attached to a handle five feet long. 
A great part of the labour of weeding may in most gardens be performed by 
women and children ; and it will not only be lightened, but their hands will 
be kept clean, by the adoption of the Guernsey prong. 

550. Other labours with plants might be enumerated, but they are either such 
as are common to arboriculture, agriculture, and other arts, or belong more 
properly to garden operations. We may, however, here notice splitting 
the stocks or roots of trees ; as, though it belongs properly to the forester, it 
is yet a labour which a gardener may have occasionally to practise. It is 
effected by entering a wedge always more or less in the direction of the fibres 
of the wood. This wedge must be struck with a heavy iron hammer, with a 



PROPAGATION. 



239 



sufficient force to overcomr; tlic inertia of iiic mass constituting the wedge. 
With a heavy wedge and a light hammer no effect will be produced ; 
because the impulse of the latter has not sufficient power to overcome the 
inertia of the former. 

Sect. II. — Operations of Cultut'e. 

Operations of garden culture may be arranged under the heads of propa - 
gation, rearing, preservation, and amelioration. 

SuBSECT. I. — Propagation. 
561. Plants are propagated either by seed, or by division : the latter mode 
including cuttings, joints, leaves, layers, suckers, slips, budding, grafting, and 
inarchmg. All the modes of propagation by division are founded on the 
principle — that a bud, whether visible or latent, is essentially the same 
as a seed, and will consequently produce a plant; and that, as there is 
a bud, either visible or in an embryo state, in the axil of every leaf, 
it follows that for every leaf a plant contains, a young plant may be 
originated by art. This, however, is not done with equal ease in every 
species, and perhaps with some it may be almost impracticable; but it 
holds good with the great majority of plants, and may therefore safely 
be laid dovm and acted on as a general principle (12, 114 to 116). 
There is an important diffisrence between propagating by seed, and 
propagating by any of the other modes known to gardeners; viz., that 
in propagating by seed, the species in the abstract is propagated, while in 
propagating by any of the other modes, the species is continued with the 
habits of the individual parent. Thus, a shoot taken from a weeping ash, 
and grafted on a common ash, will produce a tree like the parent ; while 
a seed taken from a weeping ash will not in general produce a weeping plant, 
but an upright growing one like the species. Nevertheless this does not 
always hold good, even in such trees as the weeping ash, and the w^eeping 
oak ; and it does not hold good at all in the case of trees in a high state 
of culture, such as fruit trees ; or in the case of herbaceous plants in a 
highly artificial state, such as the culinary vegetables of our gardens, and 
the principal agricultural plants of our farms. The w^eeping ash was an 
accidental sport (16); but notwithstandmg this, out of many hundred 
plants raised from seed collected from a weeping tree by a nurseryman at 
Berlin, one or two were found to exhibit the weeping characters of the 
parent ; and when we consider that all the common weeping ash trees in 
Europe have been propagated from one tree, that at Gamblingay, in Cam- 
bridgeshire, and that this tree is a female, so that the blossoms, when fertile 
seeds have been produced must have been fecundated by the male blossoms 
of some adjoining common ash, the small proportion of weeping plants 
raised is not surprising. The acorns produced by a celebrated weeping oak 
at Moccas Court, in Herefordshire, produce plants almost all of which 
have the branches drooping, though this tree is not farther removed from 
nature than the weeping ash, both having been found accidentally in a wild 
state. The stones of a green-gage plum, and the seeds of a golden pippin 
apple, will unquestionably produce plants, many of which will bear varieties 
of the green-gage and golden pippin ; and though these may vary from the 
fruit of their parents, yet they will not vary more than the produce of a wild- 
ing, such as a crab apple, or a wild plum, will sometimes do from its parent. 

R 2 



240 



ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 



The seeds of the cultivated varieties of cabbage, peas, wheat, oats, Sec. it m 
well known, produce plants in all respects like their parents, or in horticul- 
tural language " come true." The seeds of trees, however, are not so much to 
be depended on, as those of herbaceous plants, and especially of annuals, in a 
high state of culture ; for a kernel out of the same apple which produced the 
Ribstone pippin produced another tree, the fruit of which proved little better 
than a crab. From these facts we consider it safe for the gardener to adopt it 
as a principle, that the seeds of trees, as well as of herbaceous plants, will 
not only reproduce the species, but, to a considerable extent, also the variety ; 
though we cannot depend on this mode for. reproducing the variety, with 
the same certainty as we can on propagation by division. 

§ 1. On propagation hy seed. 

552. The seed as we have seen (132), is of a mucilaginous consistency 
when young, and it becomes more or less solid when matured. Before 
germination can take place, the solid part of the seed must be rendered 
again mucilaginous, and soluble in water ; and this is effected by the mois- 
ture and heat of the soil, and the ox3^gen of the atmosphere. The absence 
of light, or at least, of much light, is also favourable to germination, but 
not essential to it ; for though, when seeds are sown, they are generally 
covered in proportion to their size, in order to maintain an equal degree of 
moisture, and to keep them in darkness, we also sow the smaller seeds, such 
as those of ferns and heaths, on the surface, and maintain the requisite 
moisture by means of a close covering of glass, only moderating the light by 
placing them in the shade. That the want of moisture prevents the germina- 
tion of seeds, though every other requisite should be present, is known to 
every gardener ; and indeed, were it otherwise, it would be next to impossible 
to preserve seeds from one season to another, since, though it is in our power 
to keep them dry, it is scarcely practicable to prevent the access of air and 
heat. That the want of air has an effect in preventing the germination of seeds 
is proved by the following experiment. If a number of seeds be put in a 
bottle with from ten to twenty times their bulk of water, and all communi- 
cation with the surrounding atmosphere be cut off, so that the water may 
not absorb any oxygen from it, the seeds will not germinate, though placed 
in a temperature suitable for germination ; but if the same experiment be 
repeated with a proportionately larger quantity of water, the seeds will find in 
the air wliich it contains sufficient oxygen to enable them to germinate. 
(Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 482). That seeds will not germinate without 
the presence of a certain degree of heat, is rendered evident by the fact of 
self-sown seeds lying in the soil all the winter, and only vegetating when 
the temperature becomes sufficiently high in the spring. 

553. Process of germination. The first change which takes place in 
the germinating seed is seen immediately after the absorption of water, 
when its substance becomes softer, often assumes a greenish tint, and tastes 
sweetish. After this a lengthening of the radicle takes place, which 
receives its nourishment from the cotyledons, or the albumen. It then 
penetrates the testa or husk, through the micropylus, (an exceedinlgy 
small hole in the husk of the seed, which corresponds with the point of the 
radicle,) and ruptures it at this spot, so that the embryo now bursts forth. 
The young plant is then nourished by the aliment laid up in the cotyledons, 
or in the albumen of the seed, till the root begins to branch. Hence, it 



ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 



241 



often happens, that when the cotyledons are fleshy, and ai"e destroyed by 
insects or otherwise, the young plants are u-retrievably lost. As soon as the 
testa or husk becomes soft and tender, the seed absorbs the surroundmg mois- 
ture, and generally germinates very quickly, if it be not too old. If the husk 
be, on the contrary, hard, or, as in many cases, stony, the moisture penetrates 
only through the micropylus, and is communicated to the feculent part by the 
root. In these cases the seeds lie sometimes very long in the ground with- 
out germinating ; the absorption of moisture going on, in general, too slowly 
to effect a quick and strong development, which is absolutely necessary to 
burst those firm husks or shells which are bound together, as it were, by 
sutures. These seeds are often lost when they lie for many years ; and, to 
make sure of their germination, artificial means should be appKed. To 
cause a rapid germination of the seeds of the acacia, soaking them in boiling 
water has been applied of late years with success ; but, in general, this is a 
very unsafe means, and may do more injury than good. The safest and 
best way is to cut or file the hard shell, which it is only necessary to pene- 
trate at one spot to the albumen or cotyledons. From this spot the seed imbibes 
the requisite quantity of air and moisture, the radicle is quickly developed, 
and, with the help of the swollen tissue within it, bursts the sutures of the 
husk. In this, way many hard-shelled seeds of monocotyledonous and 
dicotyledonous plants, such as canna, pseonia, acacia, abrus, erythrina, 
cassia, schotia, guilandina, adenanthera, bauhinia, and caesalpmia, have 
been made to germinate in a short time, mostly in from ten to twenty days. 
If the seeds be old, they should, after cutting, be laid for a few days in 
lukewarm rain-water, and, if they have any life remaining, this will sti- 
mulate it. Something similar also takes place with seeds which, besides the 
testa, or husk, are also enclosed in a pericarpium, or outer-covering. They 
lie either in fours, at the bottom of a dry hollow cup, as in the labiatse and 
boragfneae ; or they are single, or several, surrounded with a thick fleshy 
cup, as in many species of the rosacese ; or single, or in twos, covered with a 
dry cup, as in compositse, umbelliferae, and their allied species. Lastly, in 
the graminese, we find them only surrounded with the pericarpium, as true 
caryopses. Many of these germinate as easily as naked seeds ; but this depends, 
in some measure, on the capacity or incapacity of the husk to absorb water 
in a natural state. We find seeds hard and stony only among the rosacese, 
as in rosa, prunus, cotoneaster, mespilus, cratse'gus, &c., and these require 
cutting or filing, if intended to germinate quickly. The remainder are 
divided, according to their formation, into two groups; those possessing 
albumen, in which the embryo lies, and those that do not. This division is 
useful, for the cotyledons always imbibe the water fii'st and easiest, whereas 
the albumen is less hygroscopic ; and hence the germination of those seeds 
which have none, but whose interior is entkely filled with the embryo and 
its cotyledons, as in the boragiueae, labiatse, compositse, &c., will be more 
easily effected. The graminese and umbelliferse, on the contrary, possess 
albumen : in the former, the embryo lies outside of the albumen, on which 
account they easily germinate ; whereas, in the latter, the embryo is entirely 
surrounded by the albumen, for which reason, with the exception of most 
of the annual or biennial sorts, they are more difficult to vegetate. As 
these seeds cannot be cut with advantage, it is usual to sow them late in 
autumn, with other difficult-growing sorts ; so that when the universal 
period of germination comes, in the spring, they may be sufficiently pene- 



242 



ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 



trated with moisture. This method is very well suited for sowing on a 
large scale ; but as the seed often perishes during the winter, and the earth 
becomes soddened, or thickly covered with moss, the preferable way for 
valuable seeds which are to be raised in the open air, is to sow them in the 
spring, after they have been soaked for some days previously in warm water 
( Regel in Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 485). Seeds that are to be raised under 
glass, with the aid of artificial heat, may be sown at any time. 

554. The period necessary to complete the p^'ocess of germination varies in 
different seeds, though all attendant circumstances may be alike. The 
grasses generally vegetate most rapidly, and they are quickly followed by 
some of the cruciferous and leguminous plants; umbelliferous plants are 
generally slower, and rosaceous plants still more so. Adanson gives the 
following table of the period of germination in several seeds tried by him- 
self in France. 

Days. Days. 

Wheat, millet 1 

Strawberry blite, beans, mustard, kidney 

beans, turnips, radishes, and rocket 3 
Lettuce, and aniseed . . . . 4 
Melon, cucumber, gourd, and cress . 5 
Horse radish, leek . . . .6 
Barley ..... 7 

Oiaclie . . . . . .8 



Purslane ..... 9 

Cabbage 10 

Hyssop ..... 30 

Parsley . . . . 40 or 50 
Cow-wheat, almond, chestnut, peach, 

and peony . . . One Year 
Rose, hawthorn, hazel, nut and 

cornel Two Years 



(Fam. des Plantes, vol. I. p. 84.) — The same author found that the seeds 
which germinated in twelve hours in an ordinary degree of heat, might be 
made to germinate in three hours by exposing them to a greater degree of 
heat ; and that seeds transported from the climate of Paris to that of Senegal, 
have their periods of germination accelerated from one to three days. On 
the same principle seeds transported from a warmer to a colder climate 
have their period of germination protracted till the temperature of the 
latter is raised to that of the former. The seeds of annuals generally ger- 
minate quicker and with more certainty than those of perennial plants ; 
and they generally retain their power of germination much longer. 

555. The quantity of moisture most favourable to germination must depend 
on various circumstances, such as the degree of heat with which it is accom- 
panied, the vital power of the seed, and the nature of the species. The seeds of 
aquatic plants vegetate when immersed in water, and the plants live, and attain 
maturity in that element ; but those of land plants, though they will vegetate in 
water, yet if the plants be not removed immediately after germination, they 
will become putrid and die. In general, the most favourable degree of mois- 
ture for newly sown seeds, is that wliich a free soil holds in its interstices. 
Clayey soil will retain too much moisture for delicate seeds, and sand too 
little : but an open free loam will attract and retain the proper quantity for 
all seeds, excepting those which are very small and very delicate ; and for 
these a mixture of peat, loam, and fine sand, will retain just moisture 
enough, and no more. With all delicate seeds it is better rather to have too 
little moisture than too much ; and with all seeds whatever, it is of great 
importance to preserve the degree of moisture uniform. For this purpose, in 
the open garden, newly sown delicate seeds are shaded or covered by different 
means, such as sowing them on the north sides of hedges or walls, interpos- 
ing hurdles placed upright or horizontally, between the sown seeds and the 
siui, covering with mats, or branches, or litter^ or, in the case of very small 



ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 



243 



seeds, with moss. The more tender kinds are also sown in frames, or under 
hand or bell glasses, by which evaporation is prevented or checked, and a 
steady degree of moisture effectually maintained. 

556. The water requisite to cause old seeds to germinate should be more gradu- 
ally given to them, than that given to vigorous young seeds; because the power 
of absorbing water in old seeds is not diminished in the same proportion as 
their power of decomposing it. When old seeds are placed in moist soil, they 
are consequently very liable to rot ; more especially, if the temperature be 
not somewhat higher than new seeds of the same species usually require. 
Hence, old seeds should be sown in a much drier soil than new seeds, and 
sliould be supplied with water much more sparingly, or left to absorb it from 
the atmosphere. Very old seeds will, however, sometimes germinate 
quickly by being steeped for some days in warm water ; and M. Kegel men- 
tions an instance of this, with regard to some very old seeds of UmbelHferaj. 
In the botanic garden at Bonn, in the spring of 1838, four pans were sown 
with seeds, full ten years old, of Ferula tingitana, i., in which the embryo 
seemed entirely dried up, and only those in two of the pans were previously 
soaked. The latter sprang up all together in from ten to twenty days, while 
of those in the other pans, which were left for trial, only a few plants came 
up in one pan in the spring of the following year, the rest of the seed having 
all voitQ<i.—{Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 485.) 

557. The depth to which a seed is buried in the soil has, for its chief object, 
the maintenance of a due degree of moisture, but another purpose is to exclude 
the light, and to give the future plant a better hold of the ground ; though 
there is no seed whatever that will not vegetate on the surface, if that sur- 
face be kept uniformly moist and shaded. It may be assumed that every 
seed will vegetate and establish itself in the soil, if buried to its own thick - 
ness ; but the experience of gardeners proves, that some large seeds^ such as 
leguminous seeds, nuts, &c., make better plants when buried much deeper. 

558. The degree of heat most favourable for the germination of seeds may 
be considered as that best adapted for the growth of the parent plants ; and, 
hence, if the native country of any plant is known, it may be assumed that 
the seeds will germinate best in the temperature of the spring, or growing 
season of that country. Some seeds of cold climates, such as those of the 
common annual grass, chick weed, groundsel, &c., will germinate in a tem- 
perature little above the freezing point ; but, in general, few northern 
plants will germinate under 40°, and the most favourable temperature for 
germinating Dr. Lindley states to be — for the seeds of cold countries, from 
50° to 55° ; for seeds of greenhouse plants, from 60 to 65° ; and for seeds 
of the plants of the torrid zone, 70° to 80. {Theory of Hort., p. 166). It 
may be remarked that though the seeds of warm countries will not vegetate 
in the temperature of cold countries, yet that the reverse of this does not 
hold true, as may be observed in the germination of British weeds in our 
stoves ; but the plants thus produced, unless immediately removed to the 
open air, remain weak and sickly. 

559. The degree of heat which the seeds of plants will endure has already 
been slightly noticed. Certain leguminous seeds, as those of some acacias, 
may be subjected to the boilmg point for a few minutes without injury ; 
others may be allowed to steep and cool for twenty-four hours in water 
heated to 200°. The seeds of Acacia Lophantha were subjected to boiling 
water for five minutes, and the plants raised from them were exliibitcd before 



24.4 



ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 



the Horticultural Society, some years ago, by Mr. Palmer of Bromley, Kent. 
Messrs. Edwards and Colin found that wheat, barley, and rye could germinate 
between 44° and 45" ; that they were killed by remaining three days in water 
at the temperature of OS** ; that in sand and earth, at 104^, they lived for a 
considerable time ; but that at 113° most of them perished ; and that at 122° 
all of them perished ; but it was found that a higher temperature could be 
borne by these and other seeds for a shorter time. At 143°, in vapour, wheat, 
barley, kidney-beans, and flax retained their vitality for a quarter of an 
hour ; in dry air these seeds sustained no injury at 167°; but in vapour, at 
this temperature, they all perished. Dr. Lindley mentions the very remark- 
able case of the germination of the seeds of a raspberry, which had been 
picked from a jar of jam, and which, consequently, must have been subjected 
to the temperature of the boiling point of the syrup, which is 230°. 

560. The degree of cold which seeds will endure differs according to the species, 
their native country, and their condition in respect to moisture. Dry seeds 
stand so high a degree of cold, that even the lowest temperature of the frigid 
zone does not injure them ; but if they have imbibed any moisture they freeze 
according to the degree of growth which may have been excited, and the 
degree of cold to which they had been accustomed in their native zone. 

561. Atmospheric air^ as we have seen (102), is as necessary to the ger- 
mination of seeds as moisture and heat ; and this is the principal cause why 
seeds buried to a certain depth in the soil do not vegetate. It also affords 
a reason for having the surface of the soil, in which seeds are sown, porous, 
and exposed to the action of the atmosphere, and to rain-water, which con- 
tains more air than the water of wells. Hence the rapidity with which seeds 
spring up in the open ground after the first warm spring showers. Hence, 
also, the propriety of giving fresh air to hot-beds, and to hand and bellglasses 
covering sown seeds, even though they have not come up. Old seeds are 
found to germinate sooner in pure oxygen than in atmospheric air : doubtless, 
because less efforts are required by the vital powers of the seed to assimilate 
the oxygen with its carbon, so as to form carbonic acid. 

562. The influence of light on the germination of seeds has been already 
alluded to (552). Bright light is found to be universally unfavourable ; 
because it has a tendency to decompose carbonic acid, and fix carbon ; 
whereas, as we have seen (553), the first step in the progress of germination 
is to render carbon mucilaginous and soluble in water, so to change it into 
carbonic acid. Light, therefore, ought to be excluded from all seeds which 
it is wished should germinate freely. 

563. Accelerating the germination of seeds. In ordinary practice this is 
chiefly effected by the application of a higher degree of heat, as by placing 
pots of sown seeds in hot-beds, or by immersing seeds in tepid water, or by 
cutting or paring nuts, or gently fermenting them in heaps of sawdust, as is 
done with chestnuts, walnuts, acorns, almonds, &c., by the Paris nursery- 
men. On a large scale, both in the field and the garden, the most common 
resource is steeping in warm water for a few hours, which is found to bring 
up the seeds of barley, turnips, beets, parsnips, onions, &c., when the soil in 
which they are sown is very dry, much sooner than would otherwise bo the 
case ; this is found to prevent them from becoming a prey to insects or birds. 
The sowing of some seeds before they are perfectly ripe has also been found 
to promote their early vegetation ; but the experience of gardeners in this 
mode of acceleration is at present vcr^y limited. 



ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 



245 



564. Various experiments have been made to accelerate germination with 
ditferent degrees of success. These all proceed on the principle that germi- 
nation cannot take place until the carbon of the seed is changed into carbonic 
acid ; and as this can only be done by extraordinary supplies of oxygen, the 
agents employed are such as have the power of supplying that suLttanee in 
greater abundance than water or air, from which, under ordinary circum- 
stances, the plant obtains it by decomposition. Humboldt was the first to 
observe that watering with chlorine induced speedy germination ; and, as, 
according to the observations of Goppert, iodine and bromine, in conjunction 
with hydrogen, produce a similar effect, it appears that both these matters, as 
well as the oxalic and other acids frequently applied for that purpose, hasten 
the process of assimilation. It cannot be denied that all thes3 substances 
accelerate germination ; but to the practical gardener they must be considered 
as experiments unfit for general practice, for the young plants thus called 
into existence most frequently become sickly through the excitement, and 
die off, which cannot surprise us, as the same effect is seen when plants of 
cold climates are reared too warmly, and are not placed in a cooler situation 
after germination. Dr. Lindley, after quoting the experiments of Mr. Otto 
of Berlin, who, by employing oxalic acid, made seeds germinate which were 
from twenty to forty years old, and the statement of Dr. Hamilton, that he 
had found a like advantage from the use of this acid (see the details in 
Gard. ikfa^., viii., 196 and x., 368, 453), makes the following remark, appli- 
cable also to the employment of a diluted solution of chlorine, as tried by 
Humboldt : — Theoretically it would seem that the effects described ought to 
be produced, but general experience does not confirm them ; and it may be 
conceived that the rapid abstraction of carbon, by the presence of an imna- 
turally large quantity of oxygen, may produce effects as injurious to the 
health of the seed, as the too slow destruction of carbon in consequence of the 
languor of the vital principle. (^Theory, S^c.^ p. 174.) 

565. Electricity and alkalies as stimulants to vegetation. " It has been 
ascertained," Mr. Lymburn observes, " that electricity is connected with all 
transformations or changes of organic substances, either as cause or effect ; 
when electricity is present, it accelerates or causes chemical decomposition ; 
and, according to Dr. Carpenter, when chemical decomposition takes place, 
electricity is always developed ; though, perhaps, in most instances, it is 
absorbed again by the new state of the compound. M. Maltuen, in experi- 
ments made some years ago with seeds, found that they germinated much 
sooner at the negative or alkaline pole of a galvanic battery, than at the 
positive or acid pole ; and, following up these discoveries by enclosing seeds 
in phials of alkalies and acids, he'found they germinated quickly in the former, 
and with difficulty, or sometimes not at all, in the latter. Connected with 
the same subject are the recent experiments of Dr. Horner, on the differently 
coloured rays of the spectrum ; the violet or deoxidising end produces a 
chemical effect, similar to the negative or alkaline pole, and the red end pro- 
duces the opposite or acid effect, by the retention of the oxygen. Guided by 
these theoretical opinions, I was induced to try their effects on some very old 
spruce fir seed in 1836, which had been three years out of the cone ; the year 
before, 1835, some of the same seed did not produce one-sixth part of a crop, 
and I had good reason to suppose it would be worse the next. The year before, 
when the seed was damped to accelerate germination, it had a musty fungous 
smell ; and the seed leaves came up yellow, and, hanging by the ends in the 



246 



ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 



, ground, had not strength to free themselves from the soil. In 188G, how- 
ever, after being damped, I added quicklime in the state of powder, which, 
besides furnishing an alkali, has a great affinity for carbonic acid, which is 
necessary to be extracted from the starch before it can be made soluble, and 
which produces heat by concentration of the oxygen and carbon when being 
extracted. After the seed was thoroughly damped, I sprinkled it with the 
powder of lime, and kept it damp by the use of a watering-pan, for ten or 
twelve days ; at the end of which time it had swelled off plump, and had all 
the sweet smell of the sugar formed in healthy seed when malted in this way : 
and, when deposited in the ground, it was not long in pushing up its seed 
leaves, as healthy, upright, and dark green in the colour, as the first year it 
was sown ; and the seedling plants were strong and healthy. The reasons 
why I preferred lime were, its cheapness, and the affinity of quicklime for 
carbonic acid : as to its alkaline properties, soda is much more powerful, but 
lime seemed to be that which had produced most effect in the experiments 
of M. Payen and others on the same subject. The seed must be carefully 
kept damp till sown, as the dry powder is apt to corrode ; and seeds do not 
suit well to have their dormant powers brought into action without being 
sustained, which, if far forward and severely checked, may destroy life alto- 
gether. Since I experimented as above on the spruce fir seed, I have not had 
any other seed so long kept to make trial of ; I have, however, tried lime on 
magnolias and other weak-growing seeds difficult to start, and found them to 
germinate sooner, and make stronger plants than usual. Some others who 
have tried it have also found it of benefit. It ia to seeds containing their 
albumen principally in the form of starch, that it will be of most benefit ; 
and to those which have been hurt by long keeping dry, or being exposed to 
great heat : those which have been spoiled by dampness have their food de- 
composed and spoiled. It is difficult, also, to say how far the drying can be 
endured without being prejudicial, and when the organised tissue, the seat of 
life, may have its powers of resuming vital activity so far trenched on as to 
be considered dead. After this has taken place, any stimulus that can be 
applied can only hasten consumption, as the vital force which should preside 
over and direct the chemical force has fled." — (Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 520.) 

566. The length of time during vMch seeds retain their vitality varies ex- 
ceedingly in different species ; and the difference in this respect, even in the 
plants in common cultivation, as every seedsman laiows, is very considerable. 
It is remarkable that the seeds of amiual plants not only germinate in general 
<! nicker and with more certainty than those of perennials, but, also, that 
they retain their power of germination much longer. The greater part of 
the seeds of perennial plants and trees, when well kept, preserve then* germi- 
nating powers for a long time ; while certain oily seeds, like those of 
dictamus, magnolia, and myristica, &c., decay soon after ripening. Melon 
seeds have been known to retain their vitality for nearly half a century, 
]xidney-beans for a century, and the seeds of the sensitive-plant upwards of 
sixty years. 

567. The length of time that seeds will lie in tlie ground without growing^ 
is not less remarkable than the difference in their retention of vitality. 
Many seeds, which, when sown in spring, come up soon afterwards, will not 
come up the same year if sown in autumn. This is the case with many 
common annuals, which when sown immediately after ripening cither do 
not come up at all that year, or come up sparingly and sickly. In May 



ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 



247 



1838, M, Regel, of Berlin, gathered seeds of Draba prae^cox, and sowed them 
in pots which were kept in a cold pit. Only two plants came up that year, 
of very stunted growth, and they never attained sufficient strength to 
flower; while next spring the remaining seeds came up very thick and 
strong, and flowered in the space of four weeks. On the other hand, the 
seeds of the greater portion of biennial plants, if sown immediately after 
ripening, come up freely, become strong plants before winter, and flower 
the following year. This is also the case with a great number of annual 
plants, especially those of California, which in their native country spring 
up before winter, and are preserved through that season by a covering of 
snow. The seeds of Crataegus, mespilus, ilex, prunus, cerasus, and some 
others, if sown immediately after being gathered, will in part come up the 
following spring, but cliiefly in the second spring, though some will not 
germinate till the third or fourth season. If these seeds, instead of being 
sown immediately after gathering, are dried and sown the same autumn, 
none will come up till the spring of the second year. This holds good also 
with the seeds of a number of trees and shrubs, among which may be 
mentioned daphne, ribes, rubus, rosa, potentilla, berberis, pseonia, &c. 
De Candolle mentions a sowing of tobacco which continued to send up 
plants in sufficient numbers to form a crop every year for ten years. It is 
a common occurrence to find plants, especially annuals, springing up in 
ground newly brought into cultivation, after it had been used many years 
for other purposes. Thus, a field of grass, that was ploughed up near 
Dunkeld, in Scotland, after a period of fourteen years in turf, yielded a con- 
siderable crop of black oats without sowing. Mustard-seed has sprung up 
in the fern lands, which must have lain there upwards of a century ; and 
white clover, it is well known to every agriculturist, springs up, on the 
application of lime in soils, where it had not been before seen in the memory 
of man. In pulling down old buildings, seeds capable of germinating have 
been found in the clay used as mortar. The seed of Veronica hederaefolia, 
L.J after heavy rains, has been known to spring up on the surface of fields, 
where previously no trace of that plant was to be found. At Gottingen, M. 
Kegel found Alsme SegetaUs, L. come up in great profusion, which had not 
been found there for more than twenty years. He also found Rumex mari- 
timus, jL., and Cyperus fuscus, i., thickly overspreading the bottom of a 
pond that had been dried the year before — no trace of these plants being 
to be found in the neighbourhood, and the pond having, for many years, 
been kept fuU of water (Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 480). 

568. The season for sowing seeds is, in nature, when they are ripe, but 
in artificial culture it varies according to the object in view. The spring, 
however, is the most favourable period for germination, because at this 
season the vegetable kingdom awakens from the sleep of nature. Seeds 
removed from foreign countries, and also the seeds of any rare indigenous 
plant, should be sown as soon as they are removed or gathered, in a soil 
and situation favourable for germination and growth. For a succession of 
crops of annual culinary plants, or annual flowers, the gardener sows at 
diff'erent periods ; and in the case of biennial plants, he sows in the autumn. 
The following are the results of experiments made by Mr. G. Gordon, of 
the Hort. Soc. Garden, upon raising plants from seed : — " All seeds from 
North America and California should be sown in the autumn as soon as 
ripe; to defer the Liowing them till the spring may in all cases be disadvan- 



248 



ON PROPAGATION BY SEED. 



tageous, excepting the case of annuals ; that Mexican and Chilian seeds 
succeed best if sown in spring ; tliat with regard to Europe, and the north 
of India, trees and shrubs should be sown in the autumn, and annuals or 
perennials in the spring ; that all seeds, of whatever kind, should be sown in 
dry soil, and not watered till they begin to vegetate ; in the case of old or 
sickly seeds, to water them at the time of sowing is to ensure their destruc- 
tion by rotting ; that shading is to be preferred to watering ; and that one of 
the best constructions for the purpose is a pit glazed with double sashes like 
one in the Society's Garden ; finally, that all seedlmgs should be potted or 
transplanted as soon as possible, except bulbs (Proceedings of the Hort. Soc. 
for 1840, p. 176). 

569. The mechanical process of sowing is very simple ; whether the seeds 
are sown broad-cast, that is, distributed equally over an even surface, or 
deposited in drills or regular furrows, they are delivered from the hand, and 
not, as in agriculture, from sowing machines. Some rough seeds, such as 
those of the carrot, are mixed with sawdust or sand, to separate them so 
that they may drop singly, and other very small seeds, such as those of 
rhododendrons, and other ericacea, are mixed with fine sand to prevent them 
from falling too thickly. The smallest seeds of all, such as those of the 
ferns, and of some of the hardy orchidesB, are sown on the surface of pots or 
pans filled with well drained peat and sand, and placed in a shady place 
and covered with glass. American tree seeds of small size are generally 
sown in pans or boxes as soon as received, and kept under glass in a cold 
pit, and shaded during sunshine till they vegetate. Cape and Australian 
seeds, and in general all seeds from warm climates, are sown as soon as 
received in a mixture of loam, peat and sand, and placed in a temperature 
similar to that of the growing season in the country they came from. 

570. Sowing seeds in powdered charcoal has been tried in the Botanic 
Garden at Munich with extraordinary success. Seeds of cucumbers and 
melons sown in it germinated one day sooner than others sown in soil, 
and plunged in the same hotbed ; becoming strong plants, while the others 
remained comparatively stationary. Ferns sown on the surface of fine sifted 
charcoal, germinate quickly and vigorously ; and it seems not improbable, 
that this material may be found as useful in exciting seeds difficult to ger- 
minate, as it is in rooting cuttings difficult to strike. 

571. Sowing seeds in snow. Tliis practice originated at Munich five or 
six years ago, and the following account of it was given by M. Lucas in the 
Garten Zeitung for 1841, and translated in the Gardeners Magazine for 
the same year : — " For five years past I have been very successful in sowing 
seeds in snow that are considered difficult to germinate ; such as the follow- 
ing alpine plants : gentiana, ranunculus, anemone, &c. ; and in this manner 
I raised several hundred young gentianas in Messrs. Hague's establishment 
at Erfurt. In our gardens in the north of Germany, it is a well-known 
practice to sow the auricula in snow, and this spring the idea struck me of 
making the same trial with exotic seeds, which are generally more difficult 
to germinate ; I therefore sowed a few of the seeds of New Holland plants, 
principally of the papilionaceous and mimosa kinds, also erica, rhodoraceas, 
cactaceae, cucurbitaceee, &c., all of the most distinct families. I filled the 
pots with earth the most suitable to each kind of plant; I then put a layer of 
snow, then the seed, and covered it with another layer of snow. I set them 
in a box covered with glass, and placed it in one of the houses at a tempera- 



ON FROPAaATION BY CUTTINGS. 



249 



ture of from 60° to 65" Fahr., in which the snow melted, I was not deceived 
in my expectations ; some acacias, such as A. subcoerulea and A. Cunning- 
hami, and several mammillarias, such as M. uncinata, germinated in the 
course of two days. These seeds not only germinated well, but in rapidity 
surpassed my expectations ; and I even succeeded in raising crotalaria pur- 
purea in this manner, which I had never been able to do before by any 
other method. When the snow had melted on the latter, I did not cover 
the seed with a little sandy earth as I had done with the others, but waited 
till the germ had fau-ly made its appearance, when I put the sand on ; and, 
from the success of both, I consider the practice is established as generally 
useful. When newly fallen snow is not to be had, that which is frozen in 
ice-cellars, and easily preserved till the month of Jnne, will do equally well." 
(Gard. Mag. for ISil, p. .303.) 

572, The discoveries daily making in chemical science^ promise to throw 
much light on the germination of seeds; but as they do not seem to be 
matured, and as much is expected from Liebig's edition of Turners 
Chemistry^ not yet published, we have deferred giving an epitome of the 
new doctrines on the subject of germination, till the preparation of our 
Appendix. 

§ 2. — On Propagation hy Cuttings. 
578. A cutting is a portion of a shoot containing either leaf-buds, or leaves 
in the axils of which buds may be produced. It must at least be of suffi- 
cient length to have two buds or two joints — one at the lower extremity to 
produce roots, and another at the upper end to produce a shoot. A portion 
of a stem with only one bud is not considered a cutting, but is techni- 
cally an eye or joint. Though propagation by cuttings is the most 
general of any of the artificial modes, yet it is not applicable to stem- 
less plants, such as the Primula family, nor to the greater number of 
monocotyledons, which are chiefly bulbous plants, without leafy stems. It 
is applicable, however, to all woody plants, and to all herbaceous plants 
which send up stems bearing leaves ; and it is the principal mode of propa- 
gation employed with woody plants kept in pots under glass. It is almost 
unnecessary to state that the cause of success is to be found in the analogy 
between a cutting and a seed ; the bud being the embryo plant, and the 
alburnum of the cutting containing the nutriment which is to support the 
development of the bud, till it has formed roots sufficient to absorb nutri- 
ment from the soil. The roots formed by the cuttings are protruded from 
the section at its lower extremity, and are, in fact, a continuation of the 
albumous process, which, had the cutting not been separated from the plant^ 
would have been employed in adding to its young w^ood and inner bark. 
Every cutting must either contain a stock of alimentary matter in its albur- 
num, as in the case of cuttings of ripened wood without leaves, or it must 
contain healthy leaves, capable of elaborating alimentary matter from the 
moisture absorbed from the soil joined to the alburnous matter already in the 
cutting. All cuttings may be divided into two kinds : those made and planted 
when the plant is without its leaves, as in the case of the common gooseberry 
or the willow ; and those made of shoots with the leaves on, as in the case of 
all evergreens and of many greenhouse plants, such as the geranium, the 
fuchsia, heaths, &:c. In both cases the cutting, after being planted, is excited 
by heat, and supported by the moisture absorbed from the soil. In the case of 
the leafless cutting the buds are swelled, and in proportion as they develop 



250 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



their leaves, roots are protruded from the lower end of the cutting, just as the 
radicle is protruded from a seed ; while the moisture absorbed by the cuttings 
with the leaves on enables the leaves to continue performing their functions 
and ultimately to send down organisable matter to the lower end of the cut- 
ting, which sooner or later protrudes from it in the form of roots. In the pro- 
gress of this process, the organizable matter in many species first appears as 
a callosity on the lower end of the cutting, sometimes covering only that 
portion of it from which the roots are protruded, viz., between, the bark and 
the wood, as is often seen in the cuttings of roses and gooseberries, and some- 
times covering the entire section, as m cuttings of geraniums and fuchsias. 
Though by theory all leafy- stemmed plants may be propagated by cut - 
tings, yet in practice this is found very difficult to effect with some species, 
and with a few that mode of propagation has never yet been accomplished; but 
this applies to so very few, that the exception hardly merits notice. Indeed 
such is the rapidly increasing skill in gardeners, that in a very short time 
there will probably be no exceptions whatever. The German gardeners 
have lately rooted cuttings in charcoal which could never be rooted before 
by any means. — {See Gard. Mag. for 1841.) 

574. Selecting plants from which the cuttings are to he taken, — Every plant 
from which cuttings are taken ought to be healthy, because in a diseased 
state the cutting cannot perform the functions necessary to produce roots ; 
and besides, excepting in the case of variegated plants and a few others, it is 
not desirable to propagate disease. It is found from experience, that cut- 
tings taken from the lower branches of plants which are near the soil, root 
more readily than such as are near the summit of the plant and are sur- 
rounded by drier air ; doubtless because the tissue of the wood which con- 
tains the nutriment is in a more concentrated and hardened state in the 
latter case than in the former. Hence the practice of putting plants which 
are difficult to strike into a warm moist atmosphere, and keeping them there 
till they have produced shoots sufficiently soft in texture to ensure their 
rooting. Hence cuttings of evergreens, such as the holly and laurel, strike 
more readily after a wet season than after a dry one, and better in the Irish 
nurseries than in those of England or France. Hence also the practice of 
nurserymen of forcing plants in pots for a few weeks before cuttmgs are 
taken off, in order to get young growing wood, or placing green-house plants 
in the open air during summer, in order to get succulent wood. The 
latter practice is sometimes used in the case of heaths, and the former in 
the case of the finer sorts of Chma roses, dahlias, and a great many green- 
house plants. On the same principle is founded the growing of plants 
from which nurserymen intend to propagate, in pits to which very little 
fresh air is given, and which are kept perpetually moist, so that all the 
wood produced, whether by the top or side branches, is equally soft and fit 
for making cuttings. Perhaps the most successful propagator of house 
plants by cuttings in Britain is Mr. Cunningham, of the Comely Bank 
Nursery, Edinburgh, and his success is principally owing to his growing the 
plants, from which the cuttings are to be taken, in a close, moist, warm 
atmosphere. Mr. Cunningham's plant-structures have in general no front 
glass, and indeed for the most part may be considered as pits ; many of 
them, however, on a very large scale. The closeness, it is obvious, is pro- 
duced by giving ver}^ little air at any time, and none except when the tem- 
perature is raised to an extraordinary degree by sun heat. The moisture is 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



251 



produced by watering every part of the house ; and it is so great that the 
surface of the walls, of the stone shelves, and of the pots, is everywhere 
covered with lichens, mosses, hepaticse (such as marchantia), and even 
fungi. I'he warmth, it is needless to state, is produced by hot-water pipes 
or flues, and by the sun ; and it is carried to a considerable degree further 
than is ever done in growing plants for any other purpose than propagation. 
In short, every plant in Mr. Cunningham's propagating-houses enjoys the 
same close, still, moist, warm, unchanging atmosphere, which it would do if 
placed under a bell-glass. The more rare plants which are to be propagated 
are planted in a bed of sandy peat and leaf-mould, or of some such soil, 
where they are found to grow much more freely than in pots, and speedily 
to produce shoots, which are taken off in a young and tender state, and 
struck in sand. Various modes are adopted to induce the plants which are 
to be propagated from, to protrude young shoots, such as when they have 
small leaves, like heaths, &c., by bending down, twisting them, &c. ; and 
in the case of plants having larger leaves, such as the Statice arborea, or 
some of the more rare fuchsias, by cutting a notch in the stem above every 
bud, and inserting a wooden wedge in the notch to keep it open, in conse- 
quence of which the ascending sap being checked, every bud protrudes a 
shoot, which is taken off in a tender state, with or without the base of old 
wood from which it sprang, according to circumstances. In some cases the 
shoot is taken off, and the base left to produce other shoots from the latent 
buds ; in other cases, the shoot and its base are taken off together, and occa- 
sionally, before taking off the shoot and its base, a notch is made below the 
bud as well as above it, and the lower notch as well as the upper one is kept 
open by a wedge, till a callosity is formed on the upper edges of the lower 
notch, from which roots are very readily protruded, after the cutting (with 
its base attached) has been taken off and planted in sand. A stranger, in 
passing through Mr. Cunningham's propagating-houses, is at first oppressed 
with the excessive moisture of the atmosphere, and wonders that none of the 
plants damp off ; but this seems to be prevented by the high temperature. 

575. Selecting the shoot. — The wood of the present or of the past year is 
almost invariably chosen for cuttings. In the case of plants which are not 
difficult to strike, a portion of the young shoot is cut off at any convenient 
distance from the branch from which it proceeded, and of such a length as 
may be considered most convenient for forming a plant. Thus in the case 
of willows, gooseberries, currants, &c., from nine to eighteen inches is consi- 
dered a suitable length ; and the points of the shoots of these and other 
kinds of easily rooting plants are cut off, as not being sufficiently ripened 
to have strong buds, or as containing too many small buds. In plants some- 
what difficult to strike, lateral shoots are chosen, and these are often drawn 
or " slipped " out of the wood, so as to carry with them the axillary forma- 
tion of the bud and the vessels of the leaf. This is the only w^ay in which 
shoots covered with a woolly tissue, such as several gnaphaliums and heli- 
chrysums, can be made to root. This method is also very successful with 
plants that are difficult to root, and that have leaves surrounded with 
prickles, such as Mutism ilicifolia, Berkleya grandiflora, Logani« floribunda, 
latifolia, &c.; also with those the leaves of which have stalks with very strong 
veins, or their circumference is very strongly defined, stieh as Banksm grandis, 
Berkleya ciliaris, the different species of Daviesia, Chorozema ovata, &c.; 
or those that have whiged stems, such as Acacia alata. The reason of the 



252 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



success is, that the heel being formed by the first growth of the lateral, con- 
sists of wood more or less ripened ; and consequently, when it is planted, 
it is less likely to be damped off by the moisture of the soil than younger 
wood. When the heel is too ripe, the cutting will not strike. 

576. Shoots which have formed blossom buds ought in general to be avoided ; 
because it frequently happens that all the assimilated nourishing matter has 
been laid up for their future support, and no root formation can take 
place. Many plants that have flower-buds at the points are, therefore, very 
difficult to propagate by cuttings ; such as Blairm ericoides ; whereas, with 
some others, it has very little influence, as jEJrica tenella, and several species 
of Phj^lica. 

577. As general rules^ it may be stated that cuttings made of the ripened 
wood of deciduous plants that have a large pith, succeed best when taken 
off^ with a portion of the preceding year s wood ; such as the gooseberry, 
currant, vine, fig, honeysuckle, elder, hydrangea, spiraea, syrfnga, philadel- 
phus, &;c. Cuttings of hard wooded plants difficult to strike, such as Erica, 
Epacris, Burtonm, are best made from points of the shoots cut off where 
the wood is beginning to ripen, as in E'rica pmguis, aristata, ferruginea, 
HartnelK, CQxmihoides^ empetrifolia, picta, Za5?'culata, vernix, &c. ; or 
from lateral shoots made from wood of the same year, as in almost all the 
more easily growing species of £'rica, left; such are j^^rica margari- 
tacea, rubens, ramentacea, mucosa, tenera, tenella, scabriuscula, Persoluta, 
pellucida, and all those of a similar growth. Cuttings of soft wooded 
plants, or of plants with woolly bark, such as Manulea, Mutisia, Gnaphalium, 
&c., are best made of lateral shoots beginning to ripen at the lower 
end, and drawn out from the main shoot with a heel. Cuttings of soft 
stemmed plants which are easily rooted, such as Dahlm, Petunia, Geranium, 
&;c. may be cut off from any growing shoots where the tissue is somewhat 
firm, but moderately strong shoots will be found the best. 

578. The time of taking off cuttings depends much on the nature of the 
plant to be propagated. In the case of hardy deciduous trees and shrubs, 
such as the gooseberry, poplar, &c., any period between the falling of the 
leaf in autumn, and the swelling of the buds in spring, will answer ; but 
the autumn is preferable, because more time is given for the cutting to 
accommodate itself to its new situation and circumstances before the growing 
season. This it does by cicatrising the wounded section, and thus prevent- 
ing it from absorbing moisture in excess when the growing season com- 
mences. If the cutting be not taken off till spring, the buds on it will have 
been supplied with moisture from the roots, and the sudden cutting off of 
this supply will materially check the growth of the buds. Cutting of 
hardy evergreens not difficult to strike, such as those of the box, laurel, 
tScc, may be taken off in the ripened wood in the autumn rather than in 
spring, for the same reason as given in the case of deciduous cuttings of 
ripened wood. Cuttings of house plants, whether deciduous or evergreen, 
such as Fuchsia, Aloysia, Camellia, &c., may be taken off at whatever 
season the wood ripens. Cuttings which are taken off in a growing state, 
or when the plants have nearly completed their growth, such as those of 
heaths, diosmas, epacrises, &c., and indeed the greater number of house 
shrubs, must necessarily be taken off when the plants are in a growing state, 
which is generally in spring or in the beginning of summer, or if not in a 
growing state naturally at that season, they can be rendered so by a slight 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



253 



degree of forcing. The advantage of taking off cuttings in spring is, that 
they can be well rooted before winter, and that as the days are then lengthen- 
ing, and the solar heat increasing, less artificial heat is required ; whereas when 
cuttings of growing shoots are made in autumn, artificial heat, or at least 
protection from frost, is required during winter, and the want of light and 
the presence of damp at that season often occasions their death. 

579. Preparation of the cutting. Before the cutting is taken from the 
plant, the propagator should determine in his mind the length which will be 
most suitable. In the case of fruit shrubs, such as the gooseberry, a long 
cutting is desirable in order that the bush may be raised from the ground, so 
that its fruit may be kept clean ; but in the case of shrubs which are allowed 
to form suckers, as the honeysuckle, or of trees which are to be formed by 
training up a single stem from the cutting, as the poplar, the length is of 
less consequence ; though the larger the cutting is the greater the quantity 
of nourishment which it contains for the buds. The length of cuttings made 
with the leaves on depends partly on the number of leaves which the 
cutting will support, and partly on the proportion of firm wood which is 
required on the lower end of the cutting, which varies in different plants, 
and can only be ascertained by experience. Jn the case of some cuttings 
which are difficult to strike, such as those of the orange tribe and the 
camellia, the cutting is made of such a length as that its lower extremity 
may touch the bottom of the pot, or of a sandstone placed there, or even 
a mass of sand. The use of the contact with the pot does not appear to be 
altogether understood, though it is probable from the fibres of plants always 
clinging to porous stones within their reach, that the pores may contain 
aqueous or gaseous matter in a state more acceptable to the spongioles than 
common soil. 

580. The number of leaves which are left upon the cutting, " The number 
of leaves which are left upon the cutting has much to do with the success 
of the propagator. When we take a cutting from its parent tree, we 
deprive it of the supply of nourishment which it formerly received ; but 
notwithstanding this, its leaves, being still acted upon by the atmosphere, give 
out the moisture which they contain, and have drawn from the vessels of 
the plant which supplied them before the separation took place. If we 
could by artificial means still supply the leaves with this nourishment, the 
best plan would be to leave the whole of them on the cuttings, to 
elaborate sap, and send down roots for their more complete support. 
But we cannot do this, and therefore we must only allow as many 
leaves to remain upon the cutting, as we can supply with nourishment. 
Any one may convince himself of the truth of these remarks by the 
following simple experiment : — Take such a plant as Petunm violacea for 
example ; make one pot of cuttings from it nine inches long, and let all the 
leaves remain upon them ; make another set three inches, and allow only 
three or four of the top leaves to remain ; water both pots well, and place 
them side by side in a, damp frame. The difference will soon be apparent — 
those cuttings with all the leaves left on them will soon flag, while the 
others will scarcely be affected, and will go on performing their functions. 
This wiU be particularly apparent if the cuttings, from carelessness, 
or any other cause, are neglected. (i?. F. in Gard. Chron. for 1841, 
p. 467.) The cuttings of Cape Heaths and such like plants, observes the same 

s 



254 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



intelligent gardener, are generally made quite short, not exceeding one inch, 
one inch and half, or two inches in length ; in order that the whole of the 
leaves which are left on may be supplied with food, and have their energies 
brought into action. The lower leaves of a cutting, when they can be kept 
on, have more influence on the formation of roots than the upper ones, 
because they expose a larger surface to the action of light ; and hence, when 
from their long petioles, or any other cause, they are not likely to rot, they 
should always be kept on. The leaves which are small and closely set, 
such as those of Erica, Brunia, &c., when covered with soil, soon begin to 
rot, and endanger the cutting, and they ought therefore to be taken oflF. 
This ought always to be done with a very sharp-pointed pair of scissors, and 
the greatest possible care should be taken not to lacerate the bark by the 
operation, or to bruise the end of the cutting in cutting it across with a knife. 
The cuttings of Pelargoniums, on the other hand, may be of any length and 
covered with leaves ; but short cuttings make the handsomest plants. 

581. In taking off a cutting^ regard should be had to the healing of the 
section left on the plant, and therefore the cut ought to be made upwards 
or outwards, so as to leave a smooth unfractured section that will speedily 
heal over. The lower end of the shoot taken off in this case will be 
more or less fractured, and must therefore be cut a second time. The 
cut on the lower end of the cutting should be made with a very sharp 
knife, so as not to crush in any degree the vessels of the shoot, and thereby 
prevent them from cicatrizing, and forming a callosity. The cut should 
not be made through the joint, because the roots seldom proceed from 
the joint itself, but rather from its base, 
beneath the point of insertion of the pe- 
tiole of the leaf. Shoots that have oppo- 
site leaves should be taken off by cutting 
across at a right angle with the direc- 
tion of the shoot, either immediately 
under the base of the petiole, or where 
its combined vessels distinctly reach 
the stem. Shoots that have alternate 
leaves should have the knife inserted 
on the opposite side of the bud, under 
the node, and the cut should be per- 
formed in a slanting upward direc- 
tion from the base, or under that of 
the point of the insertion of the leaf, 
so as to convey away its combined vessels 
in as perfect a state as possible, which 
producesthe same effect as when a lateral 
shoot is torn off and then cut clean. 
This practice is found very successful 
with many cuttings, such as those of 
camellias, banksias, and similar plants. 
The lower ends of stout cuttings of 
plants somewhat difficult to strike, such 
as the Orange, are sometimes cut direct ^»^- '66. Prepared cutting of a shaddock. 
across, so as to rest on the bottom of the pot, and sometimes they are in 




ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



255 



addition split up for an inch or two, and the wound kept open with a wedge. 
This has been found by long experience greatly to facilitate the rooting of 
such cuttings, probably by increasing the surface by which absorption of 
moisture takes place, and at the same time insuring only a moderate supply 
of moisture; and perhaps, creating a greater demand for the action of the 
leaves to cicatrize the wound with granulous matter. See fig. 168, in which 
a cutting of shaddock is not only slit up at the lower end at a, where it is cut 
oflF immediately below a joint, but tongued or cut at the first joint at b. 

582. Treatment of cuttings from the time they are made till they are 
planted. — In general, cuttings are no sooner made than they are inserted in 
the soil where they are to remain till they strike root ; but there are several 
exceptions, as appears by the following extract from M. Kegel, already 
quoted from : — As the crude sap in the cutting is not raised by endosmose, 
but by the process of evaporation, care must be taken that the surface of the 
cut does not become dry before being put in the earth, and air get into the 
lower end of the vessels ; for, as soon as this takes place, only very strong 
shoots are capable of drawing up moisture, as has been proved by the ex- 
periments of various philosophers. The cuttings should therefore be stuck 
in wet sand, if they cannot immediately be put where they are intended to 
remain, although it were better to avoid this. If, however, they are such 
as ought to lie a day or two, in order to insure success, such as some 
banksias, acacias, &c., it ought to be in a damp place ; and the precaution 
must be taken, if possible, to cut them again before planting. If cuttings 
of Dryandro, some banksias (B. integrifolia, B. Baueri, B. media, B. 
Caleyi, &c.), most of the long-leaved acacias {A. longissima, A. pendula. A, 
brevifolia, A. glaucescens, A. longifolia, A. micracantha, &c.), and some 
sorts of Diosma (D. dioica, formosa, and umbellata), be stuck in the earth 
immediately after being taken from the parent plant, the inner bark will 
become black in from fourteen days to four weeks, and the cutting will 
perish. — This phenomenon appears to be in close connexion with the form 
of the leaves of these plants, as those of the acacias have very small stomata, 
while those of the dryandras have none at all. In their stead, on the under 
side of the leaves of the latter plants are small dimples, lined with short 
hairs, which the diosmas also possess. Now, as the crude nourishing matter 
is drawn up through the open wood in its existing state, and received by 
the cutting, while the spongioles of the roots only imbibe it in a very 
thin solution, it appears that the above-named plants, on account of the 
peculiar formation of their leaves, cannot elaborate in any great quantity this 
gross nourishing matter ; and hence arise stagnation of the juices, and 
the before-mentioned appearances. The good effect of leaving these cut- 
tings lying, and thus interrupting the growing process, appears to be the 
prevention of the superabundant rise of the crude nourishing matter ; and this 
is the more probable, as it is usual, for the same purpose, to rub over the 
section with a piece of clay. 

583. Cuttings of succulent, or fleshy, plants must also lie for a time before 
planting, and on no account in a moist atmosphere, that the surface of the 
cut may be sufficiently dried. They retain so many watery particles in 
their cellular tissue, that, when this is neglected, the face of the cut soon 
rots. The species of the families Melocactus, Echinocactus, Mammillaria, 
Opuntia, Cereus, &c,, have an extremely thick bark, and a fine epidermis, 
with very few stomata ; on which account the process of evaporation is so 

s2 



256 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



slow, that they remain alive for a long time without receiving external 
nourishment. The dried cuttings of these plants, therefore, are generally- 
planted in dry earth, and set in a bed or house filled with warm air, and are 
not watered till they have formed roots from the nourishing matter accu- 
mulated in themselves. The roots can scarcely ever penetrate the thick 
bark, and are produced on the section between the wood and the bark. In 
some of the Opuntia and Cereus species, however, they come out of the bark 
at the side. The other succulent and fleshy plants, such as the ^'loe, 
Haworthia, iS'empervivum, Mesembryanthemum, Crassula, Plumieria, and 
its congeners, as well as all the Cacti, which form side roots, may be watered 
as soon as they are planted. Lastly, plants with milky juice require 
similar treatment, as they are equally liable to damp off. — As soon as a part 
of one of these plants is cut off, the milky juice exudes in great quantities, 
covers the whole surface of the cut, and hardens like caoutchouc, by which 
the vessels are all stopped up, and the ascension of the moisture prevented. 
In the Munich garden, cuttings of .Ficus, and the dry roots of -Euphorbio, 
are put in water, where they remain twenty-four hours before they are 
planted in the earth. The same end is also attained when they are put in 
dry sand immediately after being cut, and afterwards the sand and the milky 
juice cleared away ; but the succulent and very milky euphorbias must 
lie for some time." — Garten Zeitung, May 23rd, 1840. 

584. The soil in which cuttings are planted depends on the greater or less 
facility with which they emit roots. Cuttings of hardy trees and shrubs 
that root easily, are planted in common garden soil ; those that are somewhat 
difficult, in sand or sandy loam on a base of garden soil ; and those which 
are most difficult in sand covered with a hand-glass. Cuttings of house 
plants are almost always planted in pots or boxes well drained, and the 
drainage covered, first, with a la^'^er of good soil, or leaf mould, or peat, ac- 
cording to the soil which the plants to be propagated naturally prefer ; next 

with a stratum of sand, in 
which the cuttings are 
planted. The sand retains 
as much moisture as is ne- 
cessary for the existence of 
F,g. 167. A cutting of a Cape ^^e Cutting, and uo morc, so 

Heath,preparedandvlanted; the^dX itS loWCr end is UOt 

dotted line in this and the follow- lively to rot : and the Stratum 

ing figures of cuttings, represent- n „ *.i i ,i ^ Fig. 168. A cutting of an 

ing the surface of the soil in the oi SOll beloW the Saud SUp- prepared and 

pot. plies nourishment to the planted. 

roots as soon as they penetrate through the sand. The cuttings of Cape 
Heaths, and almost all plants whatever which are difficult to root, are 
planted in sand, which is quite free from soil, metallic oxides or salts, and 
of a pure white colour. 

585. The depth to which cuttings are planted varies according to the length 
and thickness of the cutting, but in general it should not be more than six or 
eight inches. On taking up large cuttings, or truncheons of willow or 
poplar which have been inserted in the ground in order to grow, it will be 
found that all the roots they have made are within little more than a foot of 
the surface, and that none have been produced from their lower ends ; more 
especially if the soil in which they stand should be compact and moist. The 
same thing will be found to take place with gooseberry cuttings, and those of 




ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



257 




common trees and shrubs, which have been planted more than nine inches 
or ten inches in depth. This is quite analogous to what takes place with seeds ; 
when buried below a certain depth there is no sufficiency of either heat or air to 
cause them to germinate ; and the same want of heat and air, 
and probably excess of moisture, prevents roots from being 
emitted from the lower ends of cuttings when inserted in the 
soil to a much greater depth than that at which seeds would 
vegetate. Hence all delicate cuttings, such as those of heaths, 
diosmas, acacias (fig.l 69), epacrises, &c., succeed best when not 
planted in sand more than from half an inchto an inch in depth. 
Some heaths root best when the cuttmgs are not above three 
quartei-s of an inch in length, with not more than a third of 
that length in the soil. 

586. In planting cuttings it is of importance to make them 
quite firm at their lower ends, by pressing the sand or soil to 
them with the dibber used in planting them ; or in the case of 
large cuttings, such as those of common laurel, which are 
planted in trenches, by pressure with the foot. In the case 
of Cape Heaths and such like cuttings planted in sand, the ^.^ ^ 
dibber or pricker, which need not be larger than a knitting ting o} the young 
needle, is taken in the right hand, while the cutting is held in ^"od v/Acdein 
the left, and the hole being made the cutting is inserted, ^l^'pfaZ.^"^ 
nearly as deep as the leaves have been clipped off, and the 

pricker is again applied to close the sand round it, as closely and compactly 
as possible, without bruising the cutting. Large cuttings are planted pre- 
cisely in the same manner, but with a larger dibber. Large cuttings of kinds 
which are somewhat difficult to strike, when not planted in pure sand, are 
made to touch and press against the bottom or sides of the pot, which is 
found to facilitate their rooting — probably on the principle already men- 
tioned (581). 

587. The distance at which cuttings are planted varies according to the size 
of the cutting, its leaves (either on the cutting, or to be produced from its 
buds), the season of the year, the length of time they require to root, and 
other circumstances. The object is to root as many cuttings as practicable 
in a limited space, and consequently to plant them as close together as can 
be done without incurring the risk of rotting or damping them off. Keeping 
these objects in view, it is obvious that cuttings which strike in a short time 
during spring or summer may be planted closer than those which require a 
longer period, or are put in in autumn or winter; and that short cuttings, 
such as those of heaths, may always be placed closer together than long 
cuttings. All cuttings whatever that are planted with the leaves on, require 
to be immediately well watered, in order to settle the soil about them ; and 
all those that are in a growing succulent state, and are at all difficult to 
strike, should be immediately covered with a hand- glass or bell-glass ; for, 
though the cutting receives as much moisture through the face of the cut as 
it loses in ordinary circumstances by evaporation, yet no sooner is it placed 
in very dry air or in a draught, or exposed to the sun's rays, than a dispro- 
portion takes place between the demand and supply. When this is the 
case, more watery particles are lost through evaporation, than are raised in 
the body of the wood, which is very easily perceived in large soft leaved 
cuttings. On this account plant structures are required, in which the outer . 



258 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



air can be excluded, a moist temperature maintained, and in very warm 
sunshine a dense shade can be given. Even in these houses, bell-glasses 
should be placed over the more difficult cuttings, to protect them from 
all such external influences as might destroy them before they have made 
their roots. 

588. After treatment of cuttings. — The hardiest sorts in the open garden, 
such as gooseberries, &c., require no particular treatment whatever, and 
need not even be placed in a shady situation ; but those which root less 
freely, such as box, holly, juniper, &c., succeed best when planted in a shady 
border, in a sandy soil. Cuttings planted in pots or boxes require to be 
placed not only in a shady situation, but for the most part under glass, in 
order to diminish evaporation from the soil as well as from the cuttings. 
All the more delicate sorts of cuttings, such as heaths and most house plants, 
require to be covered with a bell-glass, and shaded during bright sunshine. 
In close moist warm atmospheres, such as that maintamed in the propagating 
pits of some nurserymen (see 574), most kinds of cuttings will strike with- 
out bell-glasses over them ; but in general, these glasses are requisite, in 
order to maintain a steady moist atmosphere. All cuttings with the leaves 
on require to be looked over frequently, supplied with water when it is 
wanting, and such leaves as decay taken off, as well as any dead or dying 
cuttings removed. 

589. TJie most proper form of bell-glass for covering cuttings is that which 
gradually tapers from the base to the top ; as from glasses of this shape the 
moisture, which adheres to the inside in the form of drops, runs gradually 
off, without the dropping so injurious to cuttings. This disadvantage is 
found in all other forms more or less ; such as those that are round at the 
top, or cylindrical with the top bluntly truncated. The enclosed air under 
the glasses will soon lose its oxygen through the respiring process of the 
plants within, and also be vitiated by other exhalations ; and, if it is not 
changed, it generates mouldiness, and the cuttings lose their fresh appear- 
ance. For this reason the glasses, if possible, should be daily ventilated and 
wiped ; or, what is still better, as it will entirely renew the air, dipped in 
a vessel of cold water, and well shaken before being put on again, so that 
too many drops of water may not remain on the glass. In an extensive 
establishment this operation requires too much time, and therefore round 
holes, of about from ^ in. to j in. in diameter, should be made in the tops 
of the glasses ; and these will prove very serviceable, if the pans stand on 
hotbeds or other heated surfaces. In small gardens, where the cuttings are 
placed with other plants on the bed or shelf close under the front glass, 
bell-glasses, without holes, would be preferable. When the ground is 
warmed to about 55° Fah., it is better, with some few exceptions, such as 
the iaurus species, to place the glasses inside of the pots, so that the tem- 
perature within may not rise too high ; but when the warmth is not so 
great, they may, without injxiry, be placed on the outside of the edge of the 
pot. 

590. Watering cuttings is an operation requiring great care and judgment. 
The object is, to maintain as uniform a degree of moisture in the soil as 
possible, without occasioning mouldiness on its surface or rotting the leaves. 
Hence, the water is in some cases poured on the soil in such a manner as not 
to touch the leaves of the cuttings, and in others a reservoir of water is 
formed by placing a small pot in the centre of a larger one, the water being 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



259 



left to ooze slowly through the porous sides of the pot, as shown in fig. 170, 
in which a, d, is a No. 60 pot, with the bottom 
closed up with clay, put into one of larger 
size ; &, the drainage in the larger pot ; c, the 
sand or soil in which the cuttings are inserted; 
and (/, the water in the inner pot, which is 
prevented from escaping through its bottom 
by the clay stopping at a. Mr. Forsyth, the 
inventor of this mode of striking cuttings, 
proposes it to be used with hardy plants, such 
as pinks and waU-flowers, under hand-glasses 
or frames, in the open air, as weU as for all 
manner of house-plants. The advantages, 
he says, are the regularity of the supply of 
moisture, without any chance of saturation ; 




170: 



Forsyth's mode of striking 
cuttings. 

the power of examining the state of the cuttings at any time without 
injuring them, by lifting out the inner pot; the superior drainage, so 
essential in propagating, by having such a thin layer of soil ; the roots 
being placed so near the sides of both pots ; and the facility with which 
the plants, when rooted, can be parted for potting olF, by taking out the iimer 
pot, and with a knife cutting out every plant with its ball, without the 
awkward but often necessary process of turning the pot upside down to get out 
the cuttings. A common mode of supplying water, when the bell-glass is 
placed within the rim of the pot, is to pour on the water between the glass 
and the rim. However, where there is a sufficiency of heat, and the pots are 
properly drained, no harm results from watering over the tops of the cuttings, 
as the heat soon evaporates the water that falls over the leaves. No water 
but rain-water should ever be used, either for seeds or young cuttings. 
591. The temperature most suitable for cuttings may reasonably be 

expected to be that which 
is most suitable for the 
parent plants, when in 
the same state as to growth 
as the cutting. Hence, 
for aU hardy plants the 
temperature of the open 
air will generally be found 
sufficient, though when 
they begin to grow a some- 
what higher temperature 
than what is natural to 
them will be advantage- 
ous. This, however, will 
be of no use, but rather 
injurious, when cuttings 
are planted without leaves, 
or when evergreens with 
ripened wood are put in ; 
for a certain time is re- 
quired for every cutting 
a general rule for the tern- 




Fig. 171. A cutting of Rosa semperjlorens prepared a7id planted. 

to accommodate itself to its new situation. As 



260 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



perature at which cuttmgs should be kept, that m which the respective 
plants from which the cuttings are taken are found to produce shoots of 
freest growth, is doubtless the best. The bottom heat should nearly equal, 
but not exceed, that of the atmosphere. If the shoot has, however, been 
much excited into growth by heat, in order to obtain the cutting (574), the 
latter must have that heat kept up in its new situation, otherwise its 
vegetation will be checked. For cuttings of all the difficult-rooting 
greenhouse plants, the best heat for the soil is from 53° to 60° Fah. ; for 
those of hothouse plants from 60° to 68° Fah., which should be as regular 
as possible. This regularity is of great moment to insure the success of the 
cuttings ; for if they are kept at a cooler temperature the greater part of 
them form a callosity, but, for want of the necessary heat to assimilate the 
deposited nourishing matter, do not form roots. The callosity continues to 
grow in many species, such as Quercus, Hakea, and Proteo, and often 
becomes of so considerable a size, that it not only covers the face of the cut 
with a thick layer, but also penetrates between the wood and the bark. 
When this is the case, and the callus is not cut away, no roots are made, 
and the cutting often remains several years without dying. Where the 
propagation of house-plants by cuttings is carried on extensively, a pit or 
house should be formed on purpose, in which there should be a bed of 
gently fermenting matter, such as tan or leaves, or, what will in general be 
found preferable, of sand, or coarsely-powdered charcoal, heated by the 
vapour of hot water from below. Where dung beds are employed, great 
care is necessary to prevent the exhalations rising from the dung to contami- 
nate the air of the bed, which would destroy most cuttings. In general, 
all cuttings whatever ought to be kept in what may be called the winter 
temperature of the plant, for some time after they are planted, and only put 
into their spring temperature when they have formed a callosity, and are 
ready to grow. The cool period for cuttings put in without leaves, or with 
leaves, but with ripened wood, will, of course, be much longer than those 
put in with leaves, and in a growing state, such as geraniums, petunias, 
dahlias, and even heaths. 

Cuttings of the plants in common cultivation in British gardens may be 
classed as under : — 

592. Cuttings of hardy deciduous trees and shrubs, such as the gooseberry, 
currant, willow, poplar, &c., are easily rooted in the open garden, and the 
same may be said of the vine and fig. As it is desirable that the gooseberry 
and currant should not throw up suckers, and should have a clean stem, all 
the buds are cut clean out, except three, or at most four, at the upper end 
of the cutting. The cuttings are planted erect, about six inches deep, and 
made quite firm by the dibber at their lower extremity. Cuttings of honey- 
suckles, syringas, ampelopsis, art^mism, atragene, atriplex, baccharis, ber- 
chemfa, bignonfa, calycanthus, ceandthus, chenopodum, clematis, China 
roses, fig. 171, and the like, are rather more difficult to root, and succeed 
best in a shady border and a sandy soil. 

593. Cuttings of hardy evergreens, such as the common laurel, Portugal 
laurel, laurustinus, arbor vitse, evergreen privet, and a few others, may be 
rooted in common soil in the open garden ; being put in in autumn, and 
remaming there a year. Cuttings of 6upleureum, &uxus, yuniperus, rhamnus, 
holly, sweet bay, aucuba, &c., requu'c a shady border and a sandy soil. 
They are put in in autumn, of ripened wood; but young wood of these and 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



261 



all the kinds mentioned in this and the preceding paragi*aph will root freely, 
if taken off in the beginning of summer, when the lower end of the cutting 
is beginning to ripen, and planted in sand, and covered with a hand-glass» 

594:. Cuttings of all the Coniferoe and Taocdcew may be taken off when the 
lower end of the cutting is beginning to ripen, and planted in sand, with a 
layer of leaf mould beneath, in pots well drained, in the month of August 
or September, and kept in a cold frame, from which the frost is completely 
excluded, till the growing season in spring, when they may be put info a 
gentle heat. It is not in general necessary to cover these cuttings with bell- 
glasses. Taxodium is an exception, as it roots best in water. 

595. Cuttings of hardy or half-hardy herbaceous plants, such as pinks, 
carnations, sweet-williams, wall -flowers, stocks, dahlias, petunias, verbenas, 
rockets, and in general all herbaceous plants that have stems bearing leaves, 
I'oot readily in sand under a hand-glass, placed in a shady border, or in a 
gentle heat, if greater expedition is required. All the cuttings must be cut 
through close under a joint, or in the case of pinks, carnations, or sweet- 
williams, the operation of piping may be performed. 

59G. Piping can only be performed with plants having tubular stems, 
and it is only with a few of these that gardeners 
are accustomed to practise it. The operation is 
performed when the plant has flowered, or soon 
afterwards, when it has nearly completed its 
gro\Ni;h for the season. The shoot chosen is held 
firm by the left hand, to prevent the root of the 
plant from being injured, while with the right 
the upper portion of the shoot is pulled asunder, 
one joint above the part held by the left hand. 
A portion of the shoot is thus separated at the 
socket formed by tlie axils of the leaves, and 
the appearance is as in fig. 172. Some propa- 
gators shorten the leaves before planting, but 
others leave them as in the figure. The soil 
in which the pipings are to be planted being 




Fig. 172. 



!. A piping of a pink pre- 
pared and planted. 



rendered very fine, mixed 
with sand and then well wa- 
tered, the pipings are stuck 
in without the use of a dibber 
or pricker, and the operation 
is completed by a second wa- 
tering, which settles and ren- 
ders firm the soil at the lower 
end of the piping. 

597. Cuttings of soft-wooded 
greenhouse plants, such as pe- 
largoniums, fig. 173, fuchsias, 
fig. 174, brugmansias, mau- 
randyas, and all other soft- 
wooded plants, being cut off* 
where the wood is beginning 




Fig. 173. A cutting of the rose-tcenied pelargonium, prepared 
and planted. 



262 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



to ripen, and planted in sand or sandy loam, or sand and peat, root readily, 

with or without a bell or hand- 
glass, in a shady situation, and in a 
greenhouse temperature. Cuttings 
of these and all other soft-wooded 
plants may be divided into one or 
more lengths ; it being only essen- 
tial that there should be two joints, 
one for burying in the soil to emit 
roots, and the other kept above 
the soU. to produce a shoot. The 
cuttings of soft-wooded plants 
which root best, are laterals, which 
are of average strength. 
598. Cuttings of hardwooded green- 
Fig. 174. A cuttin, of a fuchsia prepared andplanted. ^^^^^ pl^nts^SUch^S Camellias,myr- 

tie, evergreen acacias, and most Cape and Aus- 
tralian shrubs with comparatively broad leaves, 
are more difficult to root than soft-wooded 
greenhouse plants. The cuttings are made 
from the points of the shoots, after the spring 
growth has been completed, and before the 
young wood is thoroughly ripened. If put in 
in Febi-uary or March, such cuttings will be 
fit to transplant in July or August. Some- 
times they are put in in autumn, or the 
beginning of winter, in which case they will 
not root till the following spring, and must ^ig.m. a cutting of tf,^ young wood of 

be kept cool till that season. In either case, a camelUa, prepared and planted. 

all the leaves must be kept on, except one, or at most two, on the lower 
end of the cutting, which need not be planted more than an inch in depth, 
and should in general be covered with a bell-glass. 

599. Cuttings of heath-like plants^ such as Erica, E'pacris, Diosma, Brunia, 
&c., are among the most difficult to root. They should be taken from the 
points of the side shoots early in spring, when the plants have nearly ceased 
growing ; not be more than from an inch to two inches in length, and cut 
clean across at a joint, and the leaves clipped or cut off for about half an 
inch upwards from the lower end of the cutting. Thus prepared, they 
should be planted in pure white sand, with a little peat soil as a substratum, 
and the whole well drained. The pot should then be covered with a bell- 
glass, and placed in a frame, or in the front of a greenhouse, and shaded 
during sunshine. See figs. 167 and 168. 

600. Cuttings of succulent plants, such as Cactuses, Cereuses, Euphorbias, 
Mesembryanthemums, Crassulas, Stapelias, and the like, require to lie a 
few days before being planted, in order to dry the wounds; after which they 
may be inserted in pots containing a mixture of peat, sand, and brick rub- 
bish, well drained ; after which the pots may be set on the front shelf of 
a warm greenhouse, and occasionally watered, but shading will be unne- 
cessary. 

601. Cuttings of the underground stems and roots. A great many plants, 
both ligneous and herbaceous, may be propagated by cuttings of the under- 
ground stems, as in the liquorice ; and of the roots, as in the common thornj 





ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



263 



and most of the Rosaceae. The roots should be those of healthy plants, 
rather young than old, and m general from half an inch to one or two 
inches in thickness. They may be cut into lengths of from three to six or 
nine inches, and planted in free soil, with the tops just above the surface. 
Care must be taken that the upper end of the cutting, or that which was 
next the stem before it was separated from the plant, be kept uppermost, 
for if that is not done, the cutting will not grow. This is the case even with 
cuttmgs of the horse-radish and sea-kale ; but if cuttings of the roots of these 
and similar plants are laid down horizontally, and but slightly covered with 
soil, they will protrude buds from what was the upper end before removal, and 
send out roots from the lower end. All roses may be propagated by cut- 
tings, and all fruit-trees which are seedlings, or have been raised by cuttings 
or layers. The Roblnia, Acacia, Gledltschia, Coronilla, Gymnocladus, and 
many other leguminossB ; Ailantus, Catalpa, the balsam Ontario and 
Lombardy poplars, the English elm, the mulberry, the Madura, various 
other ligneous plants, and all plants whatever that throw up suckers, may 
be increased by cuttings of the roots ; as may a great number of herba- 
ceous perennials. The best time of taking them off is when the plants are 
in a dormant state, and all that is required is a clean cut at both ends. 

602. Striking cuttings in water or moist moss. — All marsh plants having 
leafy stems, whether ligneous or herbaceous, will strike root in water, and 
still better in vessels containing moss kept thoroughly moist. Besides 
marsh plants, a gi-eat many others will root in this way, which, indeed, 
seems the most ancient mode of artificial propagation. Cuttings of southern- 
wood have been rooted in phials of water in cottage windows in Scotland 
from time immemorial. Balsams also, and many other plants, may be so 
rooted, but not any plant that is difficult to strike in sand. The chief diffi- 
culty attending this mode of propagation is the transference of the rooted 
cuttings from the water to the soil, which can hardly be done without a 
severe check. The only mode is to saturate the soil thoroughly with water 
before insertuig the plants in it, and to keep it well soaked afterwards till 
the plants have begun to grow. 

608. Striking plants in powdered charcoal. — The use of sifted charcoal 
dust, or, in other words, of charcoal in a state of powder, with the particles 
not much larger than those of common sand, appears to have been first 
adopted for rooting cuttings in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Munich, by 
M. G. Lucas, in 1839. The details at great length will be found in the 
" Gardeners' Magazine" for 1841, translated from the Garten Zeitung. It 
may be sufficient here to state that powdered charcoal is used as a substitute 
for sand, and that it answers best when it has for some months been ex- 
posed to the air and weather ; also that it diffisrs from sand in not only 
facilitating the rooting of cuttings, but in supplying them with nourish- 
ment after they are rooted, and consequently no under stratum of soil 
becomes necessary, as is the case where sand is used. The rationale of this 
practice has been given in the Garten Zeitung, by Dr. Buchner (see Gard. 
Mag., 1841, p. 252), and the following summary is from a work recently 
published in London : — " It is essential to the rapid growth of a plant that 
carbonic acid should be taken up by its roots as well as by its leaves. The 
carbonic acid may be furnished in two ways ; either the soil may absorb it 
from the atmosphere, or the decay in some of the matter contained in it may 
disengage this product. It is a remarkable property, possessed by several 



264 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



porous substances, of absorbing gases, an5 especially carbonic acid gas, to 
the amount of many times their own bulk. Of all these, charcoal is one of 
the most powerful in this respect, and it has been found that many plants 
may be grown in powdered charcoal, if sufficiently supplied with w^ater, 
more luxuriantly than in any other soil. The charcoal itself undergoes no 
change, but it absorbs carbonic acid gas from the air ; this is dissolved by 
the water, which is taken up by the roots, and thus it is introduced into the 
system. In such cases the plant derives its solid matter as completely from 
the atmosphere alone as if its roots were entirely exposed to it, for not a 
particle of the charcoal is dissolved ; and it, therefore, affiDrds no nutriment 
to the plants." ( Vegetable Physiology^ in a Popular Cyc. of Nat. Science^ 
p. 117.) In the Gardeners Magazine lists will be found of cuttings of a 
great many different species which had rooted in charcoal much sooner than 
they usually do in sand or soil ; and from the most recent accounts it appears 
that the practice is still carried on in Germany with success. "We would 
therefore strongly recommend its introduction into British gardens. 

604. Propagation by joints and nodules. This mode of propagation is 
founded on the principle, that every bud, whether visible or adventitious, 
is capable of being made to produce a plant ; and it only differs from pro- 
pagating by cuttings, in the buds or joints being taken off the plant with 
a smaller quantity of nutritive matter attached to them. Plants are also 
propagated by inserting the buds under the bark of other plants ; but this 
mode, which is called budding, wUl form the subject of a separate section. 
As bulbs are only buds, nature may be said to employ this mode of propa- 
gation in the case of some species of bulb-bearing plants, such as JUium 
and Z/ilium, in which the buds frequently drop from the stems on the soil, 
and root into it. All the offsets of bulbs are of course buds, and may be 
employed in propagation ; the nutriment to the young plant being supplied 
from the scales, which eventually elongate into leaves, and the roots pro- 
ceeding from the plate or base to which these scales are attached. The buds, 
with the exception of bulbs, which are taken from the stems, branches, or 
roots of plants, for the purpose of being rooted in the soil, always contain 
a portion of the stem or root, to supply them with nourishment till they 
are able, by the roots they form, to abstract it from the soil. In the case of 
the vine, a joint is commonly taken; but in that of the potato, a single bud, 
with a portion of the underground stem or tuber attached, is found sufficient. 
There are very few plants, besides the vine and the potato, which are at 
present propagated by rooting buds or joints in the soil, though there can 
be no doubt that this mode is applicable to a great number of plants with 
which it has not yet been tried. It is probable, also, that all or many 
of those plants which can be propagated by cuttings of the roots might be 
increased by small portions of these, so short as to be considered more in 
the nature of joints than cuttings. For example, root-cuttings of the 
common thorn and sea-kale are commonly made of several inches in length ; 
and it is known that, if they are laid down lengthwise, and covered with 
an inch of soil, they will produce roots at one end of the cutting and shoots 
at the other. Now, by shortening the cutting to an inch, or half an inch, 
and treating it in the same manner, it is probable the same result would 
take place, though the plants produced might be weaker. It is true this 
would be nothing more than propagating by very short cuttings ; but rooting 
plants from joints may be so designated. The advantage of propagating by 



ON PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



265 



buds or joints is, that a plant is produced from every bud or joint ; whereas, 
in propagating by cuttings, at least two buds, and commonly several, are 
required. The plants raised by buds, on the other hand, are commonly 
weaker than those raised by cuttings, from having a smaller supply of nutri- 
tive matter for their support during their infancy. 

605. A nodule, as we have seen (115), is a concretion of embryo buds, 
such as may be frequently seen in the matter extravasated from the joints 
of pelargoniums and the stumps of old elms and poplars, olives and mul- 
berries, occasioned by the returning sap not flowing freely to the root. 
These nodules are seldom used for the purpose of propagation, except in the 
case of the olive ; but there can be no doubt that they might be employed 
for this purpose, and would answer, were it not that the plants which pro- 
duce them are in general very readily propagated by cuttings. The only 
remarkable instance of propagation by this mode that is on record is prac- 
tised in Italy with, the olive. The old trees are commonly found to con- 
tain swellings or nodules in the trunk, called uovole, and these being sepa- 
rated, are planted in the soil in the manner of bulbs, and produce plants. 
The operation of separating is performed with a sharp pen-knife, and the 
mother plant does not seem to suffer the slightest injury by the operation. 
{Gard. Mag. vol. vii. p, 663.) This no doubt might be practised with the 
nodules of all plants, and we believe it has occasionally been done with those 
of the white poplar, the mulberry, and the pelargonium. 

606. In propagating by joints of the vine it is reasonable to suppose that 
the larger the portion of wood attached to the joint the stronger will be the 
plants produced. Mr. Knight found that the buds of the vine, wholly 
detached from the alburnum, were incapable of retaining life ; but that a 
very few grains of alburnum were sufficient to enable a bud to form minute 
leaves and roots, such as would have been produced by plants raised from 
seeds. By increasing the quantity of alburnum, the shoots produced from 
the buds increased in the same proportion ; and when the bud had a piece 
of two years' old wood, a foot long, attached to it, the growth was nearly as 
strong as it would have been if the bud had remained on the parent tree. 
Joints of the vine are preferred to cuttings for propagation, because they 
form plants more easily managed in pots than are larger cuttings or layers ; 
and they are preferred to layers also, because they are always furnished with 
roots in due proportion to their shoots, whereas plants raised from layers 
have frequently, from not being separated from the parent plant at the 
proper time, very strong shoots and very few ill-ripened roots. In pre- 
paring joints of the vine, about half an inch of the wood is left above and 

below the bud, as in fig. 176 ; but this and all other 

plants that are so propagated are found to root better 

when the shoot is cut through, so as to separate 
about one-third part of the pith, as shown in fig. 177. 
By this latter mode of treatment plants have been 

¥is.m.Ajointofavine^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ half- 

prepared tn the common ^ , ^ _ 

manner, and planted. joiuts of CamelUa, pomsettifl, 

euphorbia, brugmansia, and 
other species. Mr. Murray observes of the lych- 
nis .coronaria, the flower-stem of which has opposite 
leaves, that not only will individual joints strike.but ''t!"' J-rj/I/aT'lt; 
if each joint be split into two vertically, two distinct and pith are removed previous 
plants may be obtained. (Gard. Chr on. for Idil, to planting. 



266 



PROPAGATION BY LEAVES. 



p. 297.) There can be no doubt that a great number of plants, both 
ligneous and herbaceous, may be propagated by joints or half-joints, though 
cultivators have hitherto made comparatively few trials. 

607. Propagation by bulbs, and entire tubers and tubercles, is effected simply 
by separating them from the parent plant, and inserting them in the soil about 
the same depth at which they are found on the parent plant, or a little 
deeper in very light soil, and not quite so deep if in very heavy soil. A phe- 
nomenon, DecandoUe observes, common to all tubers is this : that while in 
the seed the radicle or descending part pushes first, in the tuber, on the 
contrary, the ascending part or plumule is first developed, and the roots 
appear a short time afterwards. The potato and the Jerusalem artichoke 
are often planted by entire tubers, as well as by separating them into eyes 
or sets. The same. may be said of the tubers of the anemone and the 
ranunculus. The tubercles or small tubers of saxifraga granulata, adoxa 
moschatellina, and of many species of oxalis, are propagated by planting the 
tubers entire. The offsets of all bulbs are also planted entire, and, as 
already observed, they may be considered as buds ; though they differ from 
ordinary buds, in which the nutritive matter is laid up in the alburnum of the 
plant, by having it deposited at the base of the leaves or scales of which the 
bulb is composed. 

608. Propagating by bulb-bearing leaves. The leaves of malaxis paludosa 
bear little bulbs at their extremities ; several sorts of allium originate bulbs in 
the axils of the bracts ; and in some ferns, such as asplenium bulMferum, 
and Woodwardm radicans, bulbs are found at the extremities of the leaves, 
which when these touch the soil, grow, throw down roots, and produce 
young plants. Bulbs, or germs analogous to them, are found ui marchantia 
polymorpha, and on many arums and dioscoreas, by all of which the plants 
may be propagated ; takmg care, in difficult cases, to preserve the soil, on 
which the bulbs are placed, uniformly moist, shaded, and at a somewhat 
higher temperature, and the atmosphere, by means of a bell-glass, in a 
greater degree of moisture, than is required for the parent plant. 

§ 3. Propagation by Leaves. 
This mode of propagation is of considerable antiquity, though it has not 
till lately been much practised. It is said by Agricola, {L'Agriculteur Par- 
fait, S^c., ed. 1732) to be the invention of Frederick, a celebrated gardener at 
Augsburg, and to have been first described by Mirandola, in his Manuale di 
Giardinieri, published in 1652. Subsequent experiments by C. Bonnet, of 
Geneva ; Noisette, Thouin, Neuman, and Pepin, of Paris ; Knight, Herbert, 
and others, in England ; and quite recently by Lucas, in Germany, have proved 
that there is no class of plants which might not be propagated by leaves. It has 
been tried with success with cryptogamous plants, with endogens and exogens; 
with the popular divisions of ligneous and herbaceous plants, annuals, bien- 
nials, and perennials, and with the leaves of bulbous plants and palms. 

609. The principle on which the propagation of plants by leaves is founded 
is considered by some as the organisability of the sap of the plant, and by 
others as founded on the universal diffusion through the plant of embryo buds. 
*' That the vital power residing in the latex or blood of the plant," Mr. 
Lymbum observes, " is sufficient to form buds, no one can doubt who has 
observed the matter extravasated at times from the stems of geraniums, 
dahlias, &c., and the stumps of old trees. At first it is only a mass of 
cellular matter, but gradually begins to thicken on the surface, and get of 



PROPAGATION BY LEAVES. 



267 



a red and green colour ; vessels are seen to be produced and buds organised, 
which, if placed in favourable circumstances, will evolve into shoots. I have 
seen the buds literally crow^ded together like bees in a hive. Dr. Carpenter 
says, that the blood of animals, even when altogether separated and spread 
out, has been seen to organise vessels, from the strength of the vital principle." 
This seems also to have been Mr. Knight's opinion. It is, however, of 
less consequence to adopt either theory than to follow a practice which has 
been found successful by cultivators, and which takes place in nature in the 
leaves accidentally broken and left on moist soil of cardamine hirsuta, the 
common water -grass, sedums, and other succulent -leaved plants, and 
probably various others, independently of those which root by the leaves 
in consequence of these producing bulbs, as in the case of Woodwardza 
radicans (608). 

610. The conditions generally required for rooting leaves are, that the leaf 
be nearly full grown ; that it be taken off with the petiole entire ; that the 
petiole be inserted from an eighth to half an inch, according to its length, 
thickness, and texture, in sandy loam, or in pure sand on a stratum of rich soil; 
and that both the soil and the atmosphere be kept uniformly moist, and at 
a higher temperature than is required for rooted plants of the same species. 
The leaves of such succulents as cacalia, crassula, cotyledon, kalankoe, por- 
tulaca, sedum, sempervivum, cactus, and similar plants, root when laid on 
the surface of soil, with the upper side to the light, and the soil and atmo- 
sphere is kept sufficiently close, moist, and warm. The first change that 
takes place is the formation of a callosity at the base of the petiole ; after 
which, at the end of a period, which varies greatly in different plants, roots 
are produced, and eventually, at an equally varying period, a bud from 
which a leafy axis is developed. M. Pepin states that rooted leaves of Hoya 
camosa, and those of several kmds of Aloe, did not produce a bud till after 
the lapse of ten or twelve years. The leaves before they emit roots must 
be slightly shaded to prevent excessive perspiration during sunshine, but 
afterwards they may be fully exposed to the light. 

611. Rooting portions of leaves. It appears that some leaves will throw 
down roots with only a part of the petiole attached, and that others 
will even root from the mid-rib when the leaf is cut through. In 1839, 
M. Neuman, of the Paris Garden, seeing the theophrasta latifolia (Clavija 
omata, D. Don^ growing so well from cuttings of leaves, conceived the 
idea of cutting several of them in two, and treating them in the same 
manner as entire leaves. Accordingly, he cut a leaf in two, and planted 
both parts in the same pot, treating them exactly alike. In about three 
months, the lower half of the leaf (fig. 178) had made roots, but the upper 
half had none ; though, some time afterwards, when it became necessary 
to separate the cuttings, M. Neuman found that the upper part of the 
leaf had also made roots (fig. 179), but that these roots were much shorter 
than those of the lower half. The rooting of the two halves of a leaf of the 
theophrasta, so hard and dry as every one knows these leaves to be, appearing 
to him an interesting circumstance, he continued to pay attention to them for 
six months. He wished to ascertain if they would produce buds as in other 
cases, for he was in hopes they would, as he remarked that the roots increased 
in the pot. At last in the seventh month, for the first time, he saw at the 
extremity of his two half leaves, buds appearing, as well formed as those pro- 
ceeding from the base of the petiole of an entire leaf. In June, 1840, these two 



PROPAGATION BY LEAVES. 





cuttings had become beautiful and healthy plants, which it was impossible to 
distinguish from others produced from entire leaves. 

We see from this experiment that it requires double the time to produce 
a bud from the upper part of a leaf, that it requires for the lower half to 
produce one ; and that, in propagations by leaves, it is not always necessary 
to take the heel or lower end of the petiole with the leaf, which sometimes 
injures and deforms the shoots. M. Neuman's experiment proves further, 
that wherever cambium can be formed, there are at 
the same time a number of utricules or germs of 
buds formed, from which a new plant will be deve- 
loped when the parent is 
placed in favourable circum- 
stances. From this circum- 
stance, in short, we may 
conclude that all the veins 
may serve for the reproduc- 
tion of plants. The dots in 
fig 179 show the parts of the 
upper half-leaf which were 
cut oflF to allow of its being 
put into a small pot; and 
this proves that it is only the 
Fig. 178. The louder half of the middle rib (or prolongation of 

/e<t/-o/<AeopAra^/a roo/ea and the petiole),which is required Fig. 179. The upper half of 
sending up a shoot. for reproduction. Half leaves i^eop'^rasta rooted and send- 

of various plants have been rooted in charcoal in ° * ' 

Germany (603). 

612. The plants usuaUy raised by leaves in British gardens are comparatively 
few, and chiefly gesneras, gloxinias ; bulb-bearing leaves, such as bryophyl- 
lum; some succulents, such as sempervivum, and a few others. Leaves of the 
orange, the hoya, the aucuba, the camellia, ficus elasticus, the clianthus, the 
common laurel, and a few more, are occasionally rooted, but more as 
matter of curiosity than for the purpose of increase. 

613. Propagation by the leaves of bulbs has been successfully effected by the 
Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, who first tried it, in 1809, by setting a cutting 
of a leaf of a Cape Omithogalum. " The leaf was cut oflF just below the 
surface of the earth in an early stage of its growth, before the flower-stalk 
had begun to rise ; and it was set in the eartli, near the edge of the pot in 
which the mother plant was growing, and so left to its fate. The leaf 
continued quite fresh, and on examination (while the bulb was flowering) 
a number of young bulbs and radical fibres were found adhering to it. 
They appeared to have been formed by the return of the sap which had 
nourished the leaf. Thereupon two or three more leaves were taken off 
and placed in like situations ; but they turned yellow, and died without 
producing any bulbs. It appeared to me then, and it was confirmed by 
subsequent experience, that in order to obtain a satisfactory result the leaf 
must be taken ofi" while the plant is advancing in its growth. I found it 
easy thus to multiply some bulbs that did not willingly produce ofi^sets. 
I afterwards tried, without cutting the leaf off, to make an oblique incision 
in it under ground, and in some cases just above ground, attempting, in fact, 
to raise bulbs by layering the leaf. This attempt was also successful, and some 



PROPAGATION BY LEAVES. 



2G1) 



young bulbs were formed on the edge of the cut above ground as well as below. 
I tried cuttings of the stem of some species of Lilium, and obtained bulbs at 
the axil of the leaf, as well as from the scales of the bulb ; and that practice 
has been since much resorted to by gardeners, though I believe it originated 
with me. I raised a great number of bulbs of the little plant which has 
been successively called massonia, scilla, and hyacinthus corymbosus, by 
setting a pot full of its leaves, and placing a bell-glass over them for a short 
time. A bulb was obtained with equal facility from a leaf of a rare species 
of Eucomis ; and experiments with the leaves of Lachenalias were equally 
successful. I apprehend that all liliaceous bulbs may be thus propagated ; 
but the more fleshy the leaf, the more easily the object will be attained." 
{Gard. Chron., for 1841, p. 881.) 

G14. Rooting leaves and parts of leaves in powdered charcoal. Leaves and 
parts of leaves of the following plants were rooted in charcoal, by M. Lucas, 
of Munich, in 1389. Half-leaves of Piereskm, Polianthes mexicana Zuccar.^ 
and leaves of iJuphorbm fastuosa, in a short time filled their pots so full of 
roots that they were obliged to be repotted. 

In from eight to fourteen days leaves of Cecropm palmata, O'xalis mandi- 
occdna^ O. purpilrea, £'uph6rbm fastuosa, Cyclamen indicum, Lophospermum 
scandens, Martyna craniolaria, Begoma monoptera, B. bulbifera, Ipomoe'a 
superba, I. spec, e Corcovado, Mesembryanthemum tigrinum, G^snera 
latifolia, G. atrasangulnea, Sinningm guttata, Piper piereskiip/o/iwrn, all sorts 
of Gloxinia, even calices and mere flower-stems, pieces of leaves of Convol- 
vulus Batatas^ Peu*eskia grandifolia, Polianthes mexicana, and warts of the 
large- warted mammillaria. 

In three weeks the tops of the leaves of Agave americana fol. var., leaves 
of Jacardnda brasiliensis, bundles of leaves of Pinus excelsa, leaves of 
Mimosa Houstom, and Cyperu* vaginatus. 

In five weeks, whole and half -cut folioles of Encephalartos cafffer and 
Zamia integrifolia produced a number of roots from the surface of the cuts. 

Many leaves have not yet made roots, but for a considerable time have 
formed callosities; such as iaurus nitida, Bignoma Telfain'te, Carolinea 
princeps, Ardisiae, Gardenj^F, Adansdnm digitata, Dracae'na, &c. As expe- 
riments that did not succeed, we may mention portions of the leaves of 
Amaryllis and Crinum, of ferns, of tropical Orchidese, of Dasylirion and 
Hechtz'a, Tillandsza, Panddnus^ Phormium tenax, of tropical tuberous- 
rooted JroidesB, old leaves of the Agave, and some others which, partly 
through rotting by wet, or other mischances, were prevented from growing, 

615. Leaves with the buds in the axils root freely in the case of many 
species. The buds and leaves are cut out with a small portion of the bark 
and alburnum to each, and planted in sandy loam, so deep as j^ust to cover 
the bud ; the soil being pressed firmly against it, and the back of the leaf 
resting on the surface of the soil. Covered with a bell-glass and placed 
on heat, in a short time the buds break through the suiface of the soil, 
and elongate into shoots. The late Mr. Knight tried this mode with 
double camellias, magnolias, metrosideros, agaoias, neriums, rhododendrons, 
and many others, some of which rooted and niade shoots the same season, 
and others not till the following spring. 

616. Immature fruits have even hsexi made to produce plants,. M. Thouin 
planted fruits of the Opuntia Turia^ which were about three fourths ripe, 
with their peduncles entire, in pots of sand almost dry, and covered them 



270 



PROPAGATION BY LEAVES. 



with a bell-glass, placing the pot on a hot-bed. In eighteen days, callosities 
appeared at the base of the peduncles, which soon became roots, and a few 
days afterwards little protuberances appeared on the summits of the fruit, 
which, at the end of two months, became shoots. The same result took 
place in the case of the fruits of Opuntia polyanthos, and Mammillaria 
simplex. {Cours de Culture^ <^c., tome 11.^ p. 551.) Some or the whole 
of the parts of the flower are frequently metamorphosed into leaves, and 
even shoots, in warm, moist seasons, and from these there can be no doubt 
plants could, in many cases, be raised by taking them off and treating them as 
cuttings. 

6X7. The essence of all the different modes of forming plants from cuttings 
may thus be stated. Wherever a joint of the ripened wood of a plant, or of 
the unripened wood, with a leaf or leaves, can be procured, it is probable 
that a rooted plant may be produced by proper treatment ; that in many 
cases, especially where the leaves are large, a bud with a leaf attached will 

produce a plant ; that in a number of cases 
plants may be produced from leaves alone, 
and that in some cases they may be even pro- 
duced from parts of leaves, from the calyxes, 
and other parts of flowers, and from imma- 
ture fruits. That to render more certain the 
rooting of a cutting or a bud, or even a leaf, 
it is advisable partially to separate it from the 
parent plant some days, weeks, or, in some 
cases, months, before it is entirely taken off, 
by cutting a shoot half through immediately 
Fig. 180. Wedges inserted above and be- "^der a joint or leaf, and keeping the wound 
low buds to check the flow of the sap, opcu, if ueccssary, witli a wcdgc, as in fig. 180, 
and excite them to produce shoots. by ringing Under each bud, as in fig. 

181, c. That, in regard to soil, the safe mode is to plant in pure sand, witli 
a layer of the soil in which the plant delights below ; and, in regard to light, 
that the cuttings should in all cases, when they are 
under glass, be placed as close to it as possible. 
Finally, that in regard to woody plants, those with 
the leaves on, and the wood half-matured at the 
lower end of the shoot, will root more readilj'' than 
shoots of ripened wood without the leaves. Camellia 
shoots of the season, put in in July or August, will 
be rooted by December, while those not put in till 
September, will not root till the following spring. 
That the rooting of cuttings with the leaves on de- 
pends very much on the action of light, is proved 
by the following experiment, made b}'- M. Caie : — 
A pot of cuttings of JVTonsoa incisifolia was placed 
in a close pit, at two feet from the glass ; another Fig. i8i. a shoot ringed toaceu. 
at two feet three inches; and a third at two feet '""'"'^ "-^'^'^ 

1 rryi , .1 buds,and prepare them for throw- 

SIX mches. The CUttmgS m the first pot were rooted, roots when they are taken 

but very little advanced in growth ; those in the off and planted. 
second were elongated in the tops, but had only callosities at the lower 
ends of the cuttings ; and those of the third pot were grown as high or 
higher than those of the second, but without either callosities or roots. 
{Gard. Chron. vol. i., p. 782.) 





PROPAGATION BY LEAVES. 



618. To induce stems or shoots to produce leaves or growths from which cut- 
tings may be formed, various modes have been adopted, the object of all of 
which is to stimulate the normal or latent buds. The most common mode 
with plants in pots or under glass, is by an increase of temperature and atmo- 
spheric moisture ; but there are modes which are applicable to all plants 
whatever, the object of which is to interrupt the ascending or descending 
sap. When the ascending sap is accumulated by art at a joint, and can nc 
longer pass freely onwards, it stimulates the buds which exist there, either 
normal or adventitious, to develop themselves, and the sap thus escapes 
organised into the form of leaves or shoots ; while the interruption of the 
descending sap, more especially under a joint or bud, produces an accumu- 
lation or callosity there, which, sooner or later, is organised into roots. To 
accumulate the ascending sap at any point, the shoot may be bent to one side 
from that point ; and it may be bent back again from a second point, and if 
the shoot is long, the operation may be repeated, so as to leave it in a ser- 
pentine or zigzag form from every exterior angle in 
which, as at a, a, in fig. 182, a bud will be developed. 
Where the shoot cannot conveniently be bent, a notch 
may be made in it immediately above a bud, so deep 
as to penetrate the alburnum ; or in the case of more 
slender shoots, the knife may be merely inserted 
above the bud, or above several buds, so as to penetrate 
into the alburnum, and the wound kept open by insert- 
ing wedges in them, as in fig. 180, a. Some days or 
weeks afterwards, according to the nature of the plant, 
a notch or cut may be made under the bud, in order 
to interrupt the sap returned by the leaf, and thus 
form a callosity there for the production of roots. In 
Fig. 182. Askooibentiocause^^^''^^7.^^^ the buds or jomts ou a tree or shrub of 
the biuts at the angles io pro. almost any sizc maybe prepared; and if a tree so 
duce shoots. treated could be covered with moss kept moist, leaving 

only the buds, or the joints, or points from which buds were expected, exposed 
to the light ; or if it could be laid down on the surface of soil kept moist, and 
very slightly covered with soil, or laid down fiat on the surface of water, so 
as just to touch it, a rooted plant, or at least a shoot, would be produced 
from every bud or joint. In preparing buds in this manner, however, it 
must always be borne in mind, either that the plants require to be kept in a 
close, moist atmosphere, or to have the wounds covered with moss or soil ; 
for if they are exposed to dry air, they will frequently neither cicatrise, nor 
emit roots, in consequence of the excessive evaporation which will necessarily 
take place. 

Even the petioles of large leaves may be prepared before they are taken 
off, by being cut half through near the base, by which means they will form 
a callosity there, and root more rapidly when planted. The roots of plants 
which contain latent buds may be stimulated to develop them by the ex- 
posure of portions of them to the light, or by bending, or twisting, or cutting 
notches in them, in the same manner as in stems. Piercing the stems or 
roots by a longitudinal cut through a joint, and keeping the wound open with 
a wedge or splinter, or driving pegs or nails through them, will facilitate 
both the formation of roots and the development of buds ; and various other 
modes of exciting buds, and causing the protrusion of roots, wiU occur to the 

T 2 




272 



PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 



gardener who understands what has been already said on the subject. It is 
only necessary to bear in mind that when the ascending sap is to be inter- 
rupted by cutting, the knife must penetrate into the alburnum, and that 
when roots only are the object in view, it is only necessary to penetrate 
the bark. 

§ IV. Propagation by Layers. 

019. Hie Theory of Layering is founded on the following facts : — The 
sap absorbed from the soil by the roots rises to the buds and leaves chiefly 
through the alburnum ; for though it has been proved, by the transmission 
of coloured fluids from the roots upwards, that a communication is main- 
tained throughout the whole stem, yet the greatest flow of sap, whether 
ascending or descending, takes place through the youngest layers, whether 
of wood in ascending, or inner bark in descending. A decortication may 
therefore be made with little or no interruption resulting to the ascent of 
the sap. The elaborated fluid, in returning from the leaves, descends by 
the inner bark, depositing in its progress an organised layer of alburnum, 
a portion of this extending to the extremities of the roots, where it pro- 
trudes in the form of spongioles. From those facts it will appear evident that 
although ringing does not interrupt the upward flow of sap, because the 
incision does not reach the vessels in which it proceeds, yet that the descent 
is prevented by the chasm formed by the operation ; on the brink of this 
chasm it accumulates, and under favourable circumstances a callosity is 
formed, or mass of cellular substance protruded, which by degrees assumes 
a granulated form, and these granulations ultimately elongate into spon- 
gioles ; or the teguments above the incision, being rendered soft by the 
earth or other suitable moist covering, are ruptured, and aff^ord egress to 
the nascent roots. From this the principle of the operations of ringing, 
applying ligatures, twisting, tonguing, or splitting the parts about to be laid, 
will be easily understood. 

620. The operation of layering^ like that of fonning cuttings, is chiefly 
applicable to plants having leaf-bearing stems ; and the advantage which a 
layer has over a cutting is that it is nourished, while roots are being formed, 
hy the parent plant ; whereas the cutting has no other resource than the 
nutritive matter laid up in it, or that produced by the functions of the leaves. 
Hence, layering is one of the most certain modes of propagation, by division, 
though it is in general slower than any other mode. In whichever way 
layering is performed it consists in the interruption of the descending sap at 
a joint of a stem, or shoot, and placing it under circumstances favourable for 
the production of roots. The interruption is most successful when it takes 
place immediately under a bud or joint, when the shoot is more or less 
matured, and when it penetrates into the alburnum ; though, if the albur- 
num is penetrated too far, the ascent of the sap will be interrupted, and the 
supply to the buds or leaves will be insufficient to develop tliem, or 
keep them from flagging. The descending sap may be interrupted either 
wholly by cutting off" a ring of bark, or partially by a cut or notch, 
by driving a peg or nail through it, by a slit kept open, by twisting 
the stem at a joint, by strangling it there with a wire, by bending it so 
as to form an angle, by pressure by laying a stone on it, or by attracting 
it by heat and moisture. The latter mode of causing a branch to 
protrude roots may often be observed in nature, in the case of the lowest 



PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 273 

branches of trees and shrubs that rest on the soil, and by their shade keep it 
moist, which, after some time, root into it. Whatever mode of interrupting: 
the sap be adopted, the wounded part of the layer from which roots are 
expected to proceed must be covered with soil, moss, or some other suitable 
material kept moist, or it must be partially or wholly immersed in water. 
Layering, from the certainty which attends it, was formerly much more 
extensively employed as a mode of propagation than it is at present ; the 
art of rooting cuttings being now much better understood, and being chiefly 
adopted in house and in herbaceous plants ; and layering being confined in 
a great measure to hardy trees and shrubs, of which it is desired to produce 
plants that will speedily produce flowers, or that cannot otherwise be so 
readily propagated. 

621. The state of the plant most favourable for layering is the same as that 
most suitable for propagation by cuttings (574 to 576). The wood and 
bark should be soft and not over ripe, and this is most likely to be the case 
with lateral shoots produced near the surface of the soil, or in a moist atmo- 
sphere. The worst shoots are such as are stunted and hide-bound, though 
there are no shoots whatever, unless such as are in a state of disease, that 
will not root by layers, if sufficient time be allowed them. Layers, like 
cuttings, m.ay be made either of ripe wood in the autumn or spring, or of 
growing wood any time in the course of the summer ; the only condition, in 
the latter case, being that the part of the shoot where the sap is inten-upted 
be somewhat mature, or firm in texture. 

622. Hardy trees and -shrubs, with reference to layering, may be divided 

into two kinds, those which, when cut 
down, throw up shoots from the collar, that 
is, technically, which stole, such as most 
kinds of deciduous trees and shrubs ; and 
those which do not stole, such as all the 
coniferse. The former are planted and cut 
down, and layers made of the young shoots 
which proceed from the collar; while the 
latter are either laid entirely down, and 
their branches extended along the surface 
of the soil, and the extremities of all the 
shoots layered, or such side branches as 
can be bent down to the soil are made fast 
there by hooked pegs, and their shoots 
layered. When the shoots to be layered 
are small, they are frequently twisted or 

Fig. 183. Layering with (he tongue made in slit through at the point where the TOOts 

the underside of the shoot. are to be produced ; but Avhen they are 

strong the knife is entered beneath a joint, and the shoot cut half through, 
and the knife afterwards turned up half an inch or more, so as to form what 
is technically called a tongue (fig. 183, o), and the shoot being bent down 
and its point turned up, the wound is kept open as at h ; the shoot being kept 
down by a hooked peg, or by a portion of a twig, first twisted to render it 
tough, and next doubled, as at c, one or more buds being left on the layer, 
the wound being kept open by the bent position of the shoot. When the 
shoots are small or brittle, in order to lessen the risk of breaking them by 
tonguing below, the incision is made above, and the tongue kept from uniting 




274 



PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 




by giving the layer a twist when pegging it down, as sho\vn in fig. 184, in which 
e is the tongue made in the shoot before being laid down, / the position 

taken by the tongue after the layer is fixed 
in its place, and g the peg which keeps the 
layer down. The dotted line in this and 
the preceding figure indicates the surface 
of the soil. Layers are always buried in 
the soil, and secured there, and the soil 
pressed firmly against them. The plant 
furnishing the shoots which are layered is 
called a stool, and as it generally furnishes 
a number of shoots, these are laid down ra- 
diating all round it, as in fig. 185, and the 
soil formed into a circular basLa, the better 
to retain water about the rooted parts of 
the layers. Layers that are difficult to 

Fig. m Layering vnih tl.e tongue mad. in ^^j^ .^^^ ^.^j^ , ^^.j 

the upper side of the shoot. ^ <-> 

beneath, as is done with cuttmgs difficult 
to strike ; and the shoots laid down and layered are commonly shortened to 
one eye above the soil, in order that there 
may be only one stem to the plant to be 
produced. See figs. 183 and 184. 

In former times when few trees were 
propagated in nurseries, excepting limes 
and elms, the shoots produced from the 
stools were not laid down, but after two 
years' growth the shoots were earthed up, 
and after remaining on two years longer, 
they were slipped off" and found to have a 
sufficient supply of roots to ensure their 
independent existence, after, however, be- 
ing cut in and headed down. Some shrubs, such as hibiscus, vitex, are still so 
propagated in French nurseries. Sometimes the circumference of the stool 
was split or fractured to excite the buds ; and in Genoa, at the present day, 
young orange trees are frequently cut down within a few inches of the soil, 
and the stock and root split into four parts, which, after a year, can be 
separated into as many distiact plants. 

C23. Shrubs with very long shoots, such as clematis, tecoma, vitis, wistaria, 
honeysuckle, &c., are stretched along the surface, and every jouit, or every 
alternate joint, prepared for rooting ; so that one shoot produces half as 
many plants as it contains joints, or even a plant for every joint. The joint 
in this case is not tongued but bruised, pierced, or slit, or simply pressed down 
to the moist soil by a hook, peg, or small stone — the latter having the advan- 
tage of retaining moisture, as well as checking the return of the sap. Shoots 
which continue growing all the summer, such as those of the wistaria, are 
laid as they extend in length ; and when the parent plant is placed on moist 
heat, under glass, and near it, it is incredible the number of rooted layers 
that may thus be obtained in one season. After such layers are formed, a 
ring of bark may be taken off between each layer, which will prevent the sap 
returned from the leaf which is left growing at each joint, from being sent 
down to the parent root, and force it to go to the nourishment of the roots 
sent down from the separate joints. 




Fig. 185. A stool with several of the shoots 
layered. 



PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 



624. Layering by insertion of the growing point. — Shoots of the bramble 
will emit roots by the usual mode of twisting and pegging down ; but if the 
growing point of the shoot is merely inserted in the soil to the depth of an 
inch, an astonishing quantity of roots will be produced in the same season, 
more, in fact, than in two years by the other mode. The gooseberry, the 
Aristolochia, and the common nightshade, treated in the same way, succeed 
equally well ; and doubtless many other species might in like manner be 
easily and quickly propagated. 

625. Plum and Paradise stocks for fruit trees are raised in large quantities, 
by a somewhat similar mode. The shoots of the stool are pegged down flat 
on the surface, and covered entirely over, to the depth of half an inch, with 
loamy soil. This is done early in spring, and in the course of the summer 
every bud sends up a shoot which roots at its base, and at the end of autumn 
is fit to be taken oflF as a separate plant. The tree peony is sometimes pro- 
pagated in this manner, but with this difference, that a ring of bark is taken 
off between each bud. A great many trees and shrubs might, doubtless, be 
rapidly propagated by this mode. 

626. i^o^e^f, with the exception of the kinds of Indian origin, are generally pro- 
pagated by layers, which in 
the nurseries are made both 
in spring and autumn, and 
sometimes at both seasons, 
on the same stool. The 
shoots being brittle are 
generally twisted, or slit 
through, and the slit kept 
open with a fragment of 
stick or stone. When they 
are tongued the tongue is 
generally made on the up- 
per side of the shoot, fig. 1 84, 
which greatly lessens the 
risk of breaking the shoot 
when bending it down. 

627. Hardy herbaceous 
plants seldom require to be propagated by layers, but the practice is occa- 
sionally resorted to for the sake of gettmg stout plants in a shorter time 
than by cuttings. The Petunia is frequently layered, fig. 186, and also 
the Verbena, and even the Chrysanthemum ; and this is also the case 
with the carnation, fig. 187, and with some other hybrids, or varieties 
belongmg to the same genus. The shoots are chosen when of sufficient 
length, which is generally when the plant is coming into flower, and the lower 
leaves being cut off, the knife is entered beneath a joint, passed half through 
the shoot, and continued half an inch or more upwards, kept open, if neces- 
sary, by a splinter of wood, and pegged down and covered with sandy loam, 
or sand and leaf mould. Some herbaceous plants which propagate readily 
by cuttings are layered, as a mode requiring less care after the operation 
is performed than cuttings, as well as being more certain of success. Some- 
times a shoot separated from a plant is layered, the lower end of the shoot 
being inserted in a vessel of water to supply it with moisture, while the 
rooting process is taking place, as in fig. 188. 




Fig. 186. A petunia layered. 



276 



PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 




Fig. 187. A carnation layered. 

-^^8. Shrubby plants in pots kept under glass may either be layered by 
laying down the entire plant on its side (622), or by 
placing pots under it, or raising pots among its branches, 
and layering the shoots into these. The shoot may either 
be laid down mto the pot, or brought up through a hole 
in its bottom, or in its side (fig. 52, in p. 143) ; a tin ease 
filled with soil or moss may be suspended from the plants. 
Fig 188 Layerivg a ^"^^ shoots ringed, as indicated in figs. 189 and 190 ; 
cutting. or a ring of bark being taken off, the wounded part may 






Fig. 4 89. A branch ringed and prepared to be rooted \ 
a /in case witfiout separating it from the tree. 



Fig. 190. Different bra-iches 
layered in tin cases. 



PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 



277 



be enveloped in a mass of loam covered with moss, a mode practised by 
the Chinese ; or with moss alone. The moss, in either case, may be kept 
moist by suspending near it, and somewhat higher, a vessel of water with 
some worsted threads, connecting the water with the moss, and acting as a 
syphon. The threads ought to have small weights tied to their ends, in 
order to keep them to the bottom of the vessel of water, in order that the 
supply may go on as long as it contains any ; one thread will be enough for 
every layer. This mode, however, in the present day is more a matter of 
curiosity than of utility. Most plants when ringed beneath a joint will root 
into moss alone, when placed in a warm moist atmosphere ; they will also 
root in water when so ringed, provided the plant be in a growing state. 

629. The soil in which plants are layered should, in general, be that in 
which the parent plants naturally thrive best, but with a mixture of sand, 
or with the wounded part entirely enveloped in sand or powdered charcoal, 
to prevent it from retaining too much water, which would prevent the wound 
from protruding granulous matter, and cause it to rot. Plants which grow 
in heath soil, such as most of the Ericace<Te, and aU other hair-rooted plants, 
must be layered in sand or in heath soil, but almost all others will root 
freely in sandy loam. Where the soil and the season are not naturally 
moist, layers, even in the open garden, require artificial watering, or, at 
least, are much benefited by it. Mulching may also be advantageously 
employed in order to retain moisture. 

630. Hoohed pegs were formerly considered as essential articles for fixing 
down the layers, but the general practice at present is to take a piece of the 
shoot from the stool, or any waste piece of shoot about a foot in length, or 
longer if the soil be very loose, and twisting it in the middle so as to prevent 
it from breaking when bent, to double it like a lady's hair-pin over the 
shoot, as shown at c, in fig. 183. The layers of herbaceous plants are 
sometimes kept down by short loops of bass-mat put over them, and their 
ends made fast in the soil with a small dibber. 

631. The time which layers require to produce roots varies in different 
plants, from one to two, and even, in some cases, three or four years. The 
process of rooting is facilitated by increased heat and moisture, and by ring- 
ing below the tongue, or wounded or bent part from which the roots are ex- 
pected to protrude ; but this operation can only be safely performed where 
the parent plant is in vigorous health, because, otherwise, it would weaken 
the root, and prevent it from sending up sap to nourish the layer. In taking 
off layers which are difficult to root, it is a safe mode not to cut through the 
layer at once, but by degrees, at intervals of several weeks. In the case of 
stools in the open air the butt ends of the shoots from which the layers have 
been taken are cut off close to the stool, to make room for a second succession 
of layers, which are made annually from the upright shoots produced during 
the preceding season. In the case of layers taken from plants in pots, the 
stumps left after the layer is taken off should be cut to a leaf-bud, in order 
that a shoot may be produced to supply the vacancy made in the head of the 
plant by the removal of the layer. 

§ V. Propagation by suckers^ slips, offsets, runners, and simple division. 

632. A sucker is properly a shoot sent up from the under-ground part 
of the stem, from latent buds there existing, or from adventitious buds on 
that part of the stem, or on the horizontal roots. Those proceeding from 



278 



PROPAGATIOxV BY SUCKERS, SLIPS, ETC. 



the upright stems, may be called stem-suckers or slips. A cutting of 
a gooseberry or currant, if planted without removing any of the buds, will 
send up shoots from that part of the stem which is under ground, as well 
as that which is above it ; and the former are properly stem-suckers. It is 
commonly said that plants raised from suckers are more apt to produce 
suckers than such as are raised from cuttings ; and the reasons are, that the 
sucker has always more buds at its base, unless in the case of a cutting which 
has been slipped off with a portion of the joint from which it protruded. It 
is also to be observed that plants which naturally produce suckers, such as 
the plum, or the everlasting pea, will produce them in whatever manner 
they may be propagated, though, doubtless, not so soon when they are pro- 
pagated by cuttings of the extremities of the branches as from suckers, more 
especially if the buds on that part of the cuttings which are to be buried in 
the soil are cut clean out, as is frequently done in the case of cuttings of 
gooseberries and currants. Many herbaceous plants are propagated by 
root-suckers ; a number of shrubs, such as the lilac, the spiraea, the rasp- 
berry, &c., and some trees are occasionally so propagated, such as the white, 
trembling, and balsam poplars, the English elm, &c. The suckers of her- 
baceous plants are chiefly taken off in spring and autumn, when they are in 
a growing state, and those of ligneous plants late in autumn, when the sap 
is dormant ; but suckers of both kinds may be taken off" at any season, pro- 
vided those which are in a growing state are put into a moist atmosphere 
^nd shaded. 

633. Stem-suckers or slips may be described as shoots which proceed from 
the coUai', or above it from the lower part of the stem, and which have few 
or no roots, unless the stem has been earthed up. Heading down plants, 
or otherwise rendering the top inadequate for the due appropriation of the 
supply of sap furnished by the roots, favours the production of stem- 
suckers. The tendency is also induced in consequence of any sudden 
check given to the foliage, such as that arising from excessive drought, 
or the depredations of insects, more especially if the roots are at the 
same time growing in rich, moist soil. These shoots, being drawn or 
slipped off^, are planted and treated as cuttings, and they are found to 
root more readily than shoots taken from the plant at a greater distance 
from the root. To produce slips on the lower parts of stems they may be 
cut down, and in the case of plants in pots stimulated by an extra supply 
of heat and moisture. The stumps of pine-apple plants are sometimes so 
stimulated after the fruit has been gathered, and slips or suckers are in that 
case produced by the buds which had remained dormant in the axils of the 
leaves. I'he base of such plants as the banana, when treated in a similar 
manner, are attended with similar results ; and by destroying the gi'owing 
point or central bud of such plants as Yucca, Dracaena, and Zamia, and also 
of Mammillaria, and other Cactaceae, and of all bulbs, slips, suckers, or 
ofi^sets, will be produced from the latent buds in the axils of the leaves. 
By eartliing up, these shoots may generally be made to emit roots before 
being separated from the parent plant ; or they may be slipped off^ without 
roots, and treated as cuttings. Cuttings or layers from the branches of 
coniferous plants sometimes continue growing a number of years before they 
throw up a leading shoot ; but this result may be obtained much sooner 
than it otherwise would be by pegging down the entire plants, when a stem- 
sucker will be produced, as in fig. 191, in consequence of the check given 



PROPAGATION BYSUCKERS, SLIPS, ETC. 




to the ascending sap by the acute angle formed by the bend, after which all 
the other branches of the plant may be cut off close to the stem-sucker 

Cuttings of the side branches of Cun- 
ninghamia lanceolata have by this 
treatment made as good plants as seed- 
lings ; and we believe it has also been 
successful with Araucaria exc^lsa. 

634. Offsets. — An offset is a term 
for the most part confined to the small 
bulbs, corms, tubers, or underground 
stems, which are formed at the side of 
the base of large ones, and by which the 
plant producing them may be propa- 
Fig 191. Thebranches of a coniferous pi^^^^^^ They are veiy readily observed 

down to force it to throw up a stem-sucker as f . 

a leader. m the hyacinth, tulip, and crocus, in 

which they afford the only means of propagation, excepting by seed. All offsets 
have a natural tendency to separate from the parent bulb, excepting when they 
are very small and young; in which case they are left adheriog to the parent 
bulb or tuber for another growing season. When offsets are to be separated, 
the bulb, when it is in a dormant state, is taken up, and the offsets ai-e 
removed and planted by themselves, at various depths, according to the size 
and nature of the offset ; and bearing in mind that all bulbs are buds, and 
consequently that they would all grow if placed on 
the surface of moist soil, and pressed firmly against 
it, without any covering of soil. Offsets may be 
produced from bulbs, by searing or otherwise destroy- 
ing their central bud by mutilation, or by cutting 
them over a little above the plate, from which 
proceed the scales, as in the hyacinth, and the con- 
centric coats, or rudiments of tubular leaves^ as in 
the onion ; the buds in both cases being in the axils 
of the members. Sometimes the frost destroying the 
outer scales of a bulb will stimulate the buds in their 
axils to develop themselves (fig. 192) ; and some- 
Fig. 192. The buds in the axils times, whcn the scales are very closely compressed 
of the scales of a bulb deve- top, the buds in theiT axils will be developed, and 

loped in consequence of xnju- t i i y \ i p >^ ' 

Ties sustained by the scales Will protrudo bcloW (fig. 193). A bulb of CnUUm 

from frost. canaliculatum, cut over a little above the plate, was 

foimd by M. Syringe to throw out no fewer than forty offsets. Practices of 
this kind are rendered unnecessary with tubers^ or 
underground stems, which containing numerous 
buds distributed over them, as in the potato, the 
anemone, &c., are propagated by division; but 
those roots which are commonly called tubers, as 
the ranunculus and the dahlia, are naturally in- 
creased by offsets, and the production of these can 
in general be forwarded by destroying the central 
bud, by which several latent ones are developed. 

635. Runners or stohnes are long slender shoots, 
with joints at distant intervals, which are protruded 
from the collar of perennial herbaceous or sub-her- Fig. 193. Buds developed below in 
baceousplants, suchasthe strawberry, many grasses, T'^r'"" ^"""^ 

' 7 ./ o ? closely compressed at top. 





280 



PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC. 



some saxifrages, potentillas, &c. The joints of these plants rest natumlly 
on the ground, send down roots^, and upwards leaves or shoots ; and being 
separated from the intemodi of the stolones, constitute rooted plants. 
Very little assistance from art is required in this mode of propagation ; 
but the soil may be loosened and enriched, and the joint pressed firmly 
against the soil, by pegging it down with a hooked peg, or by laying a small 
stone on each side of the joint. The principal plant propagated in this 
manner in gardens is the strawberry. 

636. Simple division is an obvious mode of propagating all herbaceous 
perennials, not bulb-bearing, and all shrubs which produce numerous suckers. 
The most common mode is to take up the entire plant, and separate it into 
as many stems as have roots attached ; or if only a few plants are wanted, 
these may be taken off the sides of the plant without greatly disturbing the 
interior of the root stock. 

§ VI. Propagation by grafting, inarching, and budding, 

637. The term graft is in England generally confined to one mode of 
performing that operation, viz., grafting with detached scions ; but it is our 
intention in this article to use it, in the continental sense, as a generic term, 
including, also, inarching, or gi-afting with attached scions, and budding or 
grafting by means of a bud attached to a plate of bark. The principle on 
which all these operations are founded is the phenomenon of the union of 
newly generated tissues when in the act of being generated. No union can 
take place between the parts of plants previously formed, but only when 
these parts are in the act of forming. Thus two shoots or branches may 
be selected, and by means of similar sections be most accurately joined, and 
placed under the most favourable circumstances for uniting, as in fig. 194, 
representing a stock and a scion ; yet when 
the two are bound together, though a union 
ultimately does take place, not one particle of 
the existing tissue at the time of grafting W- 
becomes united with similar tissue brought in 
contact with it. Close contact is all that takes 
place with regard to these surfaces of the scion 
and stock, for a vital union only occurs when 
nascent tissues meet. The parts a, a, which 
are alburnum of the preceding year, never 
unite. The vital union is formed solely by the 
coalition of newly generated tissues, thrown 
out by such parts as have the power of gene- 
rating them. This power does not exist in 
the heart-wood, nor in the outer bark, but 
only in the alburnum, or rather the substance 
imbedded between it and the inner bark, con- 
stituting the cambium, represented by the 
lines, b, b. If the sections are placed against 
each other, so as the inner barks coincide, the p. „ . 

' . . ' tig. l^i. Scton and slock to illustrate the 

Dcion may perhaps derive an immediate supply principle on which they are united. 
of moisture ; but it does so only in a mechanical way, and a piece of dry 
sponge might as tmly be said to have formed a connexion from its absorbing 
moisture, in consequence of being placed on the top of a stock, as the scion 




PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC. 



281 



that only takes up moisture as above-mentioned. AVhen, however, new 
tissue is formed by the parts, &, 6, of the respective sections, and when the 
portions so formed protrude so as to meet, they immediately coalesce, form- 
ing a connectmg chain of vessels between the buds of the scion and the 
roots of the stock. If an old grafted tree is cut down, and all the wood cut 
away to the original portions which existed at the time of grafting, it will 
be found that the sections similar to a, a, made by the grafting-knife, are 
only mechanically pressed together; and may be easily taken asunder. 
Instances frequently occur of the inner bark of the scion being placed out 
of contact with that of the stock, and a union nevertheless ensues ; but this 
takes place in consequence of the cellular substance protruding from the 
respective alburnums over the surface of old wood, which it only covers, 
as soon as the new-formed tissue of stock and scion touch each other, a 
union is then formed. 

638. The origin of grafting is of the most remote antiquity, but whether 
it was suggested by the adhesions of the parts of two plants, frequently seen 
in a state of nature, or by the appearance of one plant growing on another, 
as in the case of the mistletoe, it is impossible to divine. Theophrastus and 
other Greek authors mention the graft ; and upwards of twenty modifica- 
tions of it have been given by the Roman Varro. The principal modern 
author on the subject is M. Thouin, of Paris, who has described and figured 
more than a hundred kinds, and INI. Tschudy, of Metz, who was the inven- 
tor of the art of grafting herbaceous plants, and ligneous plants in an herba- 
ceous state. The theory of grafting was first given in a lucid manner by 
the celebrated De Candolle in his *' Physiologie Vegetale" From these works, 
and our own observations, we shall first treat of what is common to grafting 
inarching, and budding, and next treat of these modes separately. 

639. The phenomena of grafting are thus explained by De Candolle : — 
The shoots springing from the buds of the scion are united to the stock 
by the young growing alburnum, and, once united, they determine the ascent 
of the sap rising from the stock ; and they elaborate a true or proper juice^ 
which appears evidently to redescend in the inner bark. This sap appears 
to be sufficiently homogeneous in plants of the same family — to be, in 
the course of its passage, absorbed by the growing cellules near which it 
passes, and each cellule elaborates it according to its nature. The cellules 
of the alburnum of the plum elaborate the coloured wood of the plum ; 
those of the alburnum of the almond the coloured wood of the almond. If 
the descending sap has only an incomplete analogy with the wants of the 
stock, the latter does not thrive, though the organic union between it and 
the scion may have taken place ; and if the analogy between the alburnum 
of the scion and that of the stock is wanting, the organic union does not 
operate, and as the scion cannot absorb the sap of the stock, the graft does 
not succeed. In the case of the mistletoe, which may be considered as a 
natural graft, there is an analogy between the two alburnums, but none 
between the barks ; whence it follows that, though the mistletoe can very 
well unite itself with the alburnum of the tree on which it grows, yet the 
descending sap formed by the bark of the mistletoe does not enter the bark 
of the tree which bears the parasite, and therefore cannot nourish it. This 
is the cause of the impoverishment of branches of trees on which the mistletoe 
has fixed itself, and perhaps the possibility of that parasite living on trees of 
every natural family, and which possibility M. De Candolle attributes to the 
identity of the ascending sap. {Phys. Veg., vol. ii., p. 814.) 



282 



PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC. 



640. The conditions essential to the success of the graft are the exact 
coincidence of the alburnum and the inner bark of the scion with those of 
the stock. The graft is effected in two forms : that of a cutting or scion, 
which consists of wood and bark with buds (as in grafting and inarcliing), 
and that of a bud, which consists of a shield of bark, containing a bud or 
buds, but deprived of its wood, as in budding. In the case of the scion it is 
essential to success that its alburnum coincide exactly with that of the 
stock ; and in the case of the bud it is essential that the disk of bark to which 
it is attached should be intimately joined to the alburnum of the stock by 
being placed over it, and gently pressed against it by means of ligatures. 
The buds of the scion and of the shield are supplied with sap from the 
alburnum of the stock, and develop themselves in consequence. As a proof 
that it is the ascending sap which supplies the nourishment in both cases, 
the scion and the bud succeed best when the stock is cut over almost 
immediately above the graft ; and when the scion or the shield are placed 
immediately over a part of the stock which contained buds. The success 
of a scion or a bud placed in the internodia of the stock where no normal 
buds can exist, will therefore be much less certain than if it were placed on 
the nodia ; because the vessels which conducted the descending sap to the 
original buds are ready to supply it to those which have taken their place. 
Hence in the case of the graft, fig. 194, the stock is cut sloping, and so as 
to have a bud on or near the upper extremity of it, in order to prevent the 
stock from dying down behind the graft ; and the section a, against which 
the scion is to be placed, is made at the lower part of the sloping section, in 
order to insure abundance of sap at its upper extremity as well as at its 
lower; for were there no bud to expend the sap, it would cease to be 
impelled through that part of the stock, which would consequently die. 
By the end of August the scion and stock will be united, and the section at 
the top of the latter healed over perhaps as far as c / and if the heel, or part 
above c, is then cut off, the stock will probably be completely healed over 
by the end of the season. 

641. Anatomical analogy. Plants can only be budded or grafted on one 
another within certain limits, and these depend on the anatomy or organic 
structure of the tissue, and the physiology or vital functions of the organs of 
the plant ; but the anatomy of the cellules and the structure of the vessels 
are so delicate and difficult to observe, that the differences between plants in 
these respects are not sufficient to enable ns to amve at any practical con- 
clusion from examining their organisation, and hence our only guide in this 
matter hitherto has been experience. From this it is found that as plants 
of the same natural family have an analogous organisation, they alone can 
be grafted on one another with any prospect of success ; though the success 
of the operation even within this limit will not always be complete ; partly, 
perhaps, from some difference in organic structure, as in the case of the 
apple and pear, which can only be united for a few years, but chiefly on 
account of the physiological differences which may and do frequently exist. 
Hence it follows that the greater part of what is recorded by the ancients, 
respecting the grafting of plants of one family on those of another totally 
opposite, such as the jessamine on the orange, the vine on the walnut, &c., 
is without foundation in fact. The mistletoe is the only exception to the 
general laws of grafting, as it seems to grow equally well on plants of many 
different families, and this is accounted for from the mistletoe only attracting 



PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. ETC. 



283 



watery or non-elaborated sap, which it does not return to the plant on which 
it grows by the bark, as in the case of other grafts ; and hence, says De 
Candolle, the necessity of plants in general having a natural analogy between 
the scion and the stock, is founded on the descent of the sap by the bark, 
while the mistletoe, which absorbs the watery sap and returns nothing, can 
live on all exogens of which the ascending sap is of a watery consistence. 
As a proof that plants of the same natural family may be grafted on one 
another, De Candolle succeeded in grafting the lilac and the fringe tree on the 
ash, the fringe tree on the lilac, the lilac on the phillyrea, and the olive on 
the ash and the privet ; and though these grafts did not live a long time, 
on account of the physiological differences of the species, yet their having 
succeeded at all sufficiently proves the anatomical analogy of plants within 
the same natural order. This analogy is greater between plants of the 
same genus ; more so still between individuals of the same species, and most 
so between branches of the same individual, 

642. Physiological analogy. In a physiological point of view, the epochs 
of vegetation are the principal points to be attended to, and hence no plant 
can be grafted on another which does not thrive in the same temperature. 
Two plants in which the sap is not in motion cannot be successfully 
united^ because it is only when cellular tissue is in a state in which it can 
form accretions that a vital union can be formed, and a reciprocal 
activity must exist both in the stock and scion. Hence evergreen trees 
seldom succeed for any length of time when grafted on deciduous kinds. 
The analogy of magnitude is also of some importance, for if a large 
growing tree is grafted on one naturally of small stature, the graft, by 
exhausting the stock, will ultimately deprive it of life ; and when a small 
or weakly growing species is grafted on a large vigorous one, it receives too 
much sap, and ultimately perishes from superfluity, as the other did from 
insufficiency. The analogy of consistence also merits notice. Soft woods 
do not associate well with hard woods, nor ligneous plants with such as are 
herbaceous, nor annuals with perennials. An analogy in the nature of the 
sap is also requisite, experience having proved that plants with a milky sap 
will not unite for any length of time with plants the sap of which is watery. 
Thus the ^ Ver ^latanoides — the only species of ^'cer which has milky sap 
— will not graft with the others ; and numerous as are the species of tree 
on which the mistletoe grows, it is never found on those which have a 
milky sap. 

643. The modifications effected by the graft, is a subject of great practical 
interest to the cultivator. The graft neither alters the species, nor the 
varieties, but it has some influence on their magnitude and habits, and on 
their flowers and fruit. The apple grafted on the paradise stock becomes 
a dwarf, and on the crab stock, or a seedling apple, a middle-sized tree. The 
size of the stock here seems to influence the size of the graft ; but in the 
case of the mountain ash, which is said to grow more quickly when grafted 
on the common thorn, than when on its own roots, the stock is naturally a 
smaller plant than the tree grafted on it. The habit of the plant is some- 
times altered by grafting. Thus A'cer eriocarpum, when grafted on the 
common sj'-camore, attains in Europe double the height which it does when 
raised from seed. C'^rasus canadensis, which in a state of nature is a ram- 
bling shrub, assumes the habit of an upright shrub when grafted on the 
common plum. Various species of Cytisus become greatly invigorated when 



284 



PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC. 



grafted on the laburnum, as do the different varieties of Pyrus ^ronia when 
grafted on the common thorn ; the common lilac attains a large size when 
grafted on the ash ; and Tecbma radicans, when grafted on the Catalpa, 
forms a round head with pendent branches, which are almost without ten- 
drils. The hardiness of some species is also increased by grafting them, as 
in the case of the Eriobotrya japonica on the common thorn, and the Pis- 
tacia vera on the P. Terebinthus ; the Quercus virens is rendered hardier 
by being grafted on the evergreen oak ; but in other cases, the species are 
rendered more tender, as when the lilac is grafted on the phillyrea. Those 
species that are rendered hardier by grafting have probably tender roots, 
and by being placed on such as are hardier, they suffer only from the cold 
at top, instead of being injured by the effects of cold both at root and top ; 
or if they grow more stunted, they will also be less susceptible of cold. The 
period of flowering is well known to be accelerated by grafting ; and hence, 
both in the case of fruit-trees and ornamental trees and shrubs, the shoots 
of seedlings are frequently grafted on the extremities of the branches of old 
tr^es ; in consequence of which, they blossom several years sooner than if 
left on their own roots. The mountain ash, and the different varieties of 
Pyrus ^'ria, produce double the number of fruits when grafted, to what 
they do on their o\m roots. The increase of the size of fruits, more espe- 
cially of kernel fruits, is said by Thouiu to be often from a fifth to a fourth 
part, but the number and size of seeds produced is diminished. The flavour 
as well as the size of fruit is said to be altered by the graft. Thus pears 
are said to become giitty on quince or thorn stocks ; and the greengage plum 
to vary in flavour, according to the kind of plum-stock on which it is grafted ; 
producing insipid fruit on some stocks, and frait of the most delicious flavour 
on others ; the cherry also when grafted on the Cerasus Mahdleh, on the 
wild cherry, on the bird cherry, or on the common laurel, will produce fi-uit 
very different in flavour on each. The duration of trees is greatly altered 
in certain cases by the graft ; the apple on the paradise stock is generally 
shorter lived than on the crab-stock ; while the Pavia, grafted on the horse- 
chesnut, has its longevity increased. The period of leafing and flowering 
is also occasionally changed by the graft, the general effect of which is to 
produce a somewhat earlier vegetation ; because the graft, by arresting the 
descent of the sap, produces in some measure the effect of ringing. Thus 
far as to the influence of the stock upon the scion. 

644. The influence of the sdon on the stock is very limited, and as far as 
experience has hitherto gone, it consists only in communicating disease. The 
only proof of this is the fact of the bud of a variegated common jasmine 
having been inserted in a species without variegated leaves, and having 
communicated its variegation to the entire plant, both above and below the 
graft. This, De Candolle observes, is in accordance with the theory of 
Moretti, that variegation, being a disease, can be propagated in a tree in 
every direction. We are not aware, however, that there is any example 
on record of a variegated holly having communicated its variegation to the 
stock ; or in fact, of any other variegated plant having done so but the 
jasmine, which, however, is a fact placed beyond doubt. 

645. The uses of grafting^ in addition to those of all the other modes of 
increasing plants by extension, are — 

1. The propagation of varieties or species, which are not increased freely 
by any other mode ; such as pears and other fruit-trees, oaks and other 
forest-trees, and several species of Daphne and other shrubs. 



PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC. 



285 



2. The acceleration of the fructification of plants, more especially of trees 
and shrubs, which are naturally a number of years before they come into 
flower. For example, a seedling apple, if grafted the second year on the 
extremities of the branches of a full-grown apple- tree, or even on a stock 
or young tree of five or six years' growth, will show flowers the third or 
fourth year ; whereas, had it remained on its own root, it would probably 
not have come into flower for ten or even tv/enty years. To obtain the same 
result with climbers that flower only at their extremities, the tips of the 
shoots of seedlings are taken ofi^ and grafted near the root ; and when these 
have extended an inconvenient length, the tips are again taken off^ and re- 
grafted ; and after the operation has been performed several times, the plant 
at last produces flowers in a much shorter time than it otherwise would 
have done, and in a comparatively limited space. 

3. To increase the vigour or the hardiness of delicate species or varieties, 
by grafting them on robust stocks, such as the Mexican oaks on the com- 
mon oak, the china roses on the common dog-rose, the double yellow rose 
on the china or musk-rose, the Frontignan grape on the Syrian, &c. 

4. To dwarf or diminish the bulk of robust species, such as grafting the 
pear on the quince or medlar, the apple on the doucin or paradise stock, the 
cherry on the perfumed cherry, &c. 

5. To increase the fruitfulness and precocity of trees. The effects pro- 
duced upon the growth and produce of a tree by grafting. Knight observes, 
" are similar to those which occur when the descent of the sap is impeded 
by a ligature, or by the destruction of a circle of bark. The disposition in 
young trees to produce and nourish blossom-buds and fruit is increased by 
this apparent obstruction of the descending sap ; and the fruit of such young 
trees ripens, I think, somewhat earlier than upon other young trees of the 
same age, which grow upon stocks of their own species ; but the growth and 
vigour of the tree, and its power to nourish a succession of heavy crops, are 
diminished, apparently by the stagnation in the branches and stock of a 
portion of that sap, which in a tree growing upon its own stem, or upon a 
stock of its own species, would descend to nourish and promote the exten- 
sion of the roots." 

6. To preserve varieties from degenerating, which are found to ao so 
w^hen propagated by cuttings or layers, such as certain kinds of roses and 
camellias. 

7' By choosmg a stock suitable to the soil, to produce trees m situations 
where they could not be grown if on their own roots ; for example, the 
white beam-tree will grow in almost pure chalk, where no pear-tree would 
live ; but grafted on the wliite beam- tree, the pear, on a chalky soil, will 
thrive and produce fruit. 

8. To introduce several kinds on one kind. Thus one apple or pear 
tree may be made to produce many different kinds of apple or pear ; one 
camellia a great many varieties; one British oak, all the American oaks ; and 
even one Dahlia, several varieties of that flower. 

9. To render dioecious trees monoecious ; that is, when the tree consists 
of only one sex, as in Negundo, some maples, the poplar, willow, Madura, 
Salisburia, &c., to graft on it the other sex, by which means fruit may be 
matured ; a knowledge given of both forms of the species, both forms intro- 
duced into small arboretums ; and in the case of fruit-trees, such as the 
pistacia, the necessity of planting males rendered no longer requisite. 

u 



286 



PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, ETC. 



10. The last use which we shall mention is that of renewing the heads of 
trees. For example, if a forest or fruit tree is cut down to the ground, or 
headed in to the height of ten or twelve feet, and left to itself, it will deve- 
lop a great number of latent buds, each of which will be contending for the 
mastery ; and the strength of the tree, and the most favourable part of the 
season for growth, will be in some degree wasted, before a shoot is singled 
out to take the lead ; but if a graft is inserted either in the collar or stool, 
or in the amputated head, it will give an immediate direction to the sap, 
the latent buds will not be excited, and the whole concentrated vigour of the 
tree will be exerted in the production of one grand shoot. 

6i6. The different kinds of grafting may be classed ; as, grafting by de- 
tached scions or cuttings, which is the most common mode ; grafting by 
attached scions, or, as it is commonly termed, by approach or inarching, in 
which the scion, when put on the stock, is not at all, or is only partially, 
separated from the parent plant ; and grafting by buds, in which the scion 
consists of a plate of bark, containing one or more buds. The stock on 
which the scion is placed, is, in every case, a rooted plant, generally standing 
in its place in the garden or nursery ; but sometimes, in the case of grafting 
by detached scions, taken up and kept under cover, while the operation is 
being performed. The two first modes of grafting are performed when the 
sap is rising in spring ; and budding chiefly when it is descending, in July 
and August. Under particular circumstances, however, and with care, 
grafting in every form may be performed at any period of the year. 

647. The materials used in grafting are the common knife (fig. 40a in 
p. 137 ) for heading down stocks ; the grafting knife and budding knife (fig. 
40a and c in p. 137 and fig. 195) ; ligatures of difi'erent kinds for tying on the 

FigAdS. Qrafting~knife, with theportion of the back of the blade from J^to -\- ground to a cutting 
edge, so as to make it serve also for a budding knife. 

scions, and grafting clay or grafting wax for covering them. The ligatures in 
common use are strands of bast matting, or of other flexible bark ; but some- 
times coarse worsted thread is used, or occasionally shreds of coarse paper, or 
cotton cloth, covered with grafting wax. When bast mat is used, it may be 
rendered water-proof, by passing it first through a solution of white soap, 
and next through one of alum ; by which a neutral compound is formed 
insoluble in water. These prepared shreds, before being put on, are soft- 
ened, by holding them over a small vessel of burning charcoal, which the 
grafter carries with him ; and when grafting wax is employed, instead of 
grafting clay, it is kept in an earthen pot, also placed over live charcoal, 
and the composition taken out and laid on with a brush. There are com- 
positions, however, which become soft by the heat of the hand, or by breath- 
ing on them. 

648. Grafting clay is prepared by mixing clay of any kind, or clayey 
loam, fresh horse or cow -dung, free from litter, in the proportion of three 
parts in bulk of clay to one of dung ; and adding a small portion of hay, not, 
however, cut into too short lengths, its use being analogous to that of hair in 
plaster. The whole is thoroughly mixed together, and beaten up with water, 
so as to be of a suitable consistency and ductility for putting on with the 



GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS. 



287 



hands, and for remaining on in wet weather, and dry weather, without 
cracking. The beating is performed with a beetle or rammer (fig. 87 in 
p. 136), on a smooth hard floor under cover, turning over the mass, and adding 
water, and then beating afresh, till it becomes sufficiently softened and duc- 
tile. The process of beating must be repeated two or three times a day for 
several days ; and it should be completed from three weeks to a month be- 
fore the clay is wanted ; care being taken to preserve it in a moist state, by 
covering it with mats or straw. The grafting-clay used by the French 
gardeners is composed of equal parts of cow-dung, free from litter, and 
fresh loam, thoroughly beaten up and incorporated. 

649. Grafting-wax is very generally used on the Continent, instead of 
grafting-clay. There are various recipes for composing it, but they may 
all be reduced to two kinds : — 1. Those which being melted, are laid on 
the graft in a fluid and hot state with a brush ; and 2, those which are pre- 
viously spread on pieces of coarse cotton, or brown paper, and afterwards 
wrapped round the graft in the same manner as strands of matting. The 
common composition for the first kind is one pound of cow-dung, half a 
pound of pitch, and half a pound of yellow wax, boiled up together, and 
heated when wanted in a small earthen pot. For the second kind, equal 
parts of turpentine, bees- wax, and rosin are melted together. 

§ VII. — Grafting by Detached Scions. 

650. Grafting by detached scions is the most common mode, and it is 
that generally used for kernel-fruits, and the hardier forest-trees. It 
is performed in a great many different ways, as may easily be con- 
ceived, when we consider that the only essential condition is the close 
connexion of the alburnum of the scion with that of the stock. Upwards 
of forty modes of grafting by detached ligneous scions have been described 
by Thouin ; but we shall confine ourselves to a few which we consider 
best adapted for general use. The time for grafting hardy trees and 
shrubs by detached scions in England is generally in spring, when the sap 
is rising ; but the vine, if grafted before it is in leaf, suff'ers from bleeding. 
In Germany and North America, grafting is frequently performed in 
the winter time on roots or stocks which have been preserved in sheds or 
cellars ; and the scion being put on and tied and clayed over, the grafted 
stock is kept till the spring, and then taken out and planted. W^here 
scions are grafted on roots, this practice is sometimes followed in British 
nurseries, as in the case of pears and roses. Plants under glass may be 
grafted at almost any period ; and herbaceous grafting, when and wherever 
performed, can, of course, only succeed when the shoots of the scion and 
stock are in a succulent or herbaceous state. In all the different modes of 
grafting by detached scions, success is rendered more certain, when the sap 
of the stock is in a more advanced and vigorous state than that of the scion ; 
for which purpose the scions are generally taken off^ in autumn, and their 
vegetation retarded, by keeping them in a shady place till spring ; and the 
stock is cut over a little above the part where the scion is to be put on, a 
week or two before grafting takes place. The manual precautions necessary 
to success are : to fit the scion to the stock in such a manner that the union 
of their inner barks, and consequently of their alburnums, may be as close 
as possible ; to cut the scion in such a manner, as that there shall be a bud 
or joint at its lower extremity, and the stock so that there shall be a bud 

u 2 



288 



GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS. 



or joint at its upper extremity ; to maintain the scion and the stock in the 
proper position for growth, and in close contact, by a bandage of narrow 
shreds of matting or cloth ; to exclude the air by a covering of clay or 
grafting- wax ; and, in addition, when the graft is close to the surface of the 
ground, by earthing it up with soil ; and when the scion is making its shoot, 
to tie it to a prop if necessary ; to remove the clay or grafting-wax, when 
the scion has made several leaves ; to remove the bandage by degrees, when 
it appears to be no longer necessary ; and to cut off the heel on the upper 
part of the stock at the proper time, so as that it may, if possible, be healed 
over the same season. The modes of grafting detached scions adapted for 
general use, are : splice or whip- grafting, cleft-grafting, rind-grafting, 
saddle-grafting, side-grafting, root-grafting, and herbaceous grafting. 

651. Splice-grafting, tongae-grafting, or whip-grafting, is the mode most 
commonly adopted in all gardens where the stocks are not much larger in 
diameter than the scion ; and it has the advantage of being more expedi- 
tiously performed than any of the other modes described in this section 
The stock is first cut over at the height at which the scion is to be put on 
(fig. 196 a), and a thin slice of the bark and wood is then cut off with a 




Fig. 196. Splice-grafting in its different stages. 

very sharp knife, so as to leave a perfectly smooth, even surface (b) ; the 
scion, which should at least have three buds, and need never have more than 
five (the top one for a leading shoot, the next two for side shoots, in the case 
of fruit-trees, and the lower two to aid in uniting the scion to the stock), 
is next cut, so as to fit the prepared part of the stock as accurately as 
possible, at least on one side; then a slit or tongue, as it is technically 
termed, is made on the scion, and a corresponding one in the stock (c). 
All being thus prepared, the scion is applied to the stock, inserting the 
tongue of the one into the slit of the other (c) ; then the scion is tied 
on with matting (d) ; and, lastly, it is clayed over (e) ; and some- 
times, in addition, it is earthed up, or covered with moss, to serve as a 
non-conductor of heat and moisture. In earthing up the graft, the loose 
surface soil should be used at the grafting season, as being drier and 
warmer than that which is less under the immediate influence of the sun. 
When the scion is placed on the stock with the right hand, the ribbon of 
bass by which it is tied, is brought round the graft from right to left ; but 
when the scion is put on by the left hand, the bast is brought round from 
left to right ; the object in both cases being to make sure of the exact coin- 
cidence of the inner bark of one side of the scion, with the inner bark of 



GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS. 



289 



one side of the stock. The ball of clay which envelopes the graft should be 
about an inch thick on every side, and should extend for nearly an inch below 
the bottom of the graft, to more than an inch over the top of the stock, 
compressing and finishing the whole into a kind of oval or egg-shape form, 
closing it in every part, so as completely to exclude air, light, wet, or cold. 
The ball of clay will not be so apt to drop off, if the matting over which 
it is placed is rendered a fitting nucleus for solid clay, by previously 
smearing it over in a comparatively liquid state. This envelope of 
clay, with the earthing up, preserves the graft in a uniform temperature, 
and prevents the rising of the sap from being checked by cold days or 
nights ; and, therefore, earthing up ought always to be adopted, in the 
case of grafts in the open garden, which are difficult to succeed. The 
next best resource is a ball of moss over the clay, or of some dry material, 
such as hay, tied on from within an inch of the top of the scion to the sur- 
face of the ground, so as to act as thatch in excluding rain and wind, and 
retaining heat and moisture. When the scion and the stock are both of 
the same thickness, or when they are of kinds that do not unite freely, the 
tongue is sometimes omitted; but in that case, 
more care is required in tying. In this, and also 
in other cases, the stock is not shortened down to 
the graft ; but an inch or two with a bud at its 
upper extremity is left to insure the rising of the 
sap to the scion, as in fig. 194 ; and after the lat- 
ter is firmly established, the part of the stock left 
is cut off close above the scion, as shown in fig. 
.197. When the stock is not headed down till the 
scion is about to be put on, it is essentially neces- 
sary to leave it longer than usual, in order to give 
vent to the rising sap, which might otherwise ex- 
ude about the scion, and occasion its decay. In 
the case of shoots having much pith, such as those 
of the rose, the scion is often put on the stock 
without being tongued into it, as in fig. 198, in 
shoots on, and the heel of the which the scion in the one case, 6, is without 
stock cut off. ^ j^^gj, extremity, and is therefore less 

likely to succeed than c, which has a bud in that position. Sometimes a 
notch is cut on the scion immediately under a bud, and this notch is made 
to rest on the top of the stock, as in fig. 199; 
and in such cases, when the scion and stock 
are about the same diameter, the summit of 
the latter is certain of being healed over the 
first season. 

652. Splice-grafting the peach. In splice- 
grafting the shoots of peaches, nectarines, 
and apricots, and other tender shoots with 
large pith, it is found of advantage to have 
a quarter of an inch of two-years old wood 
at the lower extremity of the scion (fig. 200, 
a,) and to have the stock cut with a dove- a shoulder. 
tail notch (&). In the case of the fruit-trees mentioned, the buds of the 
scion on the back and front are removed, leaving two on each side, and a 




Fig. 197. The scion with its young 





Fig. 198. Splice-grafting 
without a tongue. 



290 



GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS. 




Fig. 201. ClefU 
grafting. 




leader ; and when these have grown six or eight inches, their extremities are 
pinched off with the finger and thumb ; by which means each shoot will 
throw out two others, and thus produce in 
autumn a finely-shaped tree, with ten 
branches. Such trees will bear two or three 
fruits the second year from the graft. — Gard. 
Mag., vol. iii. p. 150. 
a 653. Cleft-grafting, fig. 201, requires less 
care than splice-grafting, and seems to have 
been the mode in most general use in former 
ages. It is now chiefly adopted when the 
scion is a good deal larger than the stock, and 
more especially when grafting stocks of con- 
siderable height, or heading down old trees. 
The head of the stock being cut over hori- 
zontally with a saw (fig. 202), a cleft is made 
Fig. 200. Splice- in [{^ from two to three inches in length, with a stout knife 

grafting the peach. ^j^.^^j^ splitting-knife (fig. 203). The cleft 

being kept open by the knife or chisel, or the pick-end of the splitting-knife, 

one or two scions are inserted, 
according to the diameter of the 
stock ; the scions being cut into 
long wedge shapes, in a double 
sense, and inserted into the slit 
Fig. 202. Bow saw for cutting off branches of trees, prepared for them, when the 

knife or chisel being witlidrawn, the stock closes firmly upon the scions, and 

holds them 

fast. The 1 1/ 

graft is then 
tied and 
clayed in the 
usual man- ' 

ner and the Splitting. knife and opening pick for using in cleft-grafting. 

whole is frequently covered with moss. When the stock is an inch or 
more in diameter, three or more scions are frequently 
put on at equal distances from each other round the cir- 
cumference, and this is called crown-grafting. Cleft- 
grafting with one scion is in general not a good mode, 
because if the split has been made right through the 
stock, it is in danger of being injured by the weather 
before it is covered with wood by the scion. If the 
cleft is made only on one side of the stock, the evil is 
mitigated ; but there still remains the tendency of the 
scion in its growth to protrude the wood all on one side. 
In crown-grafting headed-down old trees, the scion is 
generally chosen of two-years old wood, and it is some- 
Fig. 204. Rind-grafting, times inserted between the inner bark and the alburnum, 
as in what is called rind-grafting (fig. 204). In rind-grafting, great care 
must be taken to open the bark of the stock without bruising it, which is 
done by the spatula end of the grafting-knife. The scion is prepared with- 
out a tongue, and inserted so that its wood may be in contact with the albur- 




GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS. 



291 




Fig. 205. Cleft- 
grafting the vine. 



num of the stock. As in this case both edges of the alburnum of the scion 
come in close contact with the alburnum of the stock, the chances of success, 
other circumstances being alike, are increased. Incases of this kind also, a longi- 
tudinal notch is sometimes cut out, instead of a slit, and the scion cut to corre- 
spond. Sometimes also the scion is prepared vnih a shoulder, more especially 
when it consists of two-years old wood, and this mode is called shoulder-grafting. 
654. Cleft-grafting the vine is shown in fig. 205, in which a is a bud on 
the scion, and h one on the stock, both in the most favourable 
positions for success. The graft is tied and clayed in the usual 
manner, excepting that only a small hole is left in the clay 
opposite the eye of the scion, for its developement. In gi'aft- 
ing the vine in this manner, when the bud l on the stock is 
developed, it is allowed to grow for ten or fourteen days, 
after which it is cut off; leaving only one bud and one leaf 
near its base to draw up sap to the scion till it be fairly united 
to the stock. The time of grafting is when the stock is about 
to break into leaf, or when they have made shoots with four 
or five leaves. By this time the sap has begun to flow freely, 
so that there is no danger of the stock suffering from bleeding ; 
though if vines are in good health and their wood thoroughly 
ripened, all the bleeding that usually takes place does little injury. In 
Flanders the rose is frequently grafted in the cleft manner, the scion, if 
possible, being of the same diameter as the 
stock (fig. 206, a) ; or the cleft in the stock is 
made so near one side of the cross section as 
that the bark of the wedge part of the scion 
may fit the bark of the stock on both sides- 
(6). Sometimes a shoulder is made to the 
scion (c), in order that it may rest with greater 
fiimness on the stock ; and the wedge part of 
the scion, instead of being part of an internode, 
as at c?, is, when practicable, selected with a bud 
on it, as at e. The camellia is sometimes cleft- 
grafted, with only a single bud on the scion (fig. 
207, a), which is inserted in the stock &, just^ 
when the sap is beginning to rise, and being tied, Fig. 206. cieft-grafting the rose. 
it is found to take freely without claymg. Epiphyllum truncatum is fre> 
quently cleft-grafted on Pereskia aculeata, as shown in fig. 208. 

655. Saddle-grafting (fig. 209) is 
only applicable to stocks of moderate ' 
size, but it is well adapted for standard 
fruit-trees. The top of the stock is 
cut into a wedge shape, and the scion 
is split up the middle, and placed 
astride on it, the inner barks being 
made to join on one side of the stock 
as in cleft-grafting. The tymg, clay- ^iE-^m. 
ing, &c., are of course performed in Epiphyiium 
the usual manner. Fig. 210 represents iruncdtum 

. J . TT grafted on 

a mode of graftmg practised m liere- Pereskia 
. fordshire after the usual season for acuiedta. 

Fig.207. Cleft-grafting the camellia. 






292 GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS. 





grafting is over, and when the bark may be easily separated from tlie stock. 
The scion, which must be smaller than the stock, is split up between two and 
three inches from its lower end, so as to have one 
side stronger than the other. This strong side is 
then prepared and introduced between the bark 
and wood, as in rind-grafting ; while the thinner 
division is fitted to the opposite side of the stock. 
Mr. Knight, who describes this mode of grafting, 
says, that grafts of the apple and pear rarely ever 
fail by it, and that it may be practised with suc- 
cess either in spring, or mth young wood in July, 
as soon as that has become moderately firm and 
mature (see Hort. Trans., and Encyclo. of Gard., 
ed. 1835, p. 653). Saddle-grafting, in whichever 
Saddle- Way performed, has the advantage over all others 
grafting, in presenting the largest surface of the alburnum Fig. 210. Herefordshire 
of the scion to receive the ascending sap of the stock, and saddie-graftmg. 
at the same time without causing it to deviate from its natural course ; which 
it is made to do to a certain extent, when the scion is put on one side of the 
stock only, as in splice-grafting and side-grafting. 

656. Side-grafting is nothing more than splice-grafting perfoi-med on 
tlie side of a stock, the head of which is not cut off. It is sometimes 
practised on fruit-trees to supply a branch in a vacancy, or for the sake 
of having different kinds of fruits upon the same tree; but it is better 
for the latter purpose to graft on the side branches, because, in consequence 
of the flow of the sap not being interrupted by being headed down, the 
success of this kind of grafting is more uncertain than almost any other 
mode. In grafting the lateral branches of fruit-trees, it is always desirable, 
in order to ensure success, to have corresponding buds in the scion and the 
stock, as in fig. 211. What the French call veneer-grafting, fig. 212, is 

a variety of side-grafting, in which the scion 
e is prepared to fit into the stock /, which 
has a notch at the lower extremity of the 
incision, for the scion to rest on. This mode 
of grafting is practised with orange-trees, 
camellias, &c., in pots ; and after the opera- 
tion is completed, the grafted plant is plunged 
in heat, and closely covered with a bell- 
glass. Fig. 218 is a peculiar mode of side- 
grafting the vine, which is performed in 
November, when b<yth scion and stock are in a dormant state, in which the 
scions a and 6, being prepared as in the figure, and inserted and bandaged, 
instead of being clayed, they are surrounded with a mass of mould. About 
a month afterwards the plant is plunged in a mild heat, and in about three 
weeks the buds from the scions will be seen emerging from the mould with 
which they are surrounded. (See Gard. Mag., vol. xii., p. 172.) 

657. Wedge-grafting (fig. 214), which is a modification of side-grafting, 
has been very successful in grafting Cedrus Deodara, on the cedar of 
Lebanon. The scions, c, are chosen of the preceding year's wood, from three 
to five inches in length, and they are inserted in either one or two-years old 
wood, as may be convenient, and as near the top of the stock as is practicable. 




211. drafting the lateral branches 
of fruit-trees. 



GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS. 



293 




in order to gain height. The slit in the stock is cut through the pith, and 
from 1 to inches in length ; and the graft being tied, is coated over with 
grafting-wax, as being lighter than clay, and not so 
liable to bend down the shoot. Entire cedars of 
Lebanon at Elvaston Castle have had the extremities 
of their shoots grafted in this manner with Cedrus 
Deoddra, by Mr. Barron, the inventor of this mode. 
(See Gard. Mag., vol. xiv., p. 80.) 

658. Grafting the mistletoe has been successfully 
performed in the wedge manner by Mr. Pit, farmer 
and grafter, near Hatfield, in Herefordshire. To be 
attended with success, there must be a joint let into 
the soft wood of the stock, or a scion taken off with a 
heel, and the heel of the preceding year's wood in- 
serted. (See Gard. Mag., vol. xiii., p. 207.)« 

659. Root-grafting is merely the union of a scion 
to a root, instead of to a stem. It is sometimes 
practised in nurseries, by grafting the apple and the 
pear on the roots of thorns, tree peonies on herba- 
ceous peonies (see herbaceous grafting, 662), stove 
passion-flowers, Japan clematises, &c., on the common 

), sorts, and with various other stove and greenhouse 
1 plants, especially climbers. The greatest care is re- 
p quisite to prevent any particles of soil from getting in 
/ between the scion and the stock, for which purpose 
Fig. 212. Side-grafting the ^'^^ ^PP^r part of the latter is sometimes washed 
orange. with Water before the operation is performed. The 

roots of thorns, peas, and crabs, as already observed, are frequently grafted 
in-doors, and taken out and planted so deep, that only the upper part of the 
scion appears above ground. An- A 
other mode where a thorn hedge \\ 
is taken up, or a row of seedling \\ ^ 
pear or crab stocks is transplanted, \ \ / 
and a portion of the roots left in \\j 
the soil, is to graft on them where \ \ 
they stand, and afterwards to c\\ 
earth-up the graft — a mode which \ 1 
would doubtless be very success- \l 
fill. 

660. Herbaceous-grafting is 
applicable either to the solid parts 
of herbaceous plants, or to the 
branches of ligneous plants when 
they are in a herbaceous state. 
Baron de Tschoudy, of Metz, the 
inventor of this method, and M. Soulange Bodin, 
of Fromont, have grafted the melon on the cu- 
cumber, the tomata on the common potatoe, the 
Fig. 213. Side-grafting the vine, cauliflower on the broccoli and the borecole ; and 
on the tender-growing shoots of various forest-trees, and of azaleas and 
other shrubs, hardy and tender, tl^ey have grafted successfully allied 
species. This mode has been extensively employed for the last fifteen 




Fig. 214. Wedge- 
grafting. 



294 



GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS. 



years iii the forest of Fontainebleau, in grafting the Pinus L-aricio on the 
P. sylv(^stris ; and many hundreds of plants of pmes and firs of different 
kinds, and of Indian azaleas, have been so propagated at Fromont. The 
trees thus grafted by Baron Tsehoudy may still be seen in the botanic 
garden at Metz, and on his o\mi estate in the neighbourhood ; and these and 
the pines at Fontainebleau prove this mode of grafting to be particulai'ly 
applicable to the .^bietinae. The following mode of grafting the pines at 
Fontainebleau is extracted from the second volume of the Gardener s Maga- 
zine^ and some further observations on the practice will be found in the 
Arhoretum Britannicum, vol. iv., p. 2129, and in the Gardener s Magazine 
for 1841, p. 402. 

661. Grafting the Pine and Fir tribe. — The proper time for grafting pines- 
is when the young shoots have made about three quarters of their length, 
and are still so herbaceous as to break like a shoot of asparagus. The shoot 
of the stock is then broken off about two inches under its terminating bud, 
the leaves are cut or lipped off from twenty to twenty-four lines down 
from the extremity, leaving, however, two pairs of leaves opposite and close 
to the section of fracture, wliich leaves are of great importance to the success 
of the graft. The shoot is then split with a very thin knife between the 
two pairs of leaves (fig. 215), and to the depth of two inches ; the scion is 

then prepared (6), the lower part being 
stripped of its leaves to the length of two 
inches is cut and inserted in the usual 
manner of cleft-grafting. They may also 
be grafted in the lateral manner (c). The 
graft is tied with a coarse thread of wool- 
len, and a cap of paper is put over the 
whole to protect it from the sun and rain. 
At the end of fifteen days this cap is re- 
moved, and the ligature at the end of a 
month ; at that time also the two pairs 
of leaves (a) which have served as nurses 
are removed. The scions of those sorts of 
pines which make two growths in a sea- 
son, or, as the technical phrase is, have a 
second sap, produce a shoot of five or six 
inches the first year ; but those of only 
Fig. 215. Herbaceous grafting the pine and q^^^ g^p as the Corsican pine, Weymouth 
fir tribe. • o i • / 

pme, &c., merely ripen the wood groA\Ti 

before grafting, and fonn a strong terminating bud, which in the following 
year produces a shoot of fifteen inches or two feet. 

We have described this mode of grafting at greater length than we other- 
wise should have done, because it is little known in this country, and 
because we think it ought to be adopted in a great many cases for the mul- 
tiplication of plants now propagated with difficulty by cuttings, or reared, 
after being so propagated, so slowly as to exhaust the patience of the propa- 
gator or amateur. For example, the pine and fii* tribe, though they may 
all be increased by cuttings, yet these cuttings grow very slowly, and though 
they ultimately become good plants, many kinds as much so as if they had 
been raised from seeds, yet if the kinds to be propagated had been grafted 
on the points of the budding shoots of pines, or firs of five or six yeai-s' 
growth, they would have grown with incomparably greater rapidity and 




GRAFTI.XG BY DETACHED SCIONS. 



295 




vigour, and would have become trees of twenty feet in length, before cuttings 
had attained the height of three feet. 

662. Grafting the tree Peony on the roots of the herbaceous species is 
performed from the middle of July to the middle of August, and will be 
easily understood from fig. 216, in which a represents a triangular space in 

the tuber or stock ; 6, the scion, 
the lower end of which is cut 
so as to fit the cavity in the stock ; 
and c, the scion fitted to the 
stock. It is not necessary that 
there should be more than one 
bud on the scion, for which rea- 
son the upper part of 6 might 
have been iaserted in a, in the 
cleft manner. The graft being 
tied ^\iih. bast, and covered with 
grafting- wax, the whole is in - 
serted into a bed of tan, leaving 
only about half an inch of the 
scion above the surface. The 
tubers throw out roots by the 
end of September or the begin- 
ing of October, and are tnen 
taken up and potted, and placed 

Fig. 2]G. Grafting the treepeony,on the tubers of the ^ ^^j^ ^^^^^ 
herbaceous peony. i i i 

mam through the wmter 
The following kinds of herbaceous grafting are in use in France and 
Belgium : — 

663. Grafting on fleshy roots, as in the dahlia and peony, may be per- 
formed either with a growing shoot (fig. 217), or with a dormant eye, 
as in fig. 218, The former mode requires no explanation ; by the latter, 

on the neck of a bar- 
ren tubercle a small 
hole is made, in which 
the bud is inserted, but 
in such a manner as 
that its base shall be 
perfectly on a level 
with the surface of the 
tubercle, and the 
edges are covered with 218. veg.groftuuj 

grafting- wax. The tu- the dahUa on us 

bercle is then planted 
in a pot, care being taken not to cover 
the bud, and the pot is plunged in heat 
under glass. When the plant has taken, 
it may, if hardy, be turned out into 
the open border. 

664. Herbaceous wedge-grafting (fig. 219) is effected by paring the scion 
into a wedge shape, and inserting it into a corresponding slit in the stock. 
It succeeds well both with trees and herbaceous plants, more especially 





Fig. 217. Cleft-grafting the dahlia on its own 
tubers. 



296 



GRAFTING BY DETACHED SCIONS. 




Fig. 219. Herbaceous wedge- 
grafting. 




Fig.220.Herbaceoiis-gra/t- 

ing with stems having 
opposite leaves. 



when the plants are in pots so as to be plunged in heat and covered vdth a 
bell-glass. 

665. Herbaceous- grafting for shoots with opposite leaves (fig. 220). In 
the middle of the shoots, be- 
tween two opposite eyes, an 
angular and longitudinal inci- 
sion is made, and a small por- 
tion of the stem cut out from 
one side to the other. The scion 
is cut to fit this opening, and it 
is inserted as in the figure, and 
bandaged in the usual manner. 

666. Herbaceous-grafting — 
Annual or Perennial plants (fig. 
221). The period chosen for this mode of grafting is 
that of the greatest vigour of the plant, that is, some 
days before its going into flower. The stem of the stock is cut through 
above a leaf, as near as possible to its petiole, and a slit 
downwards is made in the section. A shoot is then taken 
off near the root of the plant to be increased, the end of 
which is cut into a wedge shape, and is inserted in the slit 
made in the stock, taking great care of the leaf on the 
latter; for it is that which must nourish the scion until 
it has taken thoroughly, by keeping up the circulation of 
the sap. A bandage is applied at the juncture, covered 
with grafting wax as before. When the graft has taken, 
which is ascertained by its growth, the ligature is removed, 
"grafting "annuals ^nd also the old leaf, and the shoots from the stock below 

or perennials. the graft. 

667. Grafting herbaceous shoots of succulents (fig. 222). Take a young 
shoot, and cutting its base to a point or wedge, insert it in a hole or sKt made, 
in the stem or leaf of the stock. 

668. Grafting the melon (fig. 228). On the stem of a cucumber, or any 
otlier plant of the famUy of 
Cucurbitaceae, but having some 
analogy with the melon, choose 
a vigorous part of a shoot having 
a well-developed leaf. In the 
axil of this leaf an oblique cut 
is made, of half its thickness. 
The point of a melon shoot, so 
far developed as to have its fruit 
quite formed, is then cut off, and 

ig.222. Herbaceous- pointed at itS end, two inches Fig. 223. Herbaceous-grafting the 
grafting succulents. -T . -1 r -x • • «,p7«« 

below the fruit. It is m- 
serted in the cleft made in the stock, always taking care to spare the leaf 
until the scion has taken. The remaining part of the operation is per- 
formed in the usual manner, with ligatures and grafting- wax. This mode 
of grafting succeeds pretty well ; but it has not hitherto been applied to any 
useful end. Tomatoes may be grafted in this manner on potatoes; and it is 
said that potato plants thus treated, produce good crops, both of potatoes 
and tomatoes. 




Fig.221. Herbaceous- 





GRAFTING BY APPROACH OR INARCHING. 



297 



669. The greffe etoiiffee, or stifled graft, is so named, not from any par- 
ticular mode of performing the operation, but because the plants so grafted 
are closely covered with a bell-glass, so as completely to exclude the sur- 
rounding air, and placed in moist heat, while the union between the scion 
and the stock is going on. It is only applicable to plants of small size, and 
in pots ; but for these, whether hardy, as in the case of pines, firs, and oaks, 
or tender, as in the case of orange-trees, camellias, rhododendrons, &c., it is 
the most expeditious of all modes of grafting. The operation is very com- 
monly performed in the cleft mode, the stock being in a growing state with 
the leaves on, and being cut over close to a leaf which has a bud in its axil, 
and so as to slope away from it. Great care is taken not to injure the leaf 
and bud on the stock, as on these, in a great measure, depends the success of 
the operation. The stock is split to a depth equal to two- thirds of its thick- 
ness, and the scion prepared is inserted, made fast with a shred of mat, or 
with worsted threads ; and the upper part of the stock not covered by the 
scion is coated over with grafting- wax. The pot containing the plant is then 
plunged in heat, and closely covered with a bell-glass, which must be taken 
oflf and wiped every second day, and left off an hour or two, if at any time 
the plants appear too moist. Side-grafting and inarching are also employed 
by those who practise the greffe etouffee, more especially in autumn. After 
the scion is inserted, and bound close to the stock, the pot containing the 
stock is half buried in a horizontal position, on a bed of dry tan, or dry 
moss ; and the grafted part covered with a bell-glass, stuffed round the 
bottom with tan or moss, so as to prevent any change of air taking place 
within the bell-glass. The graft is kept thus closely covered for from two 
to four weeks, according to the season, when the scion will, in general, be 
found perfectly imited to the stock. Air is now admitted by degrees ; and 
after a week or two more, the glass is removed altogether, the pot set up- 
right in a gentle heat, and the upper part of the stock neatly cut off close 
above the scion. 

§ VIII. — Grafting by approach or inarching. 

670. Gi^afting by approach differs from grafting by detached scions, in the 
scion or shoot not being separated from the plant to which it belongs, and 
by which it is nourished, till a union takes place. For this purpose, it is 
necessary that the two plants which are to form the scion and the stock be 
planted, or, if in pots, placed adjoining each other, so that a branch of the one 
may be easily l)rought into close contact with the stem, or with a branch of 
the other. A disk of bark and alburnum is then removed from each 
at the intended point of union, and the parts being properly fitted to 
each other, so as the inner barks of the respective subjects may coincide, 
as in the case of grafting by detached scions, they are bandaged and covered 
with clay or grafting wax. This being done, in a short time, in conse- 
quence of the developement of cambium, the albarnum of the scion and that 
of the stock become united, and the scion may be cut off below the point 
where it is united with the stock, leaving the former to be nourished only 
by the latter. This kind of grafting is the only sort that takes place in 
nature, from the crossing of the branches of trees (more especially where 
they are crowded together in hedges), when, by the friction between them, 
the alburnum is laid bare, and if a season of repose takes place when the sap 
is rising, the parts adhere and grow together. This is not uncommon in 



298 



GRAFTING BY APPROACH OR INARCHING. 



4 



beech trees, and in beech and hornbeam hedges ; and it is even occasionally 
imitated by art in young hedges of these, and of several other kinds of trees 
or shrubs, in order to make a very strong hedge. The principal use, how- 
ever, of grafting by approach, is to propagate plants of rarity and value, 
which it is found difficult to increase by any other means, and of which it is 
not desirable to risk the loss of any part, by attempting an increase by means 
of detached scions or cuttings. Inarching may be per- 
formed with various organs of plants ; but in horticulture 
it is chiefly confined to stems, branches, and roots ; and all 
the diff^erent forms may be included under side-inarching, 
terminal inarching, and inarching by partially nourished 
scions. The season for performing the operation is princi- 
pally in spring when the sap is rising ; but it may be 
effected at every season, except during severe frost or 
extreme heat. No other instrument is necessary than the 
grafting knife, and the graft may often be secured from the 
sun and air by bandages, without the aid of moss, clay, or 
grafting wax. 

Fig. 224. A scion and 671. Side inarching may be effected either with or with- 
siock prepared for out tongueing. In the latter case, the incisions in the 
marching. sclon and the stock are of the simplest description 

(as shown in fig. 224, and in fig. 225, o), and the parts being bound 
together with matting, as at b, and covered by clay or moss, are left to form a 
union. Side-inarching with a tongue is represented in fig. 226, in which a is 
the stock pre- 
pared with an 
under tongue, 
and b, the scion, 
with an upper 
tongue for insert- 
ing into a ; c is 
the scion and the 
stock united. 
One of the pur- 
poses, though 
perhaps more cu- 
rious than use- 
ful, to which De 
and 

Thouin say that 

this kind of grafting may be applied, is to increase the number of roots to a 
tree. Thus, if a tree be planted in the centre of a circle, and three or 
more of the same, or of allied species, be planted in the circumference, 
so that their tops may be at a suitable distance for inarching to the 
centre tree ; then, after the union has been effected, if the parts of the 
side trees be cut off above the graft, all the sap sent up by their roots will 
go to the nourishment of the tree in the centre. When the root of one tree 
is to be inarched into that of another, with a view of strengthening the tree to 
which the latter belongs, this mode of inarching is the one generally adopted. 

C72. Terminal inarching consists in heading down the stock, and joining 
the scion to it, either in the manner of splice-grafting, cleft-grafting, or by 





Fig. 225. The scion inarched to 

the stock and bandaged with CandoUe 
matting. 



Fig. 226. Inarching with the scion 
and stock tongued and united, 
but not bandaged. 



GRAFTING BY APPROACH OR INARCHING. 



299 



saddle-grafting, as exemplified in figs. 221 to 223. The stock is cut oiF in 
the form of a wedge, as in fig. 227, and the scion is cut upwards, half-way 
through, for a sufficient length, as in fig. 228 ; then the scion is placed upon 
the stock as in fig. 229^ and bound on with bast and clay as usual, a ring of 




Fig. 228. A scion prepared 
for saddle-inarching. 



Fig. 229. A scion and stock untied in 
the manner of saddle-inarehing. 




Fig. 227. A stock pre- 
pared for saddle- 
inarching. 

bark being taken off between the graft and the root, as in fig. 229, tw, which 
causes the returning sap to flow through the graft into the 
stock n instead of into its own root, 0. This mode is 
recommended for grafting whenever the stock and the scion 
are of the same size, or very nearly so ; but when the 
stock is twice the size of the scion, the following modifica- 
tion of it is preferable : — the top of the stock is cut off 
slanting from one side only, as in fig. 230 ; then a long 
tongue is made to the scion, about one-third of its thick- 
ness, as in fig. 231, and as much of the bark and wood 
is cut from the back and front of the stock as will corre- 
^1'Jr/or1»arlS^* ^P^^^ ^^^^^^ *ongue outhe scion ; when the 

wJien it is twice the stock is ready to receive the graft, it will appear like fig. 
size of the scion. 232, q : there is also a piece cut off the bark of the stock 
at r, fig. 232, but it is not seen in the figure. Then the scion is placed 
across the middle of the stock, 
as in fig. 233, and bound with 
bast-mat and clay as usual ; 
after which a ring of bark is 
taken off at 5, in fig. 233, in 
the same manner as directed 
for fig. 229. 

673. Inarching with partially- 
nourished scions appears, at 
first sight, to belong to the pre- 
ceding section, but it is placed 
here because the scion has an 
auxiliary support from moist 
soil or water, till it adheres to 
the stock. This mode is appli- 

Fig. 231. A scion prepared for ^^^^^ either tO the side or crown ^^^'^^SJ. sto^pr. 
inarching when it is only half manner of inarching, and it only when it is twice the size 

the size of the stock. differs from them in the in- of the scion. 

ferior end of the scion being inserted in a vessel of water, as in figs. 234: 





300 



BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS. 



and 235, or in a pot of moist earth. The vessel of water must be removed 

from time to time, 
and the base of the 
submerged scion 
renewed by paring 
a slice off its extre- 
mity, and repla- 
cing it again in the 
water. If the stock 
be headed down, a 
bud must be left in 
it at its upper ex- 
tremity, in order 
to attract the sap 
to the graft. The 
finer sorts of ca- 
mellias are some- 
times grafted in Fig. 234. inarching with 
this manner, as in- « *ciort nourished by its 





Fig. 233. A large stock and a small 
scion united by inarching. 



dicated in fig. 23,5. tZ^T^lJT^f 



In some cases, when it is desired to prevent evapora- water. 
tion, instead of claying or mossing, the graft is covered with a piece of paper 
tied on below and above the parts operated on, so as com- 
pletely to enclose them. Some persons, instead of a vessel 
of water, insert the lower part of the scion into a pot of soil 
kept moist, or into a potato or a turnip. 

A great many different kinds of inarching have been 
described by M. Thouin, which, if not useful, are at least 
curious: such, for example, as uniting a number of diflPerent 
stems of different species of the same genus, and afterwards 
allowing only one shoot to expend all. the sap drawn up by 
the different stocks ; the object being to ascertain whether 
the different saps supplied would make any difference in 
that of the scion, which, however, was found not to be the 
case. Another mode that used to be practised in Continental 
nurseries, and sometimes formerly in England, was to raise 
a plant in a pot, on a platform, between two trees of allied 
species, as of a thorn between two pear trees, and, after 
iaarching a branch of each tree into the thorn, when the 
union was complete, to remove the scaffolding, shake the 
roots of the thorn out of the flower-pot, and leave the plant 
suspended with its roots in the air. 

3Pig.235. The camel- § IX. — Budding or Grafting hy Detached Buds. 

aVclon^partZul Budding consists in transfening a portion of bark 

nourished by a Containing one or more buds, and forming the scion, to 
phial of water. ^^^^ wood of another plant forming the stock, a portion 
of the bark of the stock being raised up or taken off to receive 
the scion. The buds of trees are originated in the young shoots 
in the axils of the leaves ; and when the bud begins to grow, its 
connexion with the medullary sheath ceases ; or, at all events, the bud 
if detached and properly placed on the alburnum of another plant, will 




BUDJ)ING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS. 



301 



become vitally united to it. On these facts the art of budding is founded. 
This mode of grafting is chiefly applicable to woody plants, and the scion 
may, in general, be secured to the stock, and sufficiently protected there, by 
bandages of bast-mat or thread, without the use of grafting clay or 
wax. The union between the scion and the stock takes place, in the 
first instance, in consequence of the exudation of organisable matter from 
the soft wood of the stock ; and it is rendered permanent by the returning 
sap from the leaves of the stock, or from those of the shoot made by the bud. 
All the different modes of budding may be reduced to two : — shield-budding, 
in which the scion is a piece of bark commonly in the shape of a shield, con- 
taining a single bud ; and flute-budding, in which the scion consists of a ring 
or tube of bark containing several buds. In both modes the bark of one year 
is chosen in preference ; and the operation is more certain of success when 
the bud of the scion is placed exactly over the situation of a bud on the stock. 
The shield may, however, be placed on the internodcf?, or a piece of bark 
without buds may be put on as a scion, and yet a vital union may take place 
between the parts, because the medullary rays exist every v/here in the wood, 
and it is by them, during the process of organisation, that the layer of wood 
of one year in a growing state is joined to that of the year before. A disk or 
shield from which the visible bud has been removed will also succeed, and the 
latent buds may remain dormant for years, and yet be developed afterwards. 
In the year 1824 we placed several buds on the branches of a fig-tree, and, 
from some accidental cause, though the shield adhered in every case, yet 
most of the visible buds were destroyed, and only one of the latent buds was 
developed. Twelve years afterwards, when the fig-tree received a severe 
check, in the winter of 1837-8, the development of a second latent bud from 
one of the shields took place. When the bud is placed on the stock, its 
point is almost always made to turn upwards, as being its natural position ; 
but in budding the olive, and other trees which are liable to gum, the bud is 
made to point downwards, and the success is said to be greater than when the 
common mode is adopted. There are two seasons at which budding is prac- 
tised, viz. : — when the sap rises in spring ; when the bud inserted is deve- 
loped immediately, in the same manner as in detached ligneous scions ; and 
•n the end of summer, when the sap is descending, the operation being then 
performed with a bud formed during the preceding summer, which does not 
develop itself till the following spring. The former mode is caUed by the 
French, budding with a growing eye ; and the latter, budding with a dormant 
eye. In budding, the stock is not generally cut over in the first instance, as 
in grafting by detached ligneous scions ; but a tight ligature is frequently 
placed above the graft, with the intention of forcing a part of the ascending 
sap to nourish the graft. 

675. The uses of budding^ in addition to those of the other modes of graft- 
ing, are, to propagate some kinds with which the other modes of grafting are 
not so successful, as, for example, the rose. To perform the operation of 
grafting with greater rapidity than with detached scions, or inarching, as in 
the case of most fruit-trees ; to unite early vegetating trees with late vege- 
tating ones, as the apricot with the plum, they being both in the same state 
of vegetation during the budding season; to graft without the risk of 
injuring the stock in case of want of success, as in side-budding, and in 
flute-budding without heading down ; to introduce a number of species or 
varieties on the same stem, which could not be done by any other mode of 

X 



302 



BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS. 



grafting without disfiguring the stock, in the event of the want of success ; 
to prove the blossoms or fruits of any tree, in which case blossom-buds are 
chosen instead of leaf-buds ; and, finally, as the easiest mode of distributing 
a great many kinds on the branches of a tree, as in the case of roses, camel- 
lias, and fruit-trees. 

676, In performing the operation, mild, cloudy weather should bo chosen, 
because during hot, dry, windy weather, the viscous surfaces exposed to the 
air are speedily dried by evaporation, by which the healing process is 
retarded ; besides, the bark never rises so well in very dry, windy weather as 
it does in weather which is still, w^arm, and cloudy, but without rain. The 
first step is to ascertain that the bark of the scion and that of the stock 
will separate freely from the wood beneath them ; then procure the cutting 
from which the shields or tubes of bark are to be taken. If the budding 
is to be performed in spring, the cuttings from which the buds are to be 
taken should be cut from the tree the preceding autumn, and kept through 
the winter by burying their lower ends in the ground, in a cool, shady 
situation, as in the case of grafting by detached scions. When these cut- 
tings are to be used, their lower ends should be placed in water, to keep them 
fresh, while the operation of cutting shields or rings from them is going on. 
If, on the other hand, the budding is to be performed in summer, which is 
almost always the case in Britain, then the cutting from which the buds 
are to be taken is not cut off the parent tree till just before the operation is 
to be performed. The cuttmg should be a shoot of the current year s wood, 
which has done growing, or nearly so, and its leaves should be cut off, to 
prevent the waste of sap by evaporation, as soon as it is taken from the tree; 
the end of the cutting should then be put in water to keep it fresh, and the 
buds taken off as wanted. "When the leaves are cut off, care should be 
taken to leave part of the petiole of each, to handle the shield or ring by 
when putting it on the stock. A slit is next made in the stock, or a ring of 
bark taken off ; and the shield or ring from the cutting, containing a bud 
or buds which are ripe or nearly so, is introduced in the manner which will 
be described in treating of the different modes of performing the operation. 
Tying the bud on the stock generally completes the operation, though 
sometimes grafting-wax is employed to cover the junction of the shield or 
ring. In British gardens the grafting-knife is commonly used for budding, 
but its sharp point is found in delicate cases to injure the soft wood ; for 
which reason, on the Continent, a knife is preferred which has a rounded 
extremity ; and these knives, which are manufactured by Preist, Oxford- 
street, and other cutlei-s, are now coming into use in England. An 
improvement on these knives is shown in fig. 236, in which the point of 




Fig. 236. GodsalVs budding knife improved. 

the blade is cui-vilinear and is two-edged, and the handle has a neck or 
narrow part, which may be firmly grasped by the little finger when tying 
on the ligature, instead of the usual butcher-like practice of putting the 
knife in the mouth. Instead of having a separate knife for budding, 



BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS. 



303 



a portion of the back of the common grafting-knife, viz. from + to + in 
fig. 195, p. 286, may be sharpened by the cutler, so as to be used as a blade 
for making the downward slit, while the cross slit can be made with the 
common edge. Scions for budding may be sent a considerable distance by 
letter, if the leaves are cut off and the scion closely wrapped up in oiled 
paper, or coated over with mastic. Scions may also be immersed in honey, 
in which they will keep for two or three weeks. When bulk is not an 
objection, they may be packed up in long grass, or in moist moss, or in 
several folds of moistened brown paper, and covered with drawn wheat- 
straw, to serve as a non-conductor of heat and moisture. 

G77. Prepared wax for budding may be composed of turpentine, bees' v/ax, 
resin, and a little tallow melted together. It may be put on in the same 
manner as grafting-clay, but should not be more than a quarter of an ineh 
in thickness ; or it may be very thinly spread upon cotton cloth, and used 
in shreds, like sticking-plaster. In this last state it serves both as a ligature 
for retaining the escutcheon or scion in its place, and as a covering for 
excluding the air. In very delicate budding and grafting, fine moss or cotton 
wool are frequently used as substitutes for grafting-clay or grafting-wax, 
the moss or cotton being tied firmly on with coarse thread or fine strands of 
bast -matting. 

678. Plastic wax^ or grafting-wax, which the heat of the hand, or breath- 
ing on, will render sufficiently soft for use, is thus prepared : — Take common 
sealing-wax, of any colour, except green, one part ; mutton fat, one part ; 
white wax, one part ; and honey, one-eighth of a part. The white wax and 
the fat are to be first melted, and then the sealing-wax is to be added gra- 
dually in small pieces, the mixture being kept constantly stirred ; and lastly, 
the honey must be put in just before taking it off the fire. It should be 
poui-ed hot into paper or tin moulds, and kept slightly agitated till it begins 
to congeal. 

679. Shield-budding in the end of summer is almost the only mode in 
use in British nurseries, where it is generally performed in July or August. 
A cross cut and slit are made in the stock, in the form of the letter T, and 
if possible through a bud (fig. 287, a). From a shoot of the present year 




Fig. 237. The different steps in the process of shield-budding. 



deprived of its leaves, a slice of bark and wood, containing a bud, b, is then 
cut out, and the wood is removed from the slice by the point of the knife. 
This is done by holding the shield by the remains of the leaf with one 

X 2 



304 



BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS. 



hand, and entering the point of the knife at the under extremity of the 
shield, and between it and the thumb ; and then raising and draAving out 
the wood by a double motion outwards from the bark, and downwards from 
the upper to the lower extremity of the shield. The bud being now pre- 
pared, as at c, the bark on each side of the slit in the stock is raised up by 
the spatula end of the budding-knife, and the shield inserted beneath it ; its 
upper part being cut straight across, as at so as to admit of its joining 
accurately with the inner bark of the stock, as at e, so as to receive its 
descending sap. A bandage of soft matting is now applied, so as to exclude 
the air from the wounded parts, and to show only the bud and the petiole, 
as at /, and the operation is complete. At /, the bud is shown developing 
its leaves, and at g it has produced a shoot of some length, which is tied for 
a short time to the upper part of the stock ; but that part of the latter 
which is shown by dotted lines is cut off in July. 

The portion of wood left attached to the base of the bud should 
generally be about a third of the length of the shield ; the latter being 
from an inch to an inch and a half in length, and the eye should be 
situated about a third from the top. Spines, prickles, and leaves should 
be carefully cut off or shortened. Sometimes in taking out the splinter of 
wood from the scion, which is done with a quick, jerking motion, the base 
of the bud which is woody is torn out also, leaving a small cavity, instead 
of an even surface ; the surface, when the bud is in a proper state, being 
either quite even, or only gently raised above the surrounding bark, in 
consequence of the woody base of the bud being left in. When the woody base 
of the bud has been torn out, so as to leave a cavity, it is safest not to use the 
bud, but to prepare another ; though when the cavity left is not very deep, 
and a small portion of wood is seen in it, the bud will sometimes grow. 
Only those buds must be taken from the scion that are nearly mature ; 
which is readily known both by the size of the bud and by the full expan- 
sion and firm texture of the disk of the leaf, in the axil of which it grows. 

680. Shield-budding in June.—Roses of some kinds may be budded at 
almost any period from June to October. In budding in June, Dr. Van 
Mons first deprives the young shoots, from which he proposes to take buds, 
of their leaves, and fifteen days afterwards he finds the buds sufficiently 
swelled to allow of their being taken off and inserted. The shoots from 
such buds frequently flower the same year ; but this may be rendered certain 
by pruning off all the branches of the stock. A rose scion is, he says, 
seldom too dry to take, if the woody base of the bud be left about a third 
of the length of the shield, as there is then a portion of the alburnum of the 
scion, as well as a portion of its inner bark, brought into close contact with 
the alburnum of the stock. Dr. Van Mons has budded successfully from 
rose-cuttings that had remained in a drawer fourteen days. 

681. Shield-budding in spring may be exemplified by the Belgian prac- 
tice with the rose. For this purpose, scions are cut before winter, and 
stuck into the ground till the moment in spring when the bark of the stock 
will rise, or, technically speaking, run. To prepare the bud, a transverse 
cut should be first made into the wood, a little below an eye (fig. 238, a), 
which incision is met by a longer cut downwards, commencing at a short 
distance above the eye (6), care being taken that a portion of wood is 
removed with the bark (c). The bud is then inserted into the bark of the 
stock which is cut like an inverted T (rf), and the horizontal edges of the 



BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS. 



305 




cut in the stock and of the bud must be brought into the most perfect con- 
tact with each other (e), and then bound with waterproof bast (/), without, 

however, appljdng grafting- clay. 
Eight days after the insertion of 
the bud, the stock is pruned down 
to the branch above on the opposite 
side, and this branch is stopped hy 
being cut down to two or three 
eyes ; all the side-wood is destroyed 
as it appears ; and when the bud 
has pushed its fifth leaf, the shoot 
it has made is compelled to branch, 
by pinching off its extremity; it 
will then flower in September of 
the same year. The rose may also 
be budded in spring, without waiting 
Pig. 238. Shield-budding the rose in spring, till the bark Separates, by placing 
the bud with some wood on it in a niche made in the stock as at (^r), similar 
to what would be formed by taking an eye off it, for budding in the manner 
above described ; the bud is fitted exactly in the niche, with a slight pres- 
sure, and then tied on as usual. The camellia may also be budded in this 
manner in spring by taking a bud with the wood in from the scion, and 
substituting it for a corresponding piece cut out of the stock, as in fig. 239. 

682. Shield-budding without a bud or eye 
(fig. 240) is used simply to cover a wound 
or blemish in one tree by a portion of the 
live bark of another. 

683. Budding with a circular shield., with 
a portion of wood attached, (fig. 241,) is em- 
ployed to equah'se the flower-buds over a tree, 
by removing some from places where there 

Fig. 239. Shield-bud- are too many to other places in which there ^^^^ sMeid- 

ding the camellia in are toO few. With the point of a penknife, grafting with- 

spring. Spring, cut a small cone of bark and wood ''"^ « ^^<^- 

containing a bud, and insert it in an orifice made in the same manner, secur- 
ing the edges with grafting-wax. 

684. Budding with a shield stamped out by a 
punch (fig.242) is considered excellent for budding 
old trees, the thick and rugged bark of which is not 
suitable for being taken off^ with the budding- 
knife. With a mallet the punch (fig. 243) is driven 

y through the bark of the scion, and then through 
that of the stock, and the piece which comes out 
of the former is inserted in the cavity formed by 
T7- o.. „ ^ the piece taken out of the latter. „ 

Fig. 241. Bud- -r. jj. -7 T wr. „ . .xFig. 242. Bwrfrfm^r 

ding with a cir- 685. Buddmg With the shield reversed (fig. 244) the aid of a 
cuiar shield, jg almost the Only manner of budding used in the pvMch. 
south of Europe, particularly at Genoa and Hieres, to propagate orange- 
trees, 
sap. 




0 



It is said also to be suitable for trees having abundant and gummy 



686. Budding with the eye turned downwards. — By this method the buds 



306 



BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS. 




Fig. 244, Budding 
ivith the shield 
reversed. 



Fig. 245. Budding 
ivith a pointed 
sliieldfor resin- 
ous trees. 



Fig. 243. 

Pu nch used for 
•punching out 
shield-buds. 



are forced to grow in a direction opposite to that which they would have 
taken naturally ; but they soon resume their usual position ; and the desired 
end, viz., that of increasing the 
size of the fruit by stagnating 
the returning sap, is thus by 
no means attained. De Can- 
doUe says, that this mode of 
budding is used advantageously 
in the case of the olive, and of 
trees which produce a great 
deal of gum ; but that he sees jj! 
no reason for its superiority | 
over the ordinary mode. — 
{Phys. Veg. vol. ii. p. 800.) 

687. Shield-budding for re- 
sinous trees (fig. 245) is said to 

succeed with the y^bietineae, and with all trees that have a 
gummy and very abundant sap. 

688. Budding with the shield covered (fig. 246). — The shield 
l^eing inserted in the usual manner, another with an orifice in it, to admit 

the bud of the first, is laid over it, 
and is bandaged in the usual man- 
ner, or covered with grafting-wax. 
The object of the double shield is to 
lessen the effect of drying winds. 

689. Budding with a square shield 
j'-jJjj ^ii^ (fig. 247) is an old practice which 
I I has lately been revived with some 
¥• — 2 6 Bud ii^o^^ifications {Gard. Mag. for 1839, 

\ng^ Icith'aV' 165), in which the bark, T^oiQQdi'PiE- ^^1 ■ Budding loith a square 

double shield, up on the stock to make room for * 
the shield, is tied over it ; the shield being previously shortened, so as to 
reach only to the under side of the bud ; and between the two barks, the 

^ petiole of a leaf is 

inserted, the disk of 
which is intended 
to protect the bud 
from the sun. The 
strip of bark being 
peeled down from 
the stock, instead 
of being raised up 
from it by the spa- 
tula of the bud- 
ding-knife, is found 






T 



J 




Fig. 248. Budding with a terminal eye. 



to lessen the risk of injuring the soft wood ; and this appears to be the chief 
recommendation of this mode of budding. 

6 90. Shield-budding with a terminal bud (fig. 248) is supposed to produce 
a more vigorous shoot than when a lateral eye is used ; and it is, therefore, 
recommended for supplymg a leader to a shoot that has lost one. The stock 
is cut as at ff, and the bud is prepared as at &, inserted as at c, and tied in the 
usual manner, as at d. 



BUDDING OR GRAFTING BY DETACHED BUDS. 



307 



691. Flute-budding^ or tube-budding. — There are several modifications of 
this mode of budding, which is a good deal used on the Continent for trees 
which are difficult to take, such as the walnut and the 
chestnut ; and for several oaks, as well as for the white 
mulberry. It is generally performed in spring ; but it 
will also succeed in autumn. The shoot from which the 
buds ai-e to be taken, and that on which they are to be 
placed, must be of the same diameter, or nearly so ; and 
a ring being removed from each, that from the stock is 
throA\Ti away, and the one from the scion put on in its 
stead. Sometimes this is done without shortening the 
stock or branch, when it is called annular, or ring-bud- 
ding ; and sometimes the stock is shortened, and the ring 
put on its upper extremity, when it is called flute-bud- 
ding, or terminal tube-budding. 

692. Flute-budding in spring. — The scions are taken 
off in autumn, or early in winter, and preserved through 
the winter in a cool shady situation, in the same manner 
as is done in grafting by detached scions, and in spring 
shield-budding. Fig. 249, which requires no description, 
shows the mode of spring terminal flute-budding the 
white mulberry, as it is practised in the Royal nurseries 
at Munich. When the ring of the scion is too large, a 
portion is cut out of it longitudinally, so as to admit 
of its being pressed closely and firmly to the stock ; 
and when it is too small, it is slit up so as to admit of its 
being put round the stock. The tube is tied on with 
Fig. 249. Flute-budding matting, and the summit of the stock is covered with 

the mulberry in spring. „, . ° 

graftmg-wax. 

693. Terminal flute-budding in the South of France (fig. 250). — The 
head of the stock being cut ofi", a ring of bark, two inches or three inches 

long, is removed. A shoot is then 
taken from the tree to be in- 
creased, of exactly the same thick- 
ness as the stock, and a ring or 
tube of bark is taken off the thick 
end (without being split longi- /f^ 
tudinally), not quite so long as 
the piece of bark taken off the 
stock, but provided with several 
Fig.250. Termmaz good eyes. The tube thus 

Jlute-budding in is placed upon the stock, ^ig- 251- Flute-budding with strips of 

spring or sum- n •, n bark. 

mer. m the room of the one removed, 

and care is taken to make the two edges of bark join below. The part of the 
stock which projects over the ring of the bark is next split into shreds, and 
brought down over it all round, in the same manner as when secured by 
grafting-wax or clay. This mode of budding is chiefly employed in the 
South of France for propagating walnuts, chestnuts, figs, mulberries, and 
other trees with thick bark and abundant pith. 

694. Flute-budding with strips of bark (fig. 251).— The head of the stock 
is cut off» but instead of removmg a ring of bark, as in the preceding mode, it 





308 



BEARING. 



is cut longitudinally into four or five strips, each two inches or three inches 
long, and turned down as in the figure, being left still attached to the tree. 
From a shoot of the tree to be propagated, a tube of bark is taken, furnished 
with four or five eyes, rather shorter than the strips, though longer than in 
tube-budding. When the tube of the scion is slipped on the stock, the 
strips of bark are raised over it, and fastened at the top by a ligature. Some- 
times the end of the stock is cut obliquely, and the straps are brought up as 
at a, in which case the top of the stock is not cut into shreds, and turned 
down over the tube of bark, as in flute-budding in the South of France 
(692). A curious experiment by this mode of budding, consists in placing 
rings of the bark of different allied species, one above another, without 
allowing any of the buds to develop themselves. On cutting down the stem 
of a tree so treated, some yearg afterwards, it will be found that under each 
kind of bark is a portion of its proper wood, proving that the wood is depo- 
sited by the inner bark from the returning sap, and that the bark has the 
power of so modifying this sap, as to produce the particular kind of wood of 
the species to which it belongs, without the aid of any leaves of that species. 
695. Annular budding (fig. 252) is performed either at the principal 
movement of the sap in spring, or at the end of its principal 
movement in August. In either case the top of the stock is 
kept on ; and if the ring of bark containing a bud or buds taken 
from the scion is larger than the space prepared for it on the 
stock, a piece must be taken from it longitudinally, so as to 
make it fit exactly. In Belgium this mode is considered par- 
ticularly suitable for hard-wooded trees, which are difficult to 
increase by any other mode. 
Fig. 252. Annu' 696. The ofter-care of grafts by budding consists, in all cases, in 
lar budding, removing the bandages or plasters as soon as it is ascertained that 
the buds or scions have adhered to the stock. This may generally be known 
in two or three weeks, by the healthy appearance of the bark and its bud or 
buds, and by the dropping off of the petiole, which in the case of the death of the 
bud withers and adheres. The next operation is to head-down the stock to 
witlim an inch or two of the bud, the stump being left for a week or two as 
a prop, to which the shoot produced by the bud of the scion may be tied, till 
it acquires vigour enough to support itself. The stump is then cut ofi* in a 
sloping direction, close above the bud. In general, any buds which develop 
themselves on this stump should be rubbed off ; but in the case of very weak 
scions, one or more buds may be left on the stump to draw up the sap till 
the graft has taken. When budding is performed in spring, the stock should 
have been headed down before the ascent of the sap; but in autumn-budding, 
as no shoot is produced till the spring following, heading down is deferred 
till that season, and takes place just before the sap is in motion. Where a 
immber of grafts by buds are introduced on one stem or on one branch, 
heading down can, of course, only take place above the uppermost bud ; 
and in terminal flute-budding, it is performed as a necessary part of the 
operation. 

SuBSECT. II. — Rearing. 
697. The operations of rearing in horticulture are those which are 
required to bring plants to that particular state of bulk, succulence, 
colour^, or flavour, for which they are cultivated in gardens and garden 
scenery. These operations may be included under transplanting, planting, 




TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



309 



potting, pruning, training, thinning, weeding, watering, stirring the soil, 
blanching, shading, sheltering, and protecting. 

§ I. — Transplanting and Planting. 

698. To transplant is to take up a plant with its roots, and to replant it 
again in such a manner that it shall continue to grow. In some cases the 
roots are taken up enveloped in soil and entire, as in transplanting plants in 
pots ; and in others they are divested of soil, and more or less mutilated, as 
is the case in all other modes. In whatever manner a plant has been origi- 
nated, whether by seeds or by some modification of division, the first step in 
carrying on its cultivation is most commonly transplanting. 

699. The uses of transplanting are : — 1. To afford more room for the 
growth of the top, and for stirring and manuring the soil about the roots. 
2. To produce immediate effect in scenery, by placing trees or shrubs in 
particular situations. 3. To supply deficiencies in plantations already made. 
4. By repeatedly transplanting, to limit the extent of the main roots, and to 
increase the number of fibrous roots, within a limited distance of the stem 
of the plant, and thus to fit it for being removed, with all its roots, when of a 
large size. 5. To retard the growth and flowering of certain plants, and by 
that means to increase the bulk and succulency of their foliage ; and, 6. To 
inure plants to particular soils and situations. 

700. The theory of transplanting is founded on the functions common to 
all plants, of growing when placed under favourable circumstances, whether 
by accident or design ; of renewing within certain limits the parts of which 
they have been prematurely deprived, and of having annually a season of 
repose. Thus, annual plants, and others of small size, and of only a few 
months' growth, may be taken up without injuring their fibres or spongioles, 
and if replanted immediately their growth suffers no interruption ; while 
trees, shrubs, and other large plants, which when taken up have their roots 
mutilated and the functions of their spongioles interrupted, have a power of 
protruding new spongioles, so as to renew the growth of their leaves and 
branches, provided this mutilation take place during the period when the plant 
is in a state of repose. When plants are in a state of active growth, a constant 
perspiration is taking place from their leaves, which is supplied by the absorp- 
tion of the moisture in the soil by the spongioles of the roots ; and when this 
supply through the roots is cut ofiF by the destruction of the spongioles, the 
leaves wither, and the plant dies or becomes greatly injured : but there is a 
period in the growth of every plant, in which the leaves either drop off, as 
in deciduous plants, or cease to be in a state of activity, as in evergreens ; 
and it is only in this state that the operation of transplanting can be success- 
fully undertaken with large plants. Even when trees are without their 
leaves, perspiration is going on to a certain extent through the bark, and 
absorption to supply this waste must necessarily be taking place at the 
same time through the spongioles ; for though the functions of all plants are 
annually in a dormant state, yet they are never wholly inactive; and, 
hence, even in transplanting trees without their leaves, the effects of more 
perspiration by the bark than the roots can supply must be guarded against. 
This is more especially the case in transplanting evergreens, in which the 
functions of the leaves, and, consequently, of the spongioles, are carried on 
to a limited extent, even through the winter. As the perspiration both of 
the leaves and bark is greatly dependent on the moisture or dryness of the 



310 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



atmosphere, it follows that on the state of the weather at and after trans- 
plantmg, a good deal of the success of the operation must depend ; and as the 
kind of weather bears close relation to the season of the year, that also 
requires to be taken into consideration. All plants, considered with reference 
to transplanting, may be divided into three classes, viz., those which can be 
transplanted in a state of active growth, and with their leaves on, which are 
chiefly seedlings, and other small plants, and plants in pots ; those which can 
only be transplanted with success when without their leaves, as deciduous 
trees, and herbaceous perennials of more than a year's growth ; and those 
which are transplanted when their leaves are on, but in a comparatively 
dormant state, as evergreens. 

701. Seedlings and such small plants as can be taken up with all their 
fibres and spongioles uninjured, and planted immediately, may be removed 
at any season which admits of the progress of vegetation; though their 
success will be most certain when the atmosphere is warm and cloudy, 
and the soil moist rather than dry; as under such circumstances the 
absorption carried on by the spongioles will be very slightly interrupted, 
and the perspiration of the leaves not checked. In performing the 
operation, the plants are raised out of the soil by a flat-pointed stick, or 
trowel, or a spade ; or when the soil is moist, stout seedlings, such as those 
of the hardier varieties of the cabbage tribe, may be drawn out by the hand ; 
and they are replanted in holes made for them by the same implements ; and 
after the insertion of the plant, the hole is filled up with soil gently pressed to 
the roots, and, if necessary, water is given. Tender plants, when thus 
transplanted, are covered with a hand-glass or frame, to preserve a moist 
atmosphere around them ; or if in pots, they are plunged into a hotbed for 
the same purpose, and also to stimulate their roots. The hardier annuals, on 
the other hand, such as seedlings of the cabbage tribe, may be transplanted 
with less care, since when they flag or fade, their leaves soon recover again, 
in consequence of fresh spongioles being emitted by the main or tap root. It 
is even asserted by experienced gardeners, both in Britain and on the Conti- 
nent, that plants of the cabbage tribe grow faster, when in transplanting they 
have been kept sufficiently long out of the soil to cause their leaves to fade ; 
the plants, in this case, De Candolle observes, pumping up moisture rapidly 
in proportion to the degree in which their interior tissue lias been deprived 
of it. During moist weather, or where there is an opportunity, by means of 
coverings, of preserving a moist atmosphere round plants, and excluding the 
direct rays of the sun, herbaceous plants of considerable size, with the leaves 
on, may be transplanted ; but in ordinary weather, and without the aid of 
protection, this is difficult in proportion to the number and size of the leaves, 
the thinness of their texture, and the number of their stomata. The evapora- 
tion, in cases of this kind, bemg greater than the absorption by the spongioles, 
it requires to be lessened by cutting off" a portion of the disks of the leaves, 
by thinning them out, or by cutting them off" altogether. In general, this 
latter treatment can only be practised with impunity in transplanting young 
plants that have fleshy roots, such as the Swedish turnip, the rhubarb, &c. 
In transplanting seedlings, the top or main perpendicular root is generally 
shortened to increase the number of lateral spongioles, more especially in the 
case of vigorous-growing plants. The object of this shortening is, in some 
cases^ to cause the roots to derive their chief nourishment from the upper and 
richest part of the soil; and in others, that the plant by having abundance of 



TRANSPLANTING ANL> PLANTING. 



311 



roots in a limited space may be the better adapted for being again trans- 
plantedo In the operation of transplanting tap-rooted seedlings, it is found 
of use either to cause the soil to press equally against every part of the root ; 
or if it presses more upon one part than another, that that part shall be the 
lower extremity. The reason of this is, that the pressure, wherever applied, 
stops the returning sap ; and when it is not applied at the lower extremity, 
the part of the root below where it takes place ceases to increase in thick- 
ness, or to protrude fibres. Transplanting in pots will form the subject of 
a separate section. 

702. Deciduous trees and shrubs, and perennial herbaceous plants, can only 
be safely transplanted when in a dormant state. This dormant state is 
indicated by the fall of the leaf, at which period the roots, stem, and 
branches contain a greater accumulation of nutritive matter than they do at 
any other season of the year, and not being in a state of activity, they can 
exist in a great measure without the assistance of the spongioles. They are, 
therefore, in a fitter state for being transplanted than they can be at any other 
period, and the success will in general be in proportion to the number of 
roots that are taken up entire. In the case of herbaceous plants, and of trees 
and shrubs under five or six feet in height, this can be accomplished without 
difficulty ; but with larger plants the roots are unavoidably more or less mu- 
tilated, and the growth of the transplanted plant for the first year, or 
probably for some years afterwards, is much less vigorous than if the roots 
had been taken up entire. 

703. Whether deciduous trees and shrubs ought to be transplanted in autumn 
or spring, is a question respecting which gardeners and foresters are of dif- 
ferent opinions. That of Miller and of most gardeners is, that immediately 
after the fall of the leaf in autum is the best season, provided the soil be dry ; 
but that for a very wet soil it is better to wait till the end of February, or 
till the period immediately preceding the rise of the sap. Some gardeners 
recommend transplanting " early in autumn, soon after the leaves begin to 
fall, but while a considerable quantity yet remain in a mature and efficient 
state." In this case it is alleged that " by the action of the mature leaves 
which remain, the injuries which the roots may have sustained will be 
speedily repaired ; new roots will be immediately produced, and the plant will 
then become established before winter, and prepared to grow with nearly if not 
quite its usual vigour in the following spring." — (^Gard. Chron, vol. i. p. 811.) 
In the neighbourhood of London, wall-fruit trees are frequently transplanted 
in this manner. Early in autumn is undoubtedly the best time, considered 
physiologically; because then, whether the plants are with or without some of 
their leaves, the wounds made in the roots begin to cicatrise, and to protrude 
granulous matter, and m many cases even spongioles, immediately ; and by 
the time spring arrives, the plant, if it has been taken up with most of its 
roots, will grow with as much vigour as if it had not been transplanted. 
For obvious reasons, the next best season to that immediately following the 
fall of the leaf, is the remainder of the autumn, and the winter months during 
open weather. There may be local reasons why the beginning of spring may 
be preferable to autumn ; but such reasons can never apply generally. A 
second argument m favour of autumn-planting, is the dampness of the atmo- 
sphere which prevails at that season, and during winter ; by which the 
perspiration through the bark is lessened, and the demand made on the 
roots to supply the waste is consequently diminished. In spring, not only 



312 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



is the sun more powerful, but drying winds generally prevail, which have a 
constant tendency to drain the young branches of a tree of their moisture. 
These drying winds are much more injurious to newly transplanted ever- 
greens than to deciduous trees, as will afterwards appear. 

704. Different modes of transplanting large trees and shrubs. — To lessen 
the injuries which every large tree must receive in transplanting, from 
the mutilation of its roots, six different modes of performing the opera- 
tion have been adopted : viz., 1. by retaining large balls of earth attached 
to the roots ; 2. by previously preparing the roots, so as to furnish them 
with new fibres and spongioles ; 3. by previously shortening the roots, and 
treating them so as to heal over and granulate the wounds made in their 
extremities ; 4. by simply thinning and pruning the roots and the branches 
at the time of transplanting ; 5. by removal without previous preparation ; 
and 6. by shortening the roots and heading in the branches. 

705. Transplanting with large balls of earth, — In this case the head of the 
tree is generally preserved entire, and the ball of solid soil is made so large 
as to include as many of the roots as possible. When carefully planted in 
fresh rich soil, consolidated hy watering, and secured by stakes, by guy 
ropes, or by any other means, if the tree survives the first summer, the 
quantity of foliage which it will produce will return a large quantity of sap 
to the roots, and thus occasion the production of numerous fibres and 
spongioles, and the tree will continue to live and grow ; but whether with 
the same vigour as it did before being transplanted, will depend on the 
quantity of roots, in proportion to the head, taken up in the ball — on the kind 
of tree, on the moisture or dryness of the climate and of the season, and on 
the state of the soil and the nature of the situation. In general, more 
depends on the climate and on the soil than on the situation. No large tree 
taken up from a moist soil will thrive if transferred to a dry one ; and, on 
the contrary, a tree taken up from a dry soil, that would do little good 
when transferred to another dry soil, will yet thrive if planted in a soil 
that is moist. No tree taken up and transplanted with all its branches in 
the manner described could exist through the ensuing summer in the dry 
climate of the South of France; but in the moist, warm atmosphere of 
Devonshire, and the humid region of the west of Scotland, trees taken up 
with all their roots and branches, as far as practicable, and transplanted with 
ordinary care, seldom fail to grow, and in a few years to acquire the same 
vigour as they had before transplanting. (See Nash in Gard. Mag. for 
1838, p. 507.) 

706. Transplanting by shortening the roots, so as to induce them to throw 
cut fibres. — This is effected by digging a circular trench round the tree, one 
or two, or even there or four years before transplanting, cutting off all the 
roots whic?i extend as far as the trench, and filling it up with prepared soil, 
01 with the surface soil and subsoil mixed. The distance of the trench from 
the stem of the tree may vary with its size, the kind of tree, and other cir- 
cumstances ; but a good general rule would be, where the tree is to stand from 
two to four years, to make the diameter of the circle included within the trench 
of as many feet, as the diameter of the trunk of the tree at the surface of 
the ground is in inches. Thus, for a tree with a stem six inches in diameter, 
the trench should be made at the distance of three feet from it on every side ; 
and for one of eighteen inches in diameter, the distance of the trench from 
the stem should be nme feet. The width and depth of the trench should 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



313 



also be proportionate to the size of the tree, and to the period which is to 
intervene between its preparation and removal. It is evident that where the 
tree is to stand three or four years after its roots are cut, more room should 
be left for the extension of the fibres, than when it is to stand only one year ; 
unless, indeed, the roots could be confined, as if in a pot, by the hardness of 
the outer side of the trench ; in which case they might after removal be 
spread out at length. It is evident also that when a tree is to stand only 
one year after making the trench, the trench should not only be made 
narrower, but at a greater distance from the stem, in order that a greater 
length of old root may be taken up to serve in lieu of the new roots, made 
when the tree stands three or four years before removal. The width of the 
trench can never conveniently be made less than eighteen inches, and its 
depth should not be less than two feet, in order to cut through the lower 
roots ; since it is chiefly by the fibres that will be produced by these, that 
the tree will be supplied by fluid nutriment to support the perspiration of 
its leaves the first year after transplanting. In making the trench, it is not, 
in general, desirable to undermine the ball of earth, so far as to cut through 
the tap-root, because this main root is necessary as a source of nourishment, 
in the absence of so many lateral roots. 

7 07. Sir Henry Steuart's practice in transplanting large trees belongs to 
this division of the subject ; and as it has been attended with success at 
Allanton, where the trees, which had been transplanted from ten to twenty 
years (which we examined in August 1841), are still continuing to thrive, 
we shall give a short outline of Sir Henry's process. In selecting the 
trees to be transplanted, he endeavours, if possible, to take only those, 
the stems and branches of which have been exposed to the free air and 
weather on every side ; but as he cannot always get such trees, his next 
resource is trees which stand in the margins of plantations. Supposing one 
of these to be 25 feet high, a trench 30 inches wide is opened round it 
at a distance of three and a half feet, if it is meant to stand for four years or 
upwards after the operation ; and at the distance of six feet or seven feet, if it 
is meant to stand only two years. If the tree is to stand four or more years, 
the trench is cut to the full depth of the subsoil, in order to get somewhat 
underneath the roots. If the subsoil be wet, a drain is made from the trench, 
after which the soil and subsoil are returned, well broken and mixed toge- 
ther. I f the tree is to stand only two years, the same method may be fol- 
lowed, but with this difi^erence, — that on the sides most exposed to the wind, 
which in this island are generally the south-west, two or perhaps three of 
the strongest roots should be left uncut, and allowed to pass entire through 
the trench, so that when taken up at length, they may act as stays against the 
winds. — (Planter s Guide, 2d ed. p. 219.) In taking up the tree for removal, 
the greatest care is used to preserve the minutest fibres and the spongioles 
entire ; and to accomplish this, a new trench is made exterior to the old one, 
so as not to injure any of the new fibres which have been protruded into the 
prepared soil. A pointed instrument or a pick is employed for picking out 
the soil from among the young roots ; and care is taken that the operator 
never strikes across the roots, but as much as possible in the line of their 
elongation , always standing in the right line of divergence from the tree as a 
centre. The picking away the soil from the roots may'reach within three, 
four, or five feet of the stem, according to the size of the tree ; and a ball of 
earth, with two or three feet broad of the sward adhering to it, should be 



314 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



left undisturbed round the collar. The tree may now be pulled over, and 
raised out of the pit ; and the following is Sir Henry's Steuart's mode of 
effecting these two operations. 

708 Pulling down the tree and raising it out of the pit. — " A strong but 
soft rope, of perhaps four inches in girth, is fixed as near to the top of the 
tree as a man can safely climb, so as to furnish the longest possible lever to 
bear upon the roots ; taking care, at the same time, to interpose two or three 
folds of mat, in order to prevent the chafing of the bark. Eight or nine 
workmen are then set to draw the tree down on one side. Or it is a good 
way, if you have an old and steady-pulling horse, to employ him in this 
business. For it is plain, that one stout horse, acting forcibly on the rope, 
will do more than twenty men, even if so great a number could get about 
it ; and moreover, he will save some manual labour in excavating, by giving 
an effectual pull, at a much earlier period of the work. Next to an old 
and steady horse, for a high-mettled one is not at all adapted for such an 
operation, heavy oxen are to be preferred ; for these have been known to 
drag timber out of plantations where horses were defeated, in consequence 
of the rugged nature of the surface. Horses make one very spirited pull, 
but rarely a second, if they have been checked by the first. Oxen, on the 
other hand, appear less sensitive, and bear steadily and slowly onward by the 
mere force of gravity, and without recoiling like horses. The tree being 
drawn down, it is next forcibly held in that position, until earth be raised to 
the height of a foot or more, on the opposite side of the pit, so that, as soon 
as it is liberated, it springs up, and stops against the bank thus formed. 
On this, the workmen proceed to lighten the mass of earth with the picker, 
laying bare the roots as little as possible, but still necessarily reducing the 
mass to manageable dimensions. The tree is then pulled down on the oppo- 
site side, and a foot of earth forced up, in a similar manner ; and the same 
thing being repeated once or twice, it is gradually raised to even a higher 
level than that of the adjoining surface. In this manner, by a method ex- 
tremely simple, and not less expeditious, whatever it may appear in the nar- 
rative, it becomes quite an easy, instead of a fonnidable undertaking, to draw 
the tree from the pit." — {Planters Guide, 2d ed. p. 248.) 

709. Transporting and replanting the tree. — The machine used by Sir 
Henry consists of a strong pole and two wheels, with a smaller wheel occa- 
sionally used, which is fixed at the extremity of the pole, and turns on a 
pivot. The pole operates both as a powerful lever to bring down the tree 
to a horizontal position, and in conjunction with the wheels as a still more 
powerful conveyance to remove it to its new situation. The wheels of the 
machine are brought close up to the body of the tree, and the stem laid along 
the pole, with the largest branches uppermost, in order that no branch or 
root of considerable length should be suffered to sweep the ground during 
the time of transportation. The tree thus attached to the pole is drawn to 
its destination by a horse or horses, and placed upright in a shallow pit, 
which is, if possible, opened and prepared a twelvemonth beforehand by 
trenching and mixing manure, and exposing the soil in the bottom of the pit 
to the influence of the weather. The tree is so placed that the largest 
boughs are presented to the most stormy quarter of the wind, even though 
this should require it to be placed in a reversed position relatively to the sun 
than it was before, which Sir Henry Steuart as well as Decandolle think 
of no consequence. After upwards of thirty-five years' experience, Sir Henry 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



315 



found no disadvantage from this change of position ; but, on the contrary, 
as the tree presents the side containing the longest and most vigorous branches 
to the storm, it ultimately. Tie says, produces a better balanced head. The 
transplanted tree, after being set upright, and the soil carefully rammed into 
all the cavities about the roots, is held in its position, not by posts or stakes 
above ground, or by horizontal poles under it, but by forming a circular 
bank of earth on the extremities of the main roots. This bank, Sir Henry 
says, if properly executed, will by its weight furnish such resistance to the 
action of the top of the tree, that a stout man, on applying himself to a rope 
tied to the upper part of the stem, will generally be unable to displace the 
root, notwithstanding the length of the lever by which he operates. For 
more minute details we must refer to Sir Henry's work. The great success 
which attended his operations at AUanton may^ we conceive, be chiefly 
owing to the care with which they were performed, to the circumstance that 
the trees were always prepared for three or four or more years beforehand, 
and the extraordinary moistness of the climate in that part of Scotland. It 
is a common practice in England to prepare the trees only one year before 
removal ; in which case, as Sir Henry very justly observes, " the fresh fibres 
being nearly as tender as the roots of an onion or a cabbage, can neither be 
extricated nor handled without sensible injury." In the case of shrubs, 
however, one year will be found sufficient for many kinds that rapidly 
emit a great number of roots. 

710. Transplanting by shortening the roots, without permitting them to 
throw out fibres at their extremities. — This mode is the invention of Mr. 
Munro, a scientific forester of great experience, and is described in the Quar- 
terly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 183, and in the Gardeners Magazine 
for 1841-42. Mr. Munro had been in the habit of transplanting from three 
hundred to five hundred trees annually by cutting a trench round the roots, 
and filling it with prepared soil, allowing the tree to remain for one or two 
years to form fibrous roots. The young roots were protruded in clusters 
round the ends of the amputated roots, but they were so tender as to be 
much injured by the spade in the process of lifting, and by the atmosphere 
when removing. A pit of large dimensions was also required, which added 
much to the labour ; a tree, the roots of which formed a ball only about 
four feet in diameter, requiring a pit eight feet in diameter to allow of the 
fibres being laid out at full length, besides a foot of moved soil beyond them 
all round to encourage their growtli. A much more economical and equally 
efficient mode is suggested by the following experiment ; — Mr. Munro 
selected a handsome oak, about twenty-five years old, and having dug out a 
circular trench round it, leaving a ball of earth four feet in diameter, he cut 
off every root which projected into the trench with a saw, and smoothed it 
over with a pruning knife. The object was, in place of encouraging the 
growth of fibres at the extremities of the amputated roots, to have the fibres 
formed within the ball of earth all along the old root. To accomplish this 
end, he left the trench empty and roofed it in with boards, covering up any 
opening between them with withered grass, and then putting over the whole 
an inch of soil, so as completely to exclude light and change of air. In this 
situation the tree remained for one year, having no lateral communication 
with the surrounding soil. The operation was performed in the winter of 
1824, and in that following the roofing was taken from the trench, and the 
ball of earth reduced to a proper dimension for removing the tree, when the 



316 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



old roots were found not only furnished with fibres in the interior of the 
ball, but the fibres were matted sufficiently to retain enough of soil to pro- 
tect the roots at the time of removal ; and, what was of nearly equal import- 
ance, callosities were formed at the ends of the amputated roots ready to 
throw out spongioles as soon as they were surrounded by moist soil. This 
mode, we believe, has not been much practised, excepting by Mr. Munro, 
but we consider it excellent in theory ; and by using branches and litter, or 
branches and turf, as a covering, or leaving the trenches quite open, as has 
been done in subsequent trials, it will be found greatly more economical than 
Sir Henry Steuart's method. It is obvious that the growth of the tree must 
be greatly checked by this mode of preparation, which will consequently 
have the effect of rendering it capable of living on a limited quantity of 
food, and therefore much better adapted for removal. The only objection 
that occurs to us is, that in the case of previous preparation for two or 
three years, too many fibrous roots will be protruded into the ball, more,, 
perhaps, than can be nourished in that limited bulk of soil, even after the 
tree is transplanted. If, however, the tree is prepared only one year previous 
to removal, the objection will not apply to the same extent, if at all. 

711. Transplanting by thinning and pruning the roots and branches is the 
most common mode, and in a moist soil and climate it is generally attended 
with success. The trees are taken up by cutting a trench round the roots 
about the same distance as in preparing trees by the first mode (695) ; the 
ends of the roots are sawn off and cut smooth, and the top is thinned of its 
branches, and pruned more or less, according to the size of the tree, and the 
soil, situation, and climate in which it is to be planted. When the tree is 
of considerable size, say nine inches or a foot in diameter, it must necessarily 
be deprived of the greater number of its effective roots ; and in this case, 
unless in a very moist climate and soil, the safest mode is to cut off at least 
half of the branches of the head, covering the sections left by amputation with 
grafting-clay or grafting-wax. If trees are transplanted in this manner 
immediately after the fall of the leaf, the wounds of the roots very soon 
begin to heal over, and by the time spring arrives they are ready to throw 
out fibres and to support the leaves protruded by the branches left, which in 
their turn nourish the fibres of the roots by the returning sap. The second 
year the roots will be more vigorous, and the buds on the branches will 
probably elongate into shoots of an inch or two in length. In this way the 
tree will gradually recover a certain degree of vigour, and it will ultimately 
become either a stunted tree or a vigorous healthy one, according to the 
quantitj'^ of nourishment afforded by the soil (see Pruning). In some cases 
large trees can be removed without preparing the roots, and without cutting 
off any, or at least very few, of the branches : but in such cases it will be 
found that, from some cause or other, the roots are mostly near the surface 
and the soil moist, and that a great proportion of the roots can be taken up 
along with the tree. A great many trees, such as spruce, firs, alders, limes, 
elm, and beech, from fifteen to forty feet high, were transplanted at Chalfont 
House, in 1799, by Mr. Main. They grew on a thin stratum of rich bog 
earth, reposing on a bed of moist gravel. When a tree had a trench dug 
round it at the distance of three or four feet, the whole mass of roots rose 
together, leaving the gravel clean and bare ; and the consequence was, that 
with veiy little lopping, the trees, being planted in a similar soil and subsoil 
all lived, and soon began to grow vigorously (Gard. Mag. vol. iv. p. 318) 



TRANSPLA.NTING AND PLANTING. 



317 



When this mode of transplanting large trees with the branches on is adopted 
in a dry soil, the success will be very different, even though the ground 
should be mulched round the transplanted trees, and the stem and main 
branches closely wrapped round with straw ropes to lessen evaporation. 
The most suitable trees for planting out with no other preparation than 
thinning or pruning the branches, are those whose roots and heads have been 
properly thinned and pruned by cultivation in a nursery. Such trees may 
be planted out at greater ages and sizes than trees taken from plantations of 
a few years' growth, and will both strike fresh roots more certainly and grow 
faster ; but these last may be taken up, when from ten to twenty or twenty- 
five feet high, and planted out with full success, provided the two following 
particulars are observed : first, to get up as much root as possible ; next, to 
reduce the branches dowTi to due proportion with the root which has been 
got up. A great part of the root is unavoidably lost in the taking up of the 
tree, and it is the most efficient part, being the extreme fibres. The root 
has thus lost its natural proportion to the head, and is now insufficient to 
supply it with moisture. Trees planted out in this state often, after having 
put forth their leaves, die suddenly, and others which continue to live will 
fall into a languid state and die off" gradually, or recover their vigour very 
slowly. (Sii- Chas. Monk in Hort. Trans, and Gard. Mag. vol. v. p. 148.) 

712. The removal of large trees and shi-uhs without previous preparation 
has been carried to a greater extent at Arlington Court, in Devonshire, than 
it has been anywhere else that we have heard of ; and a detailed account of 
the manner in which the operation is performed by Mr. Nash, the gardener, 
will be found in the Gardener s Magazine for 1838, p. 507. The trenches 
at Arlington are dug round the tree at ten or twelve feet from the stem, or 
farther if necessary, so as to take up as far as practicable the w^hole of the 
roots and fibres ; and none of these or of the branches are cut off, excepting 
such as have been injured by the operation of moving. Isolating the roots 
of a large tree in its ball of earth, and rendering this ball portable by soaking 
it with water during frost, and moving it when it is a frozen mass, is some- 
times resorted to with good effect ; and encasing small balls with plaster 
of Paris, where that substance is abundant, has been occasionally practised 
by amateurs. 

713. Transplanting by " heading in" that is, cutting in the branches. — 
This is the general practice throughout the Continent ; for there, such is the 
heat and dryness of the air in early spring and summer, that the roots of 
newly-transplanted trees are far from being able to support the perspiration 
which takes place from the leaves. The practice is of the most remote 
antiquity, and Professors De Candolle and Thouin both allude to it, as in 
general use, and attended with success ; though they both allege that it is 
carried too far when the main stems of pyramidal trees, such as pines and 
firs, are shortened ; the consequence of which is a branching head instead of 
a conical one, as may be seen in those remarkable rows of spruce-firs which 
line some of the avenues at Meudon. The mode of treating headed -in 
trees practised in Belgium is described in an early volume of the Gar- 
deners Magazine, and again in that work for 1841. The trees, whether 
oak, ash, elm, poplar, or other leafy kinds, are taken from the nursery 
when they are fifteen feet or more in height, and about the thickness 
of a man's arm ; the lateral branches are all cut off" close to the stem, to the 
height of six or seven feet from the collar ; the top is also cut off" in a slant- 



318 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



ing direction, at about ten feet from the roots ; and the remaining branches 
are shortened to from three to six inches, the cut being made close above a 
bud. The trees are taken up in March and April, (in England, immediately 
after the fall of the leaf would be a better time,) without balls of earth, and 
not remarkably cai'efuUy, but precisely after the ordinary manner practised 
in our nurseries, and they are planted in holes about three or four feet 
square. The first year they grow but little ; the second year they may 
be said to commence their growth, w^ien the uppermost shoot is trained 
for the leader. As the tree progresses, it is pruned every year, if 
necessary, in wmter or early in spring, cutting out all the cross and 
unequal branches, and thinning those that are or may become crowded. 
It may be thought that trees treated in this manner would all become 
round-headed, and that they would only have about ten feet of straight 
timber ; but this does not necessarily follow, unless that form be really de- 
sired. On the contrary, the straightest and most beautifully attenuated 
timber is obtained by timely training the upper shoot to a stick tied to the 
stem ; or if the uppermost shoot is emitted a few inches below the summit, 
which is sometimes the case, it may be tied to the dying point, till it is fixed 
in an unchangeable erect position. By attending to this, and by thinning 
the branches, without shortening them, for a few years, they will become 
completely subordinate to the trunk {Gard. Gas. for 1841, p. 791). This 
we consider to be the safest mode of transplanting trees in exposed, bleak 
situations in Britain ; more especially on the sea-coast, and in mountainous 
districts. 

714. The staking or supporting of newly-transplanted trees, and the pro - 
tection of their stems from cattle^ require to be carefully attended to : and 
we shall therefore shortly notice the different modes of doing both. Fig. 
258 shows the common modes of protecting trees which are to have clear 

stems to the height of eight or ten feet, from 
deer, horses, or cattle ; the main posts being- 
made of oak or of larch, or of an}^ other 
wood charred on the part which is buried in 
the soil, and for nine inches or a foot above 
the ground's surface. For trees which are 
intended to have their branches sweepmg on 
the ground, such as cedars, pines, silver firs, 
&c., circles of iron hurdles fastened together 

Fig. 253. The most general modes of pro- ^^^^^ ^^^^^ and nutS should be employed; 

tecting recently-planted single trees 

enlarging the circle as the branches extend 
from cattle and deer. themselves, by introducing additional hur- 

dles. These hurdles being always only a few feet from the branches, are 
scarcely perceptible at a very short distance, and therefore are no deformity 
in the landscape : as may be seen at Goodwood, Bicton, and many other places. 
Trees which have had all the branches cut off in the Belgian manner, require 
no staking, because the wind has no branches on which to act ; and their stems 
may be protected from cattle by tying thorns or other branches round them ; 
or laths or straight rods, or even pieces of old bark ; using as a tie, wire or 
tarred thread. Small trees, with the branches on, may be tied to stakes with 
bands of hay, and their steins protected in the manner just mentioned. Trees 
of thirty or forty feet in height may be supported by guy ropes ; or if the 
roots are strong and of some length, they ma}'' be kept in their places by 




TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



319 




horizontal poles placed over tliem, and tied to them, concealed under, or 
level with, or immediately above the surface of the ground ; the ends of 
those poles being made fast to stakes, so as to cross over the roots and hold 
them tightly down. Fig. 254 shows a plan and elevation of a newly- 
removed tree, the roots of which are fastened 
down in this manner by means of the rods a, 
and stakes h ; the latter being securely nailed 
to the former, and the whole covered with soil, 
as shown by the dotted line c. Trees of mode- 
rate size may also be secured against high 
winds, by inserting a stout stake in the soil in 
the bottom of the pit in which the tree is to be 
planted, of sufficient length to reach four or five 
feet above the surface ; securing it firmly 
there before planting the tree, and afterwards 
placing the stem of the tree close to it, and 
fastening it by some soft tie. Three larch 
poles fixed in this manner, so as to form a 
triangle, converging at top to the thickness 
of the stem of the tree, the tree being f)lanted 
in the centre, would serve at once as a firm 
prop, and as a protection frorn cattle. Another 
Fig. 254. Plan and elevation of a mode is to cover the surface of the ground for 
newly-moved tree, secured fi-omhigh four or more feet round the tree with a mulch- 

wlnds by underground fastenings. .^^ j^^.^^ ^.^^^j^ ^^^^^^^ ^j^j^ ^^^^^ ^.j^j^j^ 

was first used by Sir Charles Monk, in Northumberland, and has been adopted 
in various parts of Scotland, is one of the best that can be adopted in a country 
where stone is abundant ; because it not only renders stakes and bandages 
unnecessary, but retains the moisture in the soil, and acts as a fence in 
keeping horses and cattle at a distance from the tree {Gard. Mag. vol, v. 
p. 148). The stones are in large lumps, not built up high, but packed close 
to each other, and set on edge, so as to make a tabular, but very rugged 
surface, round the foot of the tree. This mulching is extended in ordinary 
cases to the distance of four feet, which is sufficient for cattle and common 
horses ; but against high-bred horses, which are disposed to attack every- 
thing of wood, the stones are not a sufficient fence unless they are packed 
with a surface very rugged, and extended six feet round the tree. Horses 
and cattle are also kept at a distance from the trees by a series of horizontal 
rails, forming a tabular polygon round the tree fifteen or eighteen inches in 
height, and ten feet in diameter (see Gard. Mag. vol. vi. p. 47). Fig. 255 
shows the general appearance of a tree fenced round in this manner. Fig. 
256 is a vertical profile of the horizontal frame-work ; and fig. 257 is a cross 
section. In this section the posts are shown, inclined a little outwards, the 
better to resist pressure from cattle or sheep in that direction. These short 
posts, or stumps, as they may be called, are formed of pieces of young larch- 
trees or oak branches, from which the bark has been taken, and they are 
driven in so as to be from fifteen to eighteen inches above the ground. The 
rails which are fastened to the posts are of the thinnings of young plantations, 
or of any other suitable material. The advantage of this fence is its economy, 
requiring only short pieces of not very stout timber, and its inconspicuous- 
ncss when seen at a distance. Other modes of staking and protecting 

Y 2 



320 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 





Fig. 256. Vertical profile of the 
tabular tree-guard. 



trees will be found in the Suburban Architect and Landscajjc Gardener^ 
1st ed. p. 556. 

716. The machinery for moving large trees has been noticed (443 and 709), 
towhich it may 
be added that 
trucks or sledg- 
es, poles and 
ropes, require 
to be abundant- 
ly provided ; 
though for or- 
dinary purpos- 
es, a pair of 
high wheels 
and an axle for 

large trees without balls, and a sledge with 
Fig. 255. isometruaivi^^^^ ii'on bottom, to be afterwards described, 

for shrubs with balls, is all that is essential. 

716. Transplanting Evergreens.— There is scarcely any residence in the 
country in which it is not frequently necessary to transplant evergreen 
shrubs, sometimes from changes or new arrangements, and sometimes on 
account of the plants crowding each other. Evergreen trees, such as those 
of the pine and fir tribe, are also occasionally transplanted, though much less 
requently than sh rubs. The most readily transplanted evergreen trees of 
arge size, are the spruce fir and the yew ; the former having numerous 

fibrous roots near the surface, and the latter 
having also numerous fibrous roots growing 
together, and consolidating the soil immediately 
round the tree into a compact mass. Spruce 
firs, yews, and hollies of large size have, for 
some years past, been transplanted at Elvaston 
Castle by Mr. Barron, with scarcely a single 
failure, though the spruce firs were from sixty to 
eighty feet in height, and many of the yews 
were above a hundred years old. Evergreen 
shrubs of all sizes have also been transplanted 
C7-0SS section of t?ie tabular with the greatest success in the New Botanic 
tree-guard. Garden of Edinburgh, by Mr. Mc Nab, of whom 

Mr. Barron is a pupil, and from whose excellent pamphlet on the subject we 
shall chiefly compile the remainder of this article. 

717. The best season for transplayiting evergreens is still a debated point 
among gardeners, though it is now generally agreed that autumn and winter 
are preferable to spring or summer. On the Continent, spring appears to 
be preferred, just before the rising of the sap, when the leaves of the past year 
are ready to drop oflf ; but it must be recollected that there are comparatively 
very few evergreens cultivated on the Continent, which are sufficiently hardy 
to endure the open air, with the exception of pines and firs, the narrow 
leaves of which suffer much less from drying winds than those of broad- 
leaved evergreens, such as the holly, the laurel^ the arbutus, &c. Miller 
(during whose time there were comparatively but few evergreens, to what 
there are at present) recommends planting the common and Portugal laurels 




'ig. 257 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



321 



in October, as the best season ; the arbutus in September ; the holly in 
autumn, in dry land, but in wet land in spring ; and the laurustinus at 
Michaelmas — but also in spring, with balls of earth, or at the end of J uly, 
or beginning of August, if rain should happen at that season. In general, 
Miller recommends autumn and spring, or summer, for transplanting ever- 
greens, but disapproves of winter. At Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, a great 
many evergreens were moved every year for a number of years, in conse- 
quence of additions and alterations in the grounds ; and Mr. Pratt, the gar- 
dener, in an account of his practice given in the Gardeners Magazine^ states 
that "the best period for the operation is the middle of summer ; that is to 
say, in July and August, after the growth of the spring shoots. The plants 
may then require a little shading with mats, if the sun is powerful ; and they 
should have plenty of water ; but they will make roots during the remain- 
ing part of the year, and will grow the next spring as if they had never been 
transplanted. Those removed in the winter often remain without making 
new shoots the whole of the foUowmg year." — (Gard. Mag. vol. xi. p. 135.) 

Mr. McNab, on the other hand, " in opposition to the opinion of a great 
proportion of the practical horticulturists in the country," asserts, " that the 
seasons usually recommended for planting evergreens, viz., spring or autumn, 
are far from being the best, and are, in fact, under most cu'cumstances, the 
very worst seasons which can be selected." Mr. McNab recommends " late 
in autumn, winter, or very early in spring ; that is, any time from the mid- 
dle of October till the middle of February ; and, in general, the beginning 
of this period as the best ; that is, from the middle of October till the middle 
of December ; always providing that the weather and the ground are favour- 
able ; that is, supposing there is no frost, no drying wind, nor much sun- 
shine, and that the ground is not too much saturated with wet, either from 
continued rain, or from the nature of the soil. One of the principal tilings 
to be attended to in planting evergreens, is to fix on a dull day for winter- 
planting, and a moist day for spring and autumn-planting." The reason 
why dull or moist weather is so essential a condition is, that the process of 
perspiration continues to go on in evergreens throughout the winter, except- 
ing, perhaps, in the most severe weather ; and that when the atmosphere is 
saturated with moisture, the perspiration is reduced to its minimum. 
Evaporation also proceeds in an increasing ratio with the temperature, 
all other circumstances being the same. Thus, when the temperature 
is 80°, the quantity evaporated from a given surface will be three times 
greater than when the temperature is only 40°, the degree of dryness 
in the air being the same in both cases. So long as the leaves remain 
on a plant in a healthy state, their functions are performed in a greater 
or less degree, and they draw upon the roots accordingly ; so that ever- 
greens, as they never lose their leaves, may be said to be in a growing 
state all the year ; and were the growth not much slower in autumn 
and winter than it is in summer, it would be as difficult to trans- 
plant evergreen trees, even at that season, as it is to transplant deciduous 
trees in summer with the leaves on. The first effect of separating a plant 
from the soil, is to cut off the supply of sap to the leaves ; and as, notwith- 
standing this, perspiration and evaporation will still continue, it follows that 
these leaves must fade, unless the perspiration is either checked by a moist 
atmosphere, or supplied by watering the roots. That the atmosphere in 
Britain is nearly saturated with moisture from October to February inclu- 



322 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



siye, is satisfactorily proved by the tables drawn up by Mr. Robert Thomp- 
son, of the Horticultural Society's Garden, and published in their Transac- 
tions; of one of which an abstract will be found in our Appendix. 

718. The drying of the roots of evergreens Mv. McNab considers to be one 
of the gTeatest injuries wliich they can suffer. If they are allowed to dry 
when out of the ground in sprmg, he says, it is scarcely possible to prevent 
their suffering considerably, and showing this injury for a long period after 
they are planted. " Half a day's sun in spring or autumn will do more 
harm immediately after planting, than a whole week's sun, from morning 
to night, mthe middle of winter. At that season we can always plant (ex- 
cept during severe frosts, or in a very drying wind) with perfect certainty 
of success ; whereas, in spring or autumn, there is a great risk of failure, ex- 
cept we can get a few dull days, or moist days after planting ; and this is 
quite uncertain." (^Hints^ <^-c., p. 18.) It is commonly thought that ever- 
greens planted in winter can push out no roots till spring ; but j\Ir. ]\IcNab 
finds the contrary to be the case. " During the winter we often have inter- 
vals of a week or a fortnight, and even sometimes three weeks, of mild 
weather ; and in such weather the roots of many evergreens do grow. Let 
any person that has a few duplicates of different kinds of evergreens to spare, 
plant or lay them in by the heels, and soak them well with water, any 
time during the period I have recommended as the best for planting ; let 
him take these same plants up again in the end of March, April, or begin- 
ning of jNlay following, and he will find they will have made a considerable 
number of fresh roots between the time he put them in, and the time he 
took them up. Every nurseryman knows, that of the cuttings of some 
sorts of evergreens put into the ground, as is usual, in September or Octo- 
ber, many will have made roots during the winter, as will easily be seen by 
taking some of them up in March, April, or May." — (Hints, c^c, p. 19.) 

719. In planting evergreens, " whether in a dull day, a wet day, or a 
dry day, it is very necessary to keep in view the expediency of keeping 
the plants for as short a time out of the ground as possible ; if only a few 
minutes, so much the better. In all seasons, situations, and soils, the 
plants should be well soaked with water, as soon as the earth is put about 
the roots. As soon as the plant has been put into its place, the earth 
should be filled in, leaving a sufficient hollow round the stem, and as far 
out as the roots extend, to hold water, which should then be poured in, 
in sufficient quantity to soak the groand down to the lowest part of the 
roots ; in short, the whole should be made like a kind of puddle. By this 
practice, which is particularly necessary in spring and autumn-planting, 
the earth is carried down by the water, and every crevice among the roots 
is filled. Care must always be taken to have as much earth above the roots 
of the plants as will prevent them from being exposed when the water has 
subsided." Mr. iMcNab finds " the best plan is to take an old birch broom, 
or anything similar, and laying it down near to the root, to cause the water 
to be poured upon it ; this breaks the fall of the water, and prevents the 
roots from being washed bare of such earth as may adhere to them ; in this 
way time is saved, for the water may be poured out in a full stream from a 
pail, a water-pot, or even from a spout or pipe, in the water-cart, or barrel, 
where the situation is such that this can be brought up to the plant. After 
the first watering has dried up, the earth should be levelled round the stem 
of the plant, and as far out as the water has been put on, but not trodden; 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



323 



if the plants are large, a second watering is sometimes necessary ; but in 
ordinary-sized plants, one watering is quite sufficient ; and after remaining 
twenty-four hours, more or less, according to the nature of the soil, the 
earth about the stem, and over the roots, should be trodden as firm as pos- 
sible ; and, after treading, should be dressed with a rake. Where this is 
practised, and the planting done in winter, in cloudy weather, there is 
scarcely a chance of any dry weather afterwards injuring them; but if this 
method, or something similar, is not practised, there will be a great risk of 
failure every year, in planting evergreens, particularly when they are 
planted at the usual times recommended ; that is, in spring or autumn." 
Mr. McNab recommends " always to water evergreens when planted, whe- 
ther the work be done in wet weather, dull weather, or dr}^ ; or whether 
the situation in which they are planted is wet or dry, sheltered or exposed ; 
because the watering, in the manner recommended, fills up the holes that 
may be in the earth about the roots, and- consolidates the whole mass much 
better than treading could do." In tenacious soils, treading is positively 
injurious ; and in no case should the soil be rendered more compact than 
it is found to be in ground that has been a few weeks trenched. 

720. Transplanting Evergreens with halls. — In transplanting evergreens it 
is desirable to leave as much earth about the roots as possible ; but when 
treated in the way recommended, the greater part of the earth that may be 
about the roots is of importance, rather in preserving them from injury dur- 
ing the operation, than for any value it may have after the plant has been 
put into the ground. This is, however, speaking of ordinary-sized plants, 
that is, from one to two and a half, or three feet high ; if much larger than 
this, Mr. McNab " never could move them with success, without keeping a 
large ball of earth about their roots, and keeping it as entire as possible." — 
{Hints, S^c, p. 26. ) 

721. The machines and implements for transplanting large shrubs with balls 
need not be on such a large scale as those for transplanting large trees. Those 
used by Mr. Pratt, already mentioned, are, a hand-barrow formed of sheet- 
iron, of which fig. 258, a, represents the upper side, 6, the under side, and c. 




Fig. 258. Machine for transplanting large shrubs with balls. 



a longitudinal section ; a pick, c?, like that used by Sir Henry Steuart ; a truck 
with low wheels ; and a common hand-barrow, with wooden levers and 
planks. There are three sizes of the sheet-iron hand-barrow, viz., four feet, 
by two feet six inches ; three feet, by one foot nine inches ; and two feet two 
inches, by one foot three inches ; they are all rounded at the corners, a little 



324 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



turned up at the ends, and are strengthened by flat-iron bars underneath, 
carried round near the edges. These iron bars are welded into handles at 
each end, and the handles are kept above the ground by the ends of the irons 
being turned up. The ground is opened at a distance from the stem, regu- 
lated by the size and nature of the plant intended to be removed, and the 
fibres are carefully tied up, as they are met with, to the stem of the plant. 
By the use of the pick, rf, the plant is completely undermined on three sides, 
leaving the remaining side undisturbed till the iron, a, is put under the roots, 
when that side is cut down, and the plant falls upon the iron ; and if not 
sufficiently in the middle, it is easily slipped into the centre. If the plant 
be large and heavy, an inclined plane is dug on the most convenient side of 
the hole, and a rope being put into the iron handles, the plant is hauled out. 
A short strong board is in some states of the ground used for this purpose, 
instead of the inclined plane. The plant may then, if not too heavy, be car- 
ried on a hand-barrow, which admits of the application of the strength of six 
men, two between the handles, and the other four on the outside. Heavier 
plants, which are to be carried any distance, are lifted on a truck with low 
wheels, made strong for the purpose ; and if too heavy for this mode, as 
many boards as are wanted are laid down in succession, and the plant is 
hauled by the iron upon these boards to the place where it is to be planted. 
The plant is invariably hauled into the new hole on the iron, which is not 
removed till its proper position is ascertained ; this prevents the disturb- 
ance of the ball of earth or roots. The plant is then lifted a little on one 
side and the iron drawn out, earth is then filled into the level of the fibres, 
which are untied and laid out straight, and the plant is earthed up. The 
heaviest plants, Portugal and other laurels, eight feet and nine feet high, and 
six feet or seven feet in diameter, which cannot be lifted by any strength 
that can be applied without injury to the ball of earth and roots, are thus 
moved with great ease and expedition, with large balls of earth, and without 
any disturbance of the roots ; and, consequently, the plants invariably pro- 
ceed in their growth, often without experiencing the slightest check." — 
(Gard. Mag. vol. ii. p. 184.) 

722. Packing Evergreens. — In removing evergreens, even of small size, 
and whether of the pine and fir tribe, or shrubs, the same care is requisite 
not to expose their roots to the air, and to plant them as soon as possible after 
they have been taken up. For this reason all evergreens, except the com- 
moner kinds, such as the Scotch and one or two other pines, the commoner 
spruce and silver firs, the common and Portugal laurel, the box, the juniper, 
&c., should be kept by the nurseryman in pots ; and we would strongly re- 
commend purchasers of evergreens to bear this in mind. VThen evergreen 
shrubs are to be sent to a distance, they ought to be packed in such a way as 
to prevent the roots from becoming dry, by surrounding their balls or pots 
with moist sphagnum, and leaving their tops loose, and never tied together, 
as is done in packing deciduous shrubs. Mr. McNab recommends them to be 
" packed in hampers, with strong rods cr stakes forming a cone round the 
top, and this cone covered with a mat," The branches should ne\er be tied 
close together, because in this state, if they are long in the journe^% there is 
a great risk of the leaves dropping off soon after they are unpacked ; and when 
this is the case, with the best management, it will be long before the plants 
recover. But we refer the reader to Mr. McNab's pamphlet, which cuglit to 
be in the hands of every gardener. 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



325 



723. Methods of planting small plants. — We have seen that in transplant- 
ing all large plants, a pit is opened of dimensions proportionate to the size of 
their roots, and this is also the case in planting single plants of small size ; 
but when small plants are planted in numbers together, different modes are 
adopted for the sake of expedition, and to save labour. Such of these modes 
as are in general use, we shall shortly describe, premising that in almost 
every case v/hen plants are planted in considerable numbers in gardens, they 
are placed in rows, but that in plantations and shrubberies they are generally 
planted irregularly or in groups. The rows should in almost every case be 
placed in the direction of north and south, for reasons easily understood, 
when we consider the influence of the sun on the soil between the rows 
and on the sides of the plants in this case, as compared with rows in the 
direction of east and w^est. All small plants, as well as large ones, when 
transplanted, are not inserted deeper in the soil than they were before 
being taken up. 

724. Planting with the dibber we have already (392) mentioned as suitable 
for seedlings and very small plants. The soil ought to have been previously 
dug, or stirred by some other means, so that the fibres of the young plant 
may strike readily into it. In performing the operation, a hole is made with the 
dibber with one hand, then the root of the plant is inserted to the proper depth, 
and held there by the leaves, or stem, with the other hand, while, by a second 
movement, the dibber is inserted by the side of the hole in such a manner as 
to press in one of its sides to the root of the plant, taking care that the pres- 
sure on the roots shall be greatest at its lowest extremity, and that it should 
be such as to hold the plant so fast that when slightly pulled by one of its 
leaves it does not come up. Large seeds, bulbs, and cuttings of tubers, or of 
roots without leaves, as of the potato, Jerusalem artichoke, &c., are fre- 
quently planted with the dibber, which, in these cases, is furnished with a 
blunt point (fig. 18, in p. 131). Newly-rooted small cuttings, on the other 
hand, are planted with small pointed sticks (fig. 16, w, in p. 131). All 
common seedlings, such as those of the cabbage tribe, are planted with the 
large dibber, and most small seedlings with the small one. 

725. Planting with the trowel. — The trowel is entered in the soil perpendi- 
cularly, so as to open a hole, against one side of which the plant is placed, 
and the soil returned and firmly pressed against it if the soil be dry, or 
gently if it be moist. Very succulent seedlings, or transplanted plants, such 
as balsams or geranium cuttings, when turned out into the open border, are 
planted by this mode. 

726. Planting in drills. — The drill is drawn with a draw-hoe, fig. 20, in 
p. 131, and large seeds such as beans, or sets such as cuttings of the potato, 
are placed along the bottom at regular distances, pressing them against the 
soil, and drawing the soil over them with the hoe. Root-stocks such as 
those of the asparagus, and root-cuttings such as those of the sea-kale and 
horse-radish, are sometimes planted in this manner. 

727. Laying in by the heels is a temporary mode of planting, in v/hich 
a notch or trench is made in the soil, sufficiently deep to cover the roots of 
the plants which are to be laid in it, but not their tops. An opening 
or trench is made, as if the land were to be dug, and the roots of the 
plants are laid in the furrow, with their tops standing out in a sloping 
direction ; after which the digging is continued till the roots are covered, 
and the soil is then pressed down Avith the foot, and another trench pre- 



326 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



pared. This mode of planting is employed wherever more plants are taken 
out of the ground than can be immediately planted, and it is founded on 
the necessity of avoiding the great injury which the fibres and spongioles 
of plants sustain by exposure to the air. 

728. Trench-planting is the most common mode, next to planting 
with the dibber. It is used in transplanting most kinds of trees in the 
nursery, and most kinds of edgings of single lines of plants. The spade is 
inserted perpendicularly along the line, and a trench is opened of the 
required depth, perpendicular on one side and sloping on the other ; and 
the plants are placed against the perpendicular side with one hand, while, 
with a spade in the other hand, or by the foot, some soil is drawn over 
their roots ; after which the trench is filled up by the spade, the surface 
levelled, and the line lifted and placed at a suitable distance, for a second 
trench. In general, this mode of planting is carried on simultaneously with 
digging or trenching ; trenching being used for plants having very large roots, 
such as rhubarb, sea-kale, horse-radish, &c. In planting box and other 
edgings to walks, by shallow trenches, the ground along the line of the 
intended edging is first dug to a uniform depth and width, and the soil is 
well broken, so as to be of an equal degree of fineness ; it is then com- 
pressed by treading or beating, so as to be rendered uniformly firm along 
the intended line of plants. The line being now stretched, a notch or 
trench is made along it, generally on the side next the walk, perpendi- 
cular to the surface, and of the depth of the roots of the box or other plants. 
The box is now laid in against the perpendicular side of the trench, using 
both hands, while the roots are covered with soil by drawing it up against 
them, with a spade or the foot, so as to keep the plants in their place. The 
remaining quantity of soil necessary to support the plants, and to earth 
them up as high on the walk side as on the border side, is then brought 
forward with the spade, and the work is completed by firmly treading the 
soil to the plants with the foot. 

729. Slit-planting is effected by inserting the trowel or the spade perpen- 
dicularly, moving it backwards and forwards an inch or two, and then 
withdrawing it. In the open slit thus left a plant is inserted, and the sides 
brought together, when the slit is not deep, by treading with the foot ; but, 
when it is deep, by inserting the trowel or spade on one side, so as to press 
one side of the slit against the other throughout its whole depth. Young 
forest-trees are frequently planted in this manner on unprepared soil, and 
sometimes seedlings with long taproots in gardens. 

780. Hole-planting. — Two men, or a man and a bo^^, are required for this 
operation. The ground being dug or trenched, and the width of the rows 
and the distance between the plants in the rows fixed on, a hole is opened 
by the man, and the soil thrown aside ; a plant is then placed in the hole 
by the boy, and held there till its roots are covered by a spadeful of soil, 
which is taken out, so as to form the second hole. The plant is held 
upright, while the soil is being thrown in over the roots, and it is afterwards 
fixed by pressure with the feet. A third hole is opened, and a second plant 
inserted in the same manner till the work is completed. 

731. Planting in pits. — A pit is dug somewhat larger than the estimated 
size of the roots wliich are to be placed in it ; and, if in garden or trenched 
soil, it may be made immediately before planting ; but if in firm unculti- 
vated soil, as Ls frequently the case in forest-planting, it should be made 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



327 



some months, or even a year or more before, in order that the soil in the 
bottom or sides of the pit, and that which has been taken out, and is to be 
returned to it, may receive the benefit of the weather (709). When the 
pit is dry, the soil in the bottom is loosened ; and before planting, a portion 
of the surface soil taken out is thrown in and mixed with it, and raised up 
so as to form a slight long convex surface in the centre of the pit, the apex 
of which shall be nearly level with the surface of the ground. On this 
cone the plant is placed, with its roots spread out regularly on every side ; 
the soil is then thrown in over them, and in doing this the soil should 
be made to fall either perpendicularly, or spread so as not to reverse 
the direction of the fibres, as is too frequently done when the soil is 
thrown with a force from the circumference of the hole towards the 
stem. The plant being gently shaken, if necessary, to settle the soil 
among the fibres, the whole is finished in the form of a cone, rising 
a few inches above the adjoining surface ; having been previously conso- 
lidated by treading with the feet. This is the most general mode of 
planting transplanted trees of from five feet to ten feet in height, whe- 
ther in the garden, the orchard, the pleasure-ground, or a plantation of 
forest-trees. In all these departments great care is requisite that the collar 
of the plant, when the operation is finished, should stand somewhat above 
the general surface of the ground ; because, otherwise, the sinking of the 
soil, which must inevitably take place, would bury it underneath the sur- 
face ; and the evils of this have already been shown (6). 

732. Hole-planting and fiocing with water. — Pits are prepared as in the 
last mode ; and while one man holds the tree in the proper position, the 
roots having been previously spread out, a second man throws in soil, and a 
third pours in water from the spout of a watering-pot, held as high above 
his head as his arms will reach, in order to add to its force in falling on tlie 
soil, and settling in about the roots of the plant. This is an admirable mode 
of planting those trees that have numerous fibrous roots ; particularly if the 
trees be from ten feet to twenty feet, or twenty-five feet in height. 

783. Planting in puddle. — The pit being dug in the usual manner, water 
is poured into it, and soil stirred in till the pit is half full of mud, or pud- 
dle. The roots of the tree are then inserted, and w^orked about, so as to 
distribute them as equally as possible through the watery mass. More 
puddle, previously prepared, is then thrown in, and the roots again shaken, 
and the whole is finished with dry soil. This mode is well adapted for 
trees of from ten feet to twenty feet in height, when planted in a dry sandy 
soil ; but it is not, suitable for a soil with a retentive bottom, as that would 
retain the water, and rot the roots. 

734. Planting out plants which have been grown in pots. — In preparing the 
pit, regard should be had to the probable length of the roots coiled round 
the inside of the pot ; and a sufficient surface of soil should be prepared on 
which to stretch them out. Unless this is carefully done, the plant, if it 
has numerous roots matted together, will make little more progress in the 
free soil than what it did in the pot ; because the check given to the de- 
scending sap by the numerous convolutions of the fibres, prevents them, 
so long as they remain in that state, from acquiring the strength of under- 
ground branches, which they would otherwise do. This attention to spread- 
ing out the roots of plants transplanted from pots is more especially neces- 
sary in all those kinds which do not make vigorous tap-roots, such as the 



328 



TRANSPLANTING AND PLANTING. 



pine and fir tribe ; but it should not be neglected in any class of plants 
whatever. It frequently happens, that the roots of pines and firs, which 
have been three or four years in pots, when stretched out, are six or eight 
feet in length ; and these ought to be planted in a shallow pit, not less 
than from twelve to sixteen feet in diameter. On the other hand, in places 
of limited extent, where it is desirable to keep trees and shrubs of diminu- 
tive size, they may be planted in the pots, or with the balls undisturbed, 
in order to keep them stunted or dwarfed. 

735. Watering, mulching, and staking newly-planted plants should, in 
general, never be neglected where the plants are of large size ; not so much 
to supply moisture to the fibres, as to consolidate the soil about the roots ; 
and in the case of evergreens, which are all the year in a growing state, 
it should be copiously supplied (718) for both purposes. Where it is con- 
sidered requisite to continue the watering after the plant has been planted, 
a pan or basin should be formed round it, of somewhat larger diameter than 
the pit in which the plant was placed, into which the water may be poured 
so as to ensure its descent to the roots. To lessen evaporation from this 
basin, or from the soil round newly-planted plants, it may be mulched ; that 
is, covered with any loose open material, such as litter, leaves, or spent 
tanners' bark ; or, in firm soil, with reversed turf, small stones, large 
grave], or tiles. The last three materials have the advantage of speedily 
evaporating the water which falls on them in consequence of their smooth 
surfaces ; and hence, they are used in the case of mulching geraniums, and 
other tender succulent-stemmed plants, when planted out during summer, 
to prevent their stems from rotting off between Avind and water. All newly- 
planted plants that are in danger of having their roots disturbed by the 
wind, require to be tied to stakes, or otherwise securely fixed ; the different 
modes of doing which have been already mentioned. The best description 
of stake is that which, while it keeps the roots of the plant perfectly firm 
and secure, allows the top and the upper part of the stem, supposing the 
latter to be flexible, to be put in gentle motion by the wind. 

736. Taking up preiriously to planting. — It must be constantly borae in 
mind that the food of plants is taken up by the delicate extremities or spon- 
gioles of theu" fibres, which the slightest tear or bruise will destroy ; that 
these mouths will only act when the soil in which they are placed is in a 
moist state, and that they are easily rendered useless to the plant by being 
kept for any length of time exposed to dry air. Hence, in taking up trees, 
and, particularly those of small size, such as are grown for sale in the nur- 
series, the roots should be separated from the soil with the greatest care, by 
previously loosening it at a distance from the stem, and never forcibly drawing 
the roots out of the soil till this has been done, as is too commonly practised 
in nurseries. It is true we cannot expect to remove all the fibres of a plant 
of any size uninjured, but by great care we may save the principal part of 
them. For this purpose a round-pronged blunt fork should generally be 
used for taking up trees instead of a spade, and the roots, as soon as they are 
out of the soil, should be covered with a mat, or some other protecting ma- 
terial, to prevent them from being dried by the air. When a tree has 
remained some years in the same situation, its main roots will have pene- 
trated so deep into the soil, and its lateral roots have extended so far in a 
horizontal direction, that both will require to be cut ; but this ought alvvaj s 
to be done as far from the main stem of the plant as possible ; and in propor- 



POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING. 



329 



tion to the number of distant fibres cut off by this means, care should be 
taken of those %yhich are within reach, and which may be removed unin- 
jured. Whenever trees of numerous roots are removed, some of them can 
hardly fail to be broken or bruised, and they should be smoothly cut through 
above the injured part, m order that they may be speedily healed over. Cai"e 
should be taken in spreading out the roots to allow none to cross one another; 
and if this camiot be avoided by any other means, recourse must be had to 
amputation. Cross roots do little harm when young, but, as in the case of 
branches, they gall one another as they get large. All young and rapidly- 
growing plants require a larger proportion of fibrous roots, compared with 
theii- bulk, than large plants, and these roots are also nearer to the main 
stem ; and, hence, a young tree can always be taken up with a greater mass 
of fibres than an old one. "\Fhen the tops of plants are secured from evapo- 
ration, the roots may be kept comparatively dry ; but when the top is fully 
exposed to drymg winds, the roots should be kept moist ; and in the case of 
newly-transplanted trees it is useful to sprinkle water on the tops to prevent 
the bark fi-om absorbing the returning sap. Where it is not convenient to 
supply water, the stems and principal branches may be tied round with straw 
ropes, or covered with moss. 

787. As a summary of general rules for planting^ it may be stated that 
early m autumn, when the soil has not parted with its summer heat, is the 
best season for trees and shrubs^, and open-air plants generally, with the 
exception of annuals ; that roots should be placed by art as much as possible 
in the same position in which they w^ould be by nature, that is, with the 
collar at the surface, and the points of the roots and fibres more or less under 
it, and in a descendmg, rather than in an ascending, direction ; that the hole 
or pit in which plants are placed should always be made larger than the 
roots which it is to contain ; and in the case of large plants convex at bottom 
and not concave, that the plant being placed on the centre of this convexity, 
and the roots spread out in every direction, the soil, finely pulverised, ought 
to be gently thrown over them, either by droppmg it perpendicularly, or 
throwing it in a direction from the centre to the circumference ; that the 
plant should not be pulled from side to side or up and down, in order to 
settle the earth about the roots, as was formerly practised with that view, 
but the effect of which was to break, bruise, or double the fibres ; and, 
finally, that the soil should be settled about the roots by one thorough 
watering at the time of planting, and that this watering, in the case of de- 
ciduous trees, at least, need not in general be repeated. 

§ II. Potting and Repotting or Shifting. 

738. To pot a plant is to sow or plant it in a pot, box, or tub ; and to re- 
pot or shift it, is to turn it out of one pot or box, and replace it m the same 
or in another, with the addition of fresh soil. The mass of soil and roots 
which is to be shifted is termed a ball. If the object is to add fresh soil, 
without ushig a larger pot, then a proportionate quantity must be removed 
from the ball or mass containing the roots of the plant to be repotted ; but 
if the object be to add fresh soil without disturbing the roots, the mass or 
ball of soil and roots is simply placed in a pot a size larger than that from 
which it was taken, and the vacant space between the ball and the pot filled 



330 



POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING, 



up with soil. If the object should be to grow the plant in a smaller pot than 
that in which it was before, then the ball must be considerably reduced, so 
as to be somewhat smaller than the pot in which it is to be placed, in order 
to allow room for some fresh soil. The implements, utensils, &c., necessary 
for potting are : a bench or table, either fixed or portable, and which must 
be perfectly level ; pots, tubs, or boxes; broken pots, oyster- shells, or other 
materials for drainage ; proper soils, a trowel, a small dibber, a spade, and a 
watering-pot and water. 

739. The main object of growing plants in pots is to render them portable, 
by which a greater command is obiained in the application to them of the 
agents of growth and culture, and by which they can be transported at 
pleasure fi-om one place to another, whether for purposes of use or ornament. 
A plant in a pot may be kept dry or moist, placed in heat or in cold, in the 
shade or in the sun, in the open garden, the plant-house, or in the living 
room, at pleasure. By limiting the size of the pot or box, and the quantity 
of soil in it, the plants can be grown of much smaller size than when they 
are planted in the free soil ; and hence the great number of exotic trees and 
shrubs which can be maintained within a very limited space in plant-struc- 
tures. In consequence of the roots of each plant being confined to its own 
pot, the weakest-growing sorts can be grown side by side by the strongest, 
without injury to either. Were there no means of growing hothouse and 
greenhouse plants but by planting them in beds or borders under glass, a 
very few plants would soon fill the largest house, and though they might be 
pruned both at top and at root to keep them within bounds, yet this could 
never be done so effectually as by placing each plant in a separate pot or 
box, by which its growth is on the one hand limited by the quantity of soil 
in the pot, and on the other not checked or suffbcated by the interference of 
the roots of any other plants which may adjoin it. There are various other 
advantages which result from growmg plants in pots, such as stunting the 
entire plant by the limited supph' of nourishment, and thus causing it to 
produce flowers at an earlier age, and when of a smaller size, than it would 
do in the free soil ; enabling us to transfer plants in pots to the free soil at 
any season, and without interrupting their growth ; to pack and send them 
to a distance, without injury to their roots ; to grow them in particular 
kinds of soil, to subject them to experiments, and in the case of seedlings 
grown in pots either singly or in quantities, to transplant them with the 
whole of their fibres and spongioles. 

740. The disadvantages of growing plants in pots are : the constant attend- 
ance which is requisite to preserve the soil in a uniform state of moisture 
and temperature, and to remove the plant from one pot to another when 
additional space for the roots becomes requisite, or when the soil contained 
in the pot becomes impoverished. We have seen (255 to 257, and again in 
421) in what manner plants in pots, the sides of which are exposed to the 
air, are deprived of heat and moisture, and of the former to such a degree as 
to reduce the temperature of the soil of the pot considerably lower than that 
of the atmosphere in which it is placed ; and there can be no difficulty in 
conceiving how the soil in the pot is impoverished. The loss of heat and 
moisture are to be counteracted by plunging the pot in soil or other earthy 
matter, or by encasing it in any non-conducting material, or placing one pot 
v/ithin another, and filling the interstices with moist moss or any other 



POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING. 



331 



material which will retain moisture, fig. 259. The exhaustion of the 
soil is remedied by re-potting-, or in some cases by the application of 
manure ; either solid on the surface of the soil, 
in the pots, or in a liquid state poured on the soil, 
or contained in a saucer in which the pot is placed. 
Notwithstanding all these resources, plants in 
pots, excepting those naturally of small size, never 
grow so luxuriantly as those in the free soil, and 
therefore this mode of growing plants is adopted for 
convenience, or to make up for defects in climate, 
or want of space in plant-tructures, and not in 
general to bring plants to a higher degree of per- 

Fig. 259- One pot placed within fgc^^Qjj 
another, for the purpose of ' t»i . .,i 

retaining the soil in the inner 741. Potting. — Plants are either sown m pots, 
pot in a moist state. planted in them when newly originated from seeds, 

cuttings, or other modes of propagation ; or removed to them from the free soil 
when of considerable size. When a rooted plant placed in a pot has begun to 
grow, its fibres extending in every direction, soon reach the sides of the pot, 
where, being checked, they are compelled to follow its sides, till, after a short 
time, they form a net- work between the pot and the earth which it contains ; 
so firmly enveloping the latter, that w^hen turned out, it remains entire as one 
solid body, or, as it is technically called, ball. As the roots in young plants 
are commonly few, and proceed in direct lines from the stem of the plant to 
the sides of the pot, it happens when the ball is large, and the plant of rapid 
growth, that the interior of the ball contains few roots, and, consequently, 
that the soil there is, in a great measure, lost to the plants. To prevent this 
from being the case, plants when first potted are planted in pots of the smallest 
size, by which the full benefit of the whole of the soil in the first pot is certain 
of being obtained ; while there is no danger of this being the case when the 
plant is shifted into larger pots, because each time that this is done there is 
only a thin stratum of soil introduced between the ball and the pot. An- 
other reason why plants are first potted in the smallest- sized pots in which 
they can be planted, is, that the drainage is more perfect, and that the soil 
is more readily penetrated by heat, whether of the atmosphere, or of the 
material in which it may be plunged. When a large mass of rich, soft, 
finely-sifted soil is brought together and compressed, as it always is in a 
pot, it parts with w^ater so slowly as to become sodden for want of air ; and 
in that case it rots the spongioles of the fibres, and even the fibres them- 
selves. A small portion of soil, on the other hand, retains less moisture, is 
readily pierced by the roots, and kept comparatively open by them ; and 
hence the fibres and their spongioles are uninjured. If, instead of rich, soft, 
soil, readily compressed, a comparatively poor, sandy soil were used, the 
smallest plants might be planted in the largest pots, without any danger 
of rotting the roots ; though with great want of economy in regard to soil, 
space, and future management. By beginning with small-sized pots, 
and shifting into others, gradually increasing in size, the full benefit of all 
the soil put in the pot will have been obtained, and the plant stimulated by 
every fresh addition to its roots, to increase its leaves and shoots. 

742. The same soil which is suitable for the open ga7'den is not always 
suitable for using in pots. — Every gardener must have observed that soil 
that will remain sufficiently open for the roots of plants in the quarters of 




332 



POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING. 



a kitclien -garden, or even when placed in a hotbed, becomes too compact 
when used in pots, even though it receives as much watering in the one case 
as in the other. The fact is thus explamed by a correspondent : — "^Vhen 
the nature of the soil is such as that the cohesion of its particles is greater 
than that which is formed between the soil and sides of the pot, it loses hold 
of the latter, and becomes concentrated by every withdrawal of moisture, 
leaving an almost clear cavity between it and the sides of the pot, and this 
cavity being readily filled with water, the soil is prevented from expanding 
in a degree proportionate to the force that would be necessary to displace 
the water. In addition to this, the fibres of the plant tend to bind it 
together, and it ultimately becomes so much solidified that it either refuses 
to take in sufficient moisture ; or, if it does, it retains it so as to prevent the 
ingress of a fresh supply ; whilst at the same time the water so retained 
becomes impure, and consequently injurious to the health of the plaut. 
A similar quantity of soil in the quarter from which the above soil is 
supposed to be taken will be found in a very different state ; for there it is 
kept from contracting on any central portion by its cohesion with the soil in 
the circumference. Hence the necessity of using such soil for plants in 
pots as is not too cohesive ; or at all events weakenmg its cohesive power 
by mixture with sand, peat, turf, or other substances that may be found to 
answer the purpose, and at the same time afford congenial nourishment to 
the plants. And as glazed pots aftbrd less hold for the soil than those with 
a rougher surface, it is probable they are on that account objectionable 

743. Bottom Drainage. — 'Whether plants are put in small or large pots, 
the first point whicli requires to be attended to is to cover the hole in the 
bottom of the pot with some description of material whicli will readily allow 
of the escape of water, and if possible prevent the entrance of earth-worms, 
(296). The article commonly used is fragments of broken pots, which 
being always, excepting in the case of pot-bottoms, portions of a curved 
surface, never can cover the hole so closely as to prevent the escape of 
water. One crock, somewhat larger than the hole, is placed over it, and over 
that is placed a layer of smaller pieces, in depth more or less according to the 
size of the pot and the degree of drainage wanted ; and to prevent the soil 
which is to be placed above from being washed down into this drainage, it is 
commonl}^ covered with a layer of fibrous or turfy matter obtained from 
turfy soil, or with live moss. In tlie case of small plants requiring notliing more 
than ordinary care, a smgle crock, or in large pots a single oyster-shell, placed 
over the hole in the bottom of the pot is generally found sufficient ; but in 
very delicate plants, a fourth, a thu-d, or even half the pot is filled with 
drainage. This, as we have seen (58-i), is more particularly the case in 
planting cuttings in pots. 

74-4. The mode of sowing or planting in a pothas nothing peculiar in it. A 
small dibber, fig. 16 «, in p. 131, is commonly used for planting seedlings ot 
the smallest size ; the pot being previously drained, and filled full of soil 
gently pressed down. In planting larger seedlings, or rooted cuttings, the pot 
is drained, filled one-third or one-half with soil, raised a little in the middle, 
and while the plant is placed on this soil and held upright with one hand, the 
fibres are spread over the somewhat conical surface of the soil with the other ; 
and afterwards the same hand is employed in takmg up soil with a trowel and 
filling it in over the roots, shaking up tlie latter a little, till the pot is full. 
The pot is now taken up with both hands, and set down with ajar once or twice 



POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING. 



333 



on the potting bench, so as to consolidate the soil in the pot. A little soil is 
next added or taken off, so as to leave the pot filled to the rim ; and a little 
water is then given, unless the soil is considered already sufficiently moist for 
the state of the plants. The potted plants, if in leaf, are placed in a still 
atmosphere, with or without heat and shade, as may be deemed necessary. 
If they are without leaves very little extra care is necessary, farther than 
setting the pots on a level surface, that the plants may grow erect and that 
the pots may retain water ; the surface being composed of materials which 
will not admit of worms rising through it, and ascending the pots through 
the holes in their bottoms, which they are very apt to do. When pots are 
plunged in the free soil, they are not nearly so liable to be penetrated by 
worms as when they stand on its surface. 

745. In transplanting from the free soil into a pot or box, the plant, if in 
kaf, is commonly taken up with a ball adjusted to the size of the pot ; and 
to fit such plants for removal, their main roots are frequently cut by the 
spade, a week or two before taking up, at a short, distance from the 
stem, so as that the wounded parts may be within the limits of the ball. 
This lessens the check to vegetation which would otherwise be given by 
taking up the plant, and may be usefully applied in the case of many 
plants which are removed from the open border to the green-house late in 
autumn. 

746. Care of newly potted or shifted plants. — As the absorption of moisture 
by the spongioles is necessarily checked by the disturbance of the roots, 
occasioned by taking up the plants and replanting them, so must also be the 
perspiration of the leaves by the diminished supply of moisture. To lessen 
this perspiration, therefore, where there is danger of it proving injurious, the 
plants must be placed in a still humid atmosphere, by watering the surface 
on which the pots are set, and then covering them with mats, or by placing 
them in a close frame, and if necessary, shading them from the sun, and sup- 
plying extra heat. The more delicate kinds may be placed for a short time 
on a hot-bed, but the hardier plants will succeed very well if merely sheltered 
by being hooped over and shaded by any slight covering for a day or two, 
taking care to remove it at night, and during still, cloudy weather ; while 
the hardiest merely require the shade of a hedge or a wall. The most 
difficult plants to manage, after being potted, are large herbaceous plants, or 
large-leaved free-growing greenhouse plants, which have been grown during 
summer in the open garden, such as stocks, dahlias, brugmansias, &c. 
These are very apt to lose their leaves after being taken up and potted, 
whether kept in the open air or in a frame or pit. The only mode of 
averting this evil is to begin early in the autumn to check their growth, by 
cutting off all their main roots at a short distance from the stem, and repeat- 
ing the operation once or twice before taking up ; by these means the 
growth will be checked, and they wiU produce no more leaves before being 
taken up than they are able to support after being potted. 

747. Shifting or Re-potting. — In re-potting in the same pot, the ball or 
mass of soil and roots being turned out of the pot, the soil is shaken away 
from the roots either wholly or in part ; the greater part of the roots more or 
less cat in, but leaving a few with their fibres and spongioles, to support the 
plant till it produces new fibres, and the pot being properly drained, the 
plant is potted much in the same way as it would be planted in the free 
soil ; care being taken that the soil is properly introduced and settled among 



334 



POTTING AND REPOTTING OR SHIFTING. 



all the roots. In shifting from a small pot into a larger one, the larger pot 
being drained and prepared, the ball is turned out of the smaller pot by 
turning it upside down, and while holding it in that position, with the ball 
resting on the palm of the left hand, with the stem of the plant between two 
of the fingers, striking it gently against the edge of the potting bench, so as 
to cause the ball to separate from the pot. The ball being now in the left hand, 
and turned upside down, remove the drainage from it with the right, then 
reverse it, and place it in the larger pot, filling in the vacant space all round 
with fresh soil, gently compressing it by working it in with the trowel or a 
wooden spatula. In shifting from a large pot to a smaller, the ball being taken 
out of the large pot must either be reduced equally on every side and on the 
bottom, by paring off a portion of the roots and soil, including of course 
almost all the spongioles, or the soil must be shaken off from the roots 
entirely, the roots cut in, and the plants inserted in the smaller pot among 
fresh soil. In shifting plants from one pot to another, care should in general 
be taken not to place the collar of the stem deeper in the new pot than it was 
before in the old one, excepting in the case of plants which root readily from 
the stem, such as balsams and a few others ; but in general, in pots as in the 
open ground, the stem should rise from a gentle eminence, and the ramifica- 
tions of the upper roots, where they depart from the stem, be seen above the 
soil. By this means the descent of the sap to the roots is not checked by the 
pressure of the soil on the collar, and the ramifications of the roots become 
much stronger, and covered with a thicker bark. 

748. Seasons and times for potting and shifting. — Small plants may be 
potted at any growing season ; but the most favourable are spring and 
autumn, and the least so mid- winter, even under glass, owing to the absence 
of light. Shifting also may be performed in any season ; but the most suit- 
able for established plants is just before they commence their annual growth ; 
while young rapidly-growing plants may be shifted from time to time as 
long as they continue growing. Slow-growing woody plants are seldom 
shifted oftener than once a year, unless it is desired to accelerate their 
growth; but rapid-growing plants, such as pelargoniums, and such annuals 
as the balsam, cockscomb, &c., are shifted many times in a single season, 
beginning, more especially in the case of the balsam, with a pot of the 
smallest size, such as No. 11, which is li inches in diameter (420), and 
gradually increasing the size as the plant advances in growth, till from being 
2 inches high in a pot of the same height in April, it is 3 feet or 4 feet high 
in a pot 1 foot in diameter in June or July. By heat and frequent shifting 
for upwards of a year, pelargoniums are grown so as to form bushes 3 feet or 
more in diameter in pots of not more than 8 inches or 10 inches across. Pine- 
apples are grown to a large size in comparatively small pots, but the soil 
employed is rich and frequently supplied with liquid manure. 

749. The most difficult plants to manage in pots are the hair-rooted 
kinds, such as all the Ericaceae, and many Cape and Australian shrubs, requir- 
ing sandy peat soil, which must be well drained, and kept uniformly 
moderately moist, but never either soaked with water, or very dry. The 
drainage must be so perfect as to prevent the possibility of water stagnating in 
the soil ; and while the nature of this soil, sand and peat, readily permits the 
water to pass through it to the drainage below, the porous sides of the pot 
incessantly cai-ry off moisture by evaporation, and the more so as heaths 
require to be kept in a rather dry atmosphere. The roots of heaths, and 



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335 



indeed all hair-like roots, are as readily destroyed by over-dryness as by 
moisture, and hence the continual risk of danger to this description of plants 
when grown in pots. To guard against the extremes of dryness and mois- 
tui-e, the pots when small are sometimes plunged in sand or moss, or placed 
in double pots ; or when the plants are large, shifted into wooden boxes (428), 
which not being great conductors both of heat and moisture, are more 
congenial to the roots of all plants. To guard against excess of moisture on 
the one hand, and the want of it on the other, two very ingenious and use- 
ful practices have been introduced into the culture of heaths and heath-like 
plants in pots, by Mr. M'Nab. The first is, always to keep the collar of 
the stem of the plant a few lines above the general surface of the pots, in 
consequence of which it is always dry, and not liable to be chilled by evapo- 
ration, or rotted off by the stagnation of moisture ; and the second consists 
in mixing with the soil fragments of any coarse, porous stone, from one inch 
to four or five inches in diameter, such as freestone, which retaining more 
moisture than the soil, gives it out to the latter when it becomes too dry ; 
and thus a temporary neglect of watering is not attended with the sudden 
destruction of the plant, which without these reservoirs of moisture it often 
is. To counteract the effects of evaporation from the sides of pots, and of 
sudden changes of atmospheric temperature, the French gardeners very 
generally employ wooden boxes, even for small plants. Glazed pots have 
also been proposed to be employed in this country, as in China, by Mr, 
Forsyth (Gard. Chron., 1841, p. 499); but they have not yet been suffi- 
ciently tried to admit of our generally recommending them. Mr. Knight 
is of opinion that, though some plants are injured by having the sides of 
their pots fully exposed to the air, yet that the taste and flavour of the 
peach and nectarine, and still more of the strawberry, are greatly improved 
by it, as well as the period of the maturity of their fruit accelerated. {Hort. 
Trans, vii., p. 258.) 

750. Growing hardy plants in pots, and especially the more rare kinds 
of trees and shrubs, for the purpose of transport, and to insure success when 
they are finally planted out, is one of the most useful purposes to which the 
potting of plants can be applied. We have already (722) recommended all 
the more valuable evergreens, and especially those of the pine and fir tribe, 
only to be purchased in pots ; and the same observations will apply to such 
deciduous trees and shrubs as make few fibrous roots, such as the Magnolia, 
and to most rare and valuable herbaceous plants. The care requisite to be 
taken in transplanting into the open ground plants which have been some 
years in pots, has also been enlarged on (734). Either the fibrous roots of 
plants which have for some time been grown in pots should be stretched out 
at full length, or, if they are too brittle for that purpose, a portion of them 
should be left as they are to absorb nourishment, and a portion shortened or 
pruned, in order to produce new fibres to become roots, branching out in 
every direction. When this is neglected, more especially with trees or 
shrubs which produce chiefly surface-roots, such as the pine and fir tribe, 
or which produce few roots, such as the Magnolia, they will often, after 
being transplanted into the free soil, remain in a stunted state for many 
years. 

§ III. Pruning. 

751. Pruning consists in depriving a plant of a portion of its branches, 
buds, leaves, bark, or roots, in order to produce particular effects on the 

z 2 



336 



PRUNING, 



part of the plant which remains. The different kinds of pruning may be 
included under knife-pruning, which is applied to small branches ; lopping, 
which is applied to large branches ; clipping, which is appKed to small 
shoots in masses; and disbudding, disleafing, and disbarking, which are 
applied to buds, leaves, and bark. Girdling and felling may also be included 
in this section. The instruments necessary for these operations are chiefly 
the pruning-knife, the bill, the saw, the cutting-shears, and the clipping- 
shears ; but there are some other instruments, such as the pruning-chisel, 
the averruncator, the girdling machine, &c., which are occasionally used for 
peculiar purposes (see figs. 40 to 50, in pages 137 to 142). 

752. The specific principles on which pruning is founded, and its general 
effects, are these : — The nutriment of plants is absorbed from the soil by their 
roots, and formed into leaves, branches, flowers, and fruit, by their buds ; by 
operating on the buds and roots, therefore, we can regulate what is produced 
by them. If the stem and branches of a plant contain a hundred buds, by 
removing half of these the shoots or fruits produced by the remainder will be 
supplied with double their former supply of nourishment ; and if all the buds 
be removed but one, the whole of the sap sent up by the roots will be modi- 
fied by that single bud, provided care be taken to remove other buds as 
they appear. On the other hand, when the whole of the buds of a tree are 
so abundantly supplied with sap from the roots as to produce chiefly leaves 
or shoots without blossoms, then by cutting oS^ a portion of the roots the 
supply of sap is lessened, a moderate degi-ee of vigour is produced, and 
instead of barren shoots, blossom-buds appear. By these means the growth 
of plants is controlled by pruning. Pruning has not the power to increase 
the vigour of an entire plant, because it cannot increase the quantity of food 
taken up by the roots ; but it can diminish the vigour of the entire tree by 
cutting off" part of the roots, or it can increase the vigour of particular parts of 
the tree, by amputating the branches, or taking off" the buds at other parts. 
Pruning can prevent trees from producing flowers, and hence increase their 
general vigour and longevity. It can modify the general form of trees as 
well as increase particular parts of them, and it can add to the vigour of 
stunted or diseased trees by concentrating their sap, or directing it to a few 
buds instead of a great many. One of the most useful effects of pruning is 
to cause the development of dormant or adventitious buds, which is effected 
by amputating the shoot, branch, or stem, close above any point where visible 
buds are usually situated, though they may now be wanting there. 

763. In forest-trees pruning is of the greatest use in modifying the 
quantity of timber produced. Thus by commencing when the tree is 
quite young, and shortening the side branches and encouraging the leading 
shoot, the whole of the timber produced is thrown into a main stem ; 
whereas had no pruning been employed, great part of the wood might have 
been distributed in branches of little use, excepting as fuel. On the other 
hand, should crooked timber be desired, pruning by destroying the leading 
shoot, and encouraging those that have a suitable direction, tends to attain 
the end in view ; and by the aid of training this end can be completely 
effected. Trees which are stunted in their growth from being hide-bound 
(a disease which is brought on by the sudden exposure of trees to the 
weather after they have been drawn up by shelter, and in the case of 
young trees by being planted of too large a size in proportion to their roots), 
may in general be made to shoot vigorously by being cut down or headed-in. 



PRUNING. 



337 



On the other hand, trees which are in particular situations, where it is 
feared they will grow too large, may be arrested in their growth, or stunted 
by amputating the larger roots. 

754. For ornamental trees pruning is chiefly employed to remove 
diseased branches, because much of the effect of these trees depends on the 
development of their natural form and character, which pruning with a view 
to timber has in general a tendency to counteract ; but for all ornamental 
trees, grown chiefly for their flowers or fruit, pruning can be as usefully 
applied as in the ease of fruit-trees ; and where ornamental hedges and 
other verdant architectural structures are to be grown, pruning by the bill 
or the shears is essential. 

755. For ornamental shrubs pruning cannot be dispensed with, since 
many of them are grown for their flowers, which are produced much 
stronger and of brighter colours when the shoots are thinned out, or shortened, 
or both ; and when the plants are prevented from exhausting themselves by 
the removal of decaying blossoms, so as to prevent them from maturing their 
seeds. Every one knows the value of pruning to the rose, and to all shrubs 
with double blossoms, and shrubs with large blossoms, such as the Magnolia 
or the passion-flower. 

756. Fruit-trees and shrubs are above all other plants benefited by 
pruning, which is indeed by far the most important part of their culture. 
The most general object of pruning is to create an abundant supply of sap 
during summer by the production of leaf-shoots, by which the general 
strength of the tree is augmented, and to limit the distribution of this sap 
when it ascends from the roots in the following spring, by diminishing the 
number of buds. The effect of this is to increase the vigour of the shoots 
or fruits produced by these buds ; and if this be done in such a manner as 
to obtain also the greatest advantages from light and air, the pruning will 
have answered its purpose. If a fruit-tree were not deprived every year 
of a part of the wood or the buds which it produces, its shoots and fruits 
would gradually diminish in size, and though the fruit would be more 
numerous it would be deficient in succulence and flavour, as we find to be 
the case in old neglected orchard trees. The application of pruning 
to fruit-trees difi"ers so much according to the species of tree that the subject 
can only be properly treated by taking each class separately. Thus kernel 
fruits which are produced on wood of two or more years' growth, require to 
be pruned in a difl*erent manner from such fruits as the peach, which is 
produced from the shoots of the preceding year ; or the grape, which is pro- 
duced from the shoots of the current year. The production of blossoms, or 
the enlargement of fruits and the acceleration of their maturity by ringing, 
is a species of pruning peculiarly applicable to fruit-trees. 

757. To herbaceous plants pruning is applicable, not only when they are 
being transplanted, when both roots and top are frequently cut in, but also to 
fruit-bearing kinds, such as the melon tribe, the tomato, &c. Pruning is 
even useful to the cabbage tribe when it is wished that, after the head is cut 
off, the stem should throw out sprouts, which is found to be accelerated 
by splitting it down an inch or two. The topping of beans, and the picking 
off' of potato blossoms, are operations belonging to pruning ; as are the cutting 
off^ of withered flowers for the sake of neatness, or to prevent the production 
of seed, and even the mowing of grass lawns. Having noticed the uses of 
pruning in culture, we shall next shortly describe the different kinds in use in 



338 



PRUNING. 



British gardens and plantations. Tliese may be included under close-pruning, 
shortening-in, fore-shortening, spurring-in, heading-in, lopping, snag- 
lopping, lopping-in, stopping, pinching out, disbarking, disbudding, disleaf- 
ing, slitting, bruising or tearing, root pruning, girdling, and felling. 

758. Close jorMnm^ consists in cutting off shoots close to the branch or stem 
from whence they spring, leaving as small a section as possible in order that 
it maybe speedily healed over. In performing the operation care should be 
taken to make the wounded section no larger than the base of the shoot, in 
order that it may be healed over as quickly as possible ; and at the same 
time to make it no smaller, because this would leave latent buds which 
would be liable to be developed, and thus occasion the operation to be per- 
formed a second time. This mode of pruning is only adopted where the 
object is to produce stems or trunks clear of branches or of any kind of pro- 
tuberance, as in the case of standard trees in gardens, especially fruit-trees, 
and in the case of forest-trees, grown for their timber. If the branch cut off 
is imder an inch in diameter, the wound will generally heal over in two 
seasons, and in this case the timber sustains no practical injury ; but if it is 
larger, it will probably begin to decay in the centre, and thus occasion a 
blemish in the timber. Mr. Cree's mode of pruning forest-trees grown with 
a view to the production of straight timber, which appears to us to be 
decidedly the best, is an application of this mode. Mr. Cree commences his 
operations before the tree has been taken from the nursery, and continues 
them till he has obtained a clear trunk, of such a height as he thinks the 
kind of tree will produce of a useful timber size, in the climate and soil 
where it is planted. He cuts off no branches whatever till the tree has 
attained the height of from sixteen to twenty feet, with a stem of from fifteen 
to eighteen inches in circumference at the surface of the ground ; but during 
the growth of the tree to that height he shortens in the side branches when- 
ever they extend farther than between three and four feet from the trunk. 
In consequence of being thus shortened, these shoots do not, so long as they 
are allowed to remain on the tree, attain a greater diameter at their depar- 
ture from the trunk than about an inch. The tree having attained its six- 
teenth, eighteenth, or twentieth year, its head forms a narrow cone, clothed 
with branches from the ground to the summit. Its pruning is now com- 
menced by taking off one tier of branches annually, commencing with the 
lowest, cutting close to the stem, generally just before midsummer, that the 
wound may be partially healed over the same season, and continuing to do 
this annually till the stem has grown and been cleared to the required 
height. While the process of clearing the stem is going on below, that of 
shortening in the side branches is going on above, so as to preserve the 
narrow conical shape, and prevent any of the branches which are to be cut 
off from attainmg a greater diameter than an inch. The trunk being at last 
cleared to the proper height, the head over the cleared part is left in the form 
of a cone, and no longer touched with the averruncator. The head now, by 
degrees, takes its natural form, and continues growing in that form till the 
tree is felled. The detail of this mode of pruning will be found given by 
Mr. Cree in the Gardeners Magazine for 1841 ; and a mode nearly similar is 
described by Mr. Main in the volume of the same work for 1832. We have only 
to repeat that we consider this system as by far the most efficient for pruning 
forest trees, where the production of timber in a clean straight stem is the 
object. The quantity of timber produced will not be so great as in the case of 



PRUNING. 



339 



a tree standing alone, and throwing out its branches uncontrolled on every 
side, because the quantity of foliage produced, and properly exposed to the 
light, will not be nearly so great ; but it must be recollected, that the timber 
produced will be in a more useful form, and besides, that Mr. Cree's tree is 
supposed to form one of a close plantation. When we consider this last 
circumstance, it must, we think, appear obvious, that by no other mode of 
pruning could an equal quantity of foliage be exposed to the light in so 
limited a space, and consequently so large a bulk of timber be produced in 
that space. 

759. Shortening-in is the term applied when side shoots are shortened at the 
distance of from two to four or five feet from the stem, the cut being always 
made to a bud (515). Exceeding that distance it is called fore-shortening, 
and is chiefly applicable to timber-trees in hedge rows ; and under that 
distance it is called spurring-in. We have seen the use of shortening-in, in 
connexion with close pruning, in the case of forest- trees, in the preceding 
paragraph. In the culture of fruit-trees, it is applied in connexion with 
spurring-in, to produce trees of conical forms with branches which, never 
being allowed to attain a timber size, are prolific in fruit-bearing spurs. 
Whenever the branches exceed two inches in diameter, they are cut off 
within an inch of the stem, and one of the young shoots which are produced 
there is trained to take its place. See § V, Training. 

760. Fore-shortening. — When the lateral branches of a standard tree extend 
further than is desirable, a portion of their extremities is cut off ; the cut 
being always made close above a branch of sufficient thickness to form a 
leader of sufficient strength to keep the branch alive and healthy, but not so 
strong as to cause it to produce much timber, or in any way to come into 
competition with the trunk of the tree. The object is to prevent the 
lateral branches of the trees from mjuriously shading the plants under tbem ; 
and hence it is chiefly used in the case of trees m hedge-rows. 

761. Spurring-in. — The apple, the pear, the cherry, the plum, and other 
fruit trees, or fruit shrubs, produce what are called spurs, or very short 
shoots or knobs, covered with blossom-buds, naturally, and the object of 
spurring in pruning is to produce these knobs artificially. This can only be 
done with lateral shoots, to which the sap is not impelled with the same 
vigour as to the growing point, because the great object in producmg spurs 
is to obtain blossom-buds, and these are never produced on the most vigorous 
shoots. A lateral shoot of the present year being produced may be shortened 
to two or three visible buds, either in the beginning of summer after that 
shoot has grown a few inches in length, or in the following winter ; but the 
former is in general the better season, because it is not desirable to encourage 
the production of wood and consequently of sap, but rather to lessen their 
production, so as to produce stunted branches, which are in fact the spurs. 
The second and third years the shoots produced are shortened in the same 
manner as they were the first, and it will generally be found that the leaf- 
buds left on the lower ends of the shoots when cut down, will the year after 
become blossom-buds. As by the process of continually shortening the 
shoots, the spurs in a few years become inconveniently large, they are 
from time to time cut out and new spurs formed by the same process as be- 
fore ; and finally, after a certain time, the entire branch bearing the spurs 
is cut out close to the main stem of the tree, and renewed, as spurs are, by a 
young shoot produced from its base. It mast be confessed, however, that 



340 



PRUNING. 



pruning has but little to do with the production of spurs that are prolific in 
blossoms : that depends far more on adjusting the nourishment supplied by 
the root to the demands of the fruit-bearing branches, to the mode of train- 
ing, the kind of tree, and other particulars, which, when attended to, spurs 
are produced naturally. This subject, therefore, can only be properly 
treated when giving the culture of particular trees. 

762. Heading-in is cutting off all the branches which form the head of a 
tree close to the top of the stem, leaving however their base to produce buds. 
This is done with w^hat are called polled or pollard trees periodically, for 
the sake of the branches produced as fagot or fence wood, and with fruit 
trees when they are to be re-grafted (653). It is also done with stunted 
forest trees, for the sake of concentrating the sap into a few main shoots, 
instead of distributing it over a great many ; and it is done in transplanting 
trees of considerable size intended to form avenues, or single trees in parks 
(713). The branches, if under two inches in diameter, are cut off clean 
with a bill (410) at one stroke ; or if they are larger, they are first sawn oflp, 
and afterwards the section is made smooth with the bill-axe or the knife, 
but generally with what is called the bill-knife. 

763. Lopping. — This term is very generally applied to heading-in, but it 
is also as generally used to signify the cutting off large branches from the 
sides of stems, and in this sense we shall here treat of it. Lopping is per- 
formed by foresters in three manners, two of which are highly injurious to 
the timber of the trunk of the tree, and the other not so. The first injurious 
practice is that of 

764. Close Lopping^ by which a large wound is produced, the surface of 
which not only never can unite with the new wood which is formed over it, 
because, as we have seen (637), growing tissue can only unite to growing 
tissue, but the wood in the centre of the wound will, in all probability, begin 
to rot before it is covered over, and consequently the timber of the trunk 
will be more or less injured. Even if, by covering the wound with compo- 
sition to exclude the w^eather, the surface of the section should be prevented 
fi"om rotting, still there would be a blemish in the timber, in the form of a 
distinct line of demarcation between the new wood and the old. The second 
injurious mode of lopping is, that of cutting off side branches at from six 
inches to a foot, or even two feet, from the trunk, which is called, 

765. Snag Lopping. — By this mode there can be no efficient source of 
returning sap, the wounds can never heal over, and are certain, in connexion 
with the stumps on which they are made, to rot and disfigure and deteriorate 
the timber much more than in the case of close lopping. 

766. Lopping -in. — The only mode of lopping large branches from the 
sides of the trunks of trees, without injuring the timber in these trunks, is 
to shorten them to a branch of sufficient size to heal the wound at its base, 
or at all events to maintain the growth of the whole of the part of the branch 
left, and prevent any decay from reaching the trunk. Clean timber, that is 
timber free from knots, will not be produced by this mode, but sound timber 
will be the result, which is much more valuable than the apparently clean 
and sound timber that would have been produced by close lopping, and 
letting the tree stand till the wounds were covered with new wood and bark. 
If the branch had not been lopped, it would have continued to increase in 
diameter in as great a ratio as the stem ; but when lopped so as to produce 
only as much foliage as keeps the part left alive, such part will increase very 



PRUNING. 



341 



little ; and as the stem increases, the proportion which the diverging sound 
knot bears to the straight timber of the stem will be less and less. If 
trees, when planted together in masses, were pruned in Mr. Cree's manner, 
there never could be any occasion for lopping ; but as this practice will pro- 
bably always be more or less required for neglected trees, or for trees in par- 
ticular circumstances, lopping-in should always be adopted where the value 
of the timber is an object ; close lopping when the object desired is a clean 
stem, without reference to timber ; and snag lopping when the object is, as 
in snag lopping the English elm, to produce a thick growth of young shoots, 
to be periodically cut off as faggot or fence wood, or for sticking peas. 

767. Cutting down the stem or trunk of a tree to the ground is an import- 
ant operation, because in some cases, such as that of resinous or needle- leaved 
trees, it kills the tree, while in others, or what are called trees that stole, 
which is a property of most broad-leaved trees, it affords the means of renew- 
ing the tree. Thus coppice woods, which consist of trees and shrubs cut 
down periodically, have their stems and branches repeatedly renewed from 
the same root or collar. Thorn hedges are also frequently renewed by 
cutting down to the ground ; but perhaps the most valuable application of the 
practice is to young stunted forest trees when finally planted out. The slow 
growth of a tree which is stunted appears to depend on the thinness of the 
alburnum, and consequent smallness of its sap channels, the result of which 
is, that the sap rises slowly and in smaller quantities than it otherwise 
would do ; and, hence, that a proportionately smaller quantity is returned 
from the leaves through the bark. But by cutting over the stem just above 
the collar, the whole force of the sap accumulated in the roots will be em- 
ployed in the development of some latent buds in the collar, and one of the 
shoots produced by these buds being selected and the others slipped off, an 
erect stem will be produced of five or six feet the first season, and the sap 
vessels in this shoot being large, and abundantly supplied from the root, the 
plant will grow freely ever afterwards. The cut, which may be made with the 
pruning knife, or with the large pruning shears, should be made close to the 
surface of the ground and nearly horizontal, by which it will be more 
speedily healed over than if made oblique ; and in order to point out the 
stools or stocks of the plants so cut over in the beginning of summer, when the 
ground is probably covered with weeds, the stem of every tree may be stuck 
in within an inch or two of its root-stock. The oak, the ash, the elm, and 
the sycamore, among timber trees, and the hawthorn among hedge-plants, are 
greatly benefited by this mode of pruning after they have been three or four 
years planted out where they are finally to remain. Fruit-trees cannot 
generally be so treated, because the graft is for the most part only a few 
inches above the surface of the soil ; but even with fruit-trees, when they 
are stunted, there is no better mode of restoring them to vigour than by 
cutting them down to the graft. 

768. Stopping and pinching out. — When the point of a shoot is cut off, or 
pinched out, while that shoot is in a growing state, it is said to be stopped ; that 
is, the shoot is prevented from extending in length, and the sap which was 
before impelled to its growing point is now expended in adding to the large- 
ness or succulence of the leaves or fruits which may be on the shoot, or in 
swelling or developing the buds, or in some cases changing them from leaf buds 
into flower buds. In the case of the young shoots of the fig, stopping occasions 
-the development of fruit, and Mr. Knight in this way, his plant being kept in 



342 



PRUNING. 



a stove, obtained three crops of figs from the same tree in the course of one 
year. Three crops of grapes from the same vine liave also been obtained by the 
same means (Ann. Hort. Soc. Paris^ tome ii. p. SGI), a practice, it would ap- 
pear, known to Pliny. The principal uses of stopping, however, are to promote 
the setting and swelling of fruit, either on the shoot of the current year, as m 
the case of the vine and the melon, or at its base, as in the case of the peach. 
By stopping the stem of the tobacco-plant, and of the basil, above the third or 
fourth leaf, the leaves acquire an extraordinary degree of magnitude and suc- 
culence, and the same result is sometimes produced ^^ith common spinach and 
the curled parsley. By stopping flower-bearing shoots after they have shown 
their flower buds, and removing these, as in the case of annual flowers, the 
strawberry, the raspberry, the rose, &c., the blossoming and fruit-bearing 
seasons are retarded ; as they are accelerated by stopping all the shoots on a 
plant that are not blossom-bearing. The growing point of monocotyledonous 
plants, such as palms. Yucca, and even bulbs, is sometimes seared out with 
a hot iron, (which by chaiTing it prevents its putrefaction,) to occasion the pro - 
duction of side suckers for propagation ; and the same thing has been done with 
the side suckers and crown of the Pine-apple plant, to throw the nourishment 
which would have gone to the increase of these parts into the fruit. Much 
of the winter pruning of trees might be prevented by stopping the shoots 
early in summer, provided the state of the tree did not require that the 
shoots should be allowed to grow their full length in order to send down 
nutriment to the increase of the roots, in consequence of which greater 
vigour is in turn imparted to the stem and branches. In this case of pruning, 
as in every other, the state of the tree, and a variety of circumstances con- 
nected with it, require to be taken into consideration. 

769. Dubai-king includes two distinct operations : the removal of coarse 
loose outside bark to admit of the swelling of the inner bark and the alburnum 
by the returning sap, and the removal of a ring of both outer and inner bark, 
with a view to the interniption of the returning sap. The removal of old 
bark is an operation chiefly performed with old fmit trees in orchards, for 
the sake partly of getting rid of lichens and mosses, and partly to remove 
crevices which might harbour insects. It is also practised on the stems of 
old vines for the latter purpose ; one eff'ect of removing the loose outer bark 
of any stem, being to increase its susceptibility of suffering from changes of 
temperature and moisture, it may therefore often be more mjurious than 
useful. Disbarking for the tanner consists in removing the whole of the 
bark, and is best performed in spring, when in consequence of the abundance 
of ascending sap, the bark separates easily from the wood. 

770. Ringing. — This operation consists in taking off a narrow ring of bark 
from a stem or branch, or even from a root, the object of which is to check 
the returnmg sap and force it to expand itself among the leaves, flowers, or 
fruit, wliich are situated above the incision. The ring of bark taken oflF 
varies in width from a sixteenth to half an mch or an inch, and its depth is 
always equal to that of both outer and inner bark. In general the width of 
the ring taken off should not be greater than the tree has the power of 
recovering with bark, during the same or the followmg year. The operation 
jnay be performed at any season, but its effects will only be rendered obvious 
when the plant is in leaf: because at other seasons there is little or no sap 
elaborated to be returned. Compressing the bark by a ligature of wire or 
cord, or by a mass of Roman cement put on like the clay of a graft, produces 



PRUNING. 



343 



the same effect as ringing. In the case of fruit trees it is frequently executed 
on the branches to produce blossom buds, and by the same means seedling 
plants are sooner th^o^^^l into blossom than they otherwise would be. On 
some trees and shrubs it has been found much more efficient than on others ; 
it has little ejBFect on stone fruits ; and while it succeeds on the gooseberry, it 
is said not to do so on the currant. Knight, Ward (777), and Pollini {Dec. 
Phys. I. p. 151) found that it increased the specific gravity of the wood 
above the incision, as compared ^Tith that below it, at the rate of one to nine 
in some cases, and more ia others. We have seen (6l7) that ringing is 
favourable to the production of roots from cuttings, and it seldom fails to effect 
the setting of fruits when performed on branches just before they ai-e coming 
into blossom. Judiciously applied, it may often serve as a substitute both for 
root pruning tuid top pi-uning. 

771. Disbudding is the removal of buds early in spring, just when they 
are beginning to develop their leaves, and is commonly performed with the 
finger and thumb ; the object being to lessen the number of shoots or of 
blossom buds to be produced. By lessening the number of blossom buds, it 
will add to the strength and probability of setting of those which remain, 
and the same increase of strength will take place in respect to the shoots, 
whilst, at the same time, the number of these is reduced to an approximation 
of that which can ultimately be retained for training. By applying this 
mode of praning judiciously on such trees as the peach, apricot, and plum, 
especially when trained against walls, the use of the knife may be in a great 
measure dispensed with, excepting for cutting out diseased or decaying shoots. 
Disbudding is one of the most important summer operations in the manage- 
ment of wall- trees. " It is necessar^^ to bear m mind that on the quantity of 
foliage with which a tree is furnished, depends the increase in diameter of 
the stem and branches, the extension and increase of roots, and the produc- 
tion of &uit ; and, yet, that no more leaves should be retained than can be 
folly exposed to light. In the case of a healthy tree, not one-half of the 
shoots and foliage it naturally produces could be thus exposed when trained 
against a waU. If all the branches of a round-headed standard tree were 
disposed in a flattened or fan-like manner against a wall, they would be 
greatly over-crowded ; for, instead of a surface equal to that of a sphere, the 
foliage would be reduced within a diametrical section of the same, affording 
a surface of only one quarter of that which they formerly had. Hence, it is 
evident that a considerable reduction of shoots produced by wall-trees must 
be effected in some way or other. This is partly done by shortening and 
thinning at the winter pruning, and partly by the process of disbudding in 
summer. In removing the buds care should be taken not to injure the bark 
of the shoot. The buds ought not to be all disbudded at the same time ; 
the fore- right ones should be first removed, and the others successively, at 
intervals of several daj^s, in order not to check the circulation of sap by a too 
great privation of foliage at once." — {Gard. Chron. for 1841, p. 380.) 

772. Disleafing. — By taking the leaves off a growing shoot as fast as they 
are unfolded, no buds are matured in their axils ; and thus while the super- 
fluous vigour of the tree is expended, no sap is returned to the root. Dis- 
leafing in this manner the summer's shoots of a tree as they proceed in 
growth, Mr. Beaton, by whom the system is detailed, (Gard. Mag. for 1837, 
p. 204,) found the simplest mode of reducing the strength of an over- 
luxuriant tree. By this method, in three years, he reduced healthy, vigorous 



344 



PRUNING. 



young pear-trees to the point of starvation. When a tree fills the space 
allotted to it against a wall, and shows a disposition to still further growth, 
by throwing up strong vertical shoots above the wall, and luxuriant breast- 
wood on the main boughs ; instead of checking this disposition by any of the 
ordinary modes of pruning, Mr. Beaton assists the tree to throw off the super- 
abundant sap, by disleafing the breast- wood and vertical shoots ; and in the 
winter pruning he displaces all the buds on such shoots, even those on the 
points, after which they die off by degrees and are cut out. If trees are not 
very luxuriant indeed, one year of this treatment will reduce them to a 
moderate degree of strength. As buds are only formed in the axils of leaves, 
probably much disbudding and pruning might be saved by disleafing as soon 
as the leaves are developed ; but it must always be borne in mind that every 
leaf has not only the particular office to perform of nourishing the bud in its 
axil, but the general one of contributing to the nourishment of all that part 
of the tree which is between it and the farthest extremities of the roots. 
Hence, in particular cases, where it is desirable to give additional vigour to 
the roots, instead of disleafing or disbudding a weak tree, all the leaves and 
shoots which it produces ; even the breast- wood and upright shoots, which 
the French call gourmands ; ought to be encouraged within certain limits. 
Disleafing is frequently pi^ctised with fruit-bearing plants, both ligneous and 
herbaceous, with a view to admit the sun and air to the fruit, and sometimes 
also to assist in ripening wood by stopping growth. It may be applied in 
various instances to killing perennial weeds, both on the ground and in water, 
by cutting their leaves off the moment they appear, and before they are even 
partially developed. Docks, thistles, rushes, horse-tail, and such weeds in 
pastures, might be destroyed in this mode at less expense than by any other. 
Even couch-grass, that pest of gardeners in a superlative degree, may be so 
destroyed, notwithstandmg its creeping underground stems, if no green leaves 
are allowed to be formed ; as might the bulrushes, bur reeds, common reeds, 
and other weeds which rise up from the bottom of ponds ; care being taken 
to repeat the operation as long as the weeds continue to grow, and never to 
let them exceed an inch or two in height. The scythe proper for this pur- 
pose has been mentioned (548). Grass lawns are sometimes for the sake 
of economy only mown three or four times a year, in consequence of which 
the grasses always throw up a vigorous foliage ; but a much greater economy 
of labour, at least, would be to mow double that number of times, in conse- 
quence of which the plants would be so reduced that in the course of a year 
or two there would be comparatively little to mow. 

773. Slitting and splitting may be classed under modes of pruning, the 
first being occasionally employed to relieve hide-bound trees, a practice of 
doubtful utility, and the second to stimulate stems to the production of roots 
or shoots. Hide-bound trees are relieved by slitting the bark longitudinally 
from the collar as high up the stem and along the branches as may be con- 
sidered necessary. The lower extremities of cuttings are sometimes slit up 
(581) ; and shoots are split or fractured to excite buds (622). The stocks 
or stumps of cabbages and pine-apples are occasionally split, experience 
having proved that the operation excites them to the production of sprouts 
or suckers, as it does also in bulbs (684). 

774. Bruising and tearing off the stems of plants from their roots are in 
some cases found to be more effective than cutting them off with a smooth 
section. This is the case with ferns, docks, and perennial thistles in pas- 



PRUNING. 



345 



ture -lands. When these are cut smoothly over with the scythe, they are 
said to spring up again, at least after the first cutting ; but the stems being 
bruised or torn off, are said to die down to the root, and not to reappear ; 
probably from exposing a much greater surface of the sap-vessels to the 
action of the air, and thus diminishing their contractile power. Bruising the 
leaves of melons by beating them is a Dutch practice, said to increase the 
fruitfulness of the plants, which it may probably do by checking their 
luxuriance; but the effect of the old practice of beating the heads of 
walnut-trees when the fruit is ripe is of much more doubtful efficacy. A 
very full crop of pears was obtained by the llev. John Fisher, of Wavendon, 
in Buckinghamshire, from trees which before had not borne at all, by 
twisting and breaking down the young shoots (fig. 260) late in the 




Fig. 260. A pear-tree with the young shoots twisted, broken, and fastened down, to stagnate 
the sap, and cause them to produce blossom-buds. 



autumn, when the wood had become tough, and after the sap had retreated. 
Mr. Fisher found this practice succeed with branches on which ringing had 
been tried without success, and he states that the pendent branches con- 
tinued perfectly healthy. — (^Gard. Mag.., vol. iii. p. 175.) 

775. Clipping is a species of pruning that was formerly much more general 
in gardening than it is at present, though as the ancient architectural style 
of hedges and avenues is gradually coming into vogue, the practice will again 
become frequent. At present clipping is chiefly confined to common hedges 
and box-edgings, the modes of dressing which by the shears have been 
already described (546, 547). 

776. Root-pruning. — As the nourishment of a plant. is absorbed from 
the soil by the roots, it is evident that the supply will be diminished by 
partially cutting off its source. The effect of cutting through the stronger 
roots of trees is analogous in its first effects to that of ringing ; with this 
difference, that the returning sap is stagnated throughout the whole tree, 
instead of being stagnated only in the parts above the ring. The amputated 
root, however, having the power of throwing out fibres, soon finds a vent 
for the descending sap, and the analogy between root -pruning and ringing in 
a short time ceases. The operation may be performed so as to effect a two- 
fold result. Its immediate effect is to check the luxuriancy of wood shoots, 



346 



PRUNING. 



and induce the formation of fruit buds. If judiciously performed, the opera- 
tion will not be carried so far as to reduce too much the vigour of the tree, 
and prevent the second result, that of pushing a number of fibrous roots from 
those amputated ; for in defect of these, the health of the tree must decline 
under the load of, in that case, imperfectly nourished fruit. With a view 
to the production of a greater number of fibrous roots, old trees may be sub- 
jected to a cautious root pruning ; but it must not be performed on subjects 
unable to bear the shock, or on those in which the power of throwing out 
fi-esh roots is very weak. If, however, it is found that fresh roots have been 
emitted from one amputation, others may be performed as the roots resulting 
from each preceding operation come into action. Root-pruning is generally 
performed with a sharp spade, and generally only on the main roots, at the 
distance of several feet from the stem, according to the magnitude of the 
tree. Mr. Grace (^Gard. Chron. 1841), to check the luxuriant growth of 
dwarf pear trees, and retain them of a fit size for his small garden, pmnes 
the roots annually, leaving them each time about an inch longer than before. 
" He does not leave the roots with their ends wounded as they would be if 
chopped through with a spade ; but he cuts all the larger roots obliquely 
with a sharp knife, so as to leave a clean slanting wound, three inches or four 
inches long, with its face downwards. The effect of this, he says, is to cause 
the wound to send forth a fan of fine fibres from its whole circumference. 
The young fibrous roots of a plant proceed in all cases from the surface of 
the wood, and not from the bark ; they only pierce the bark when they seem 
to grow from it. When the root is crushed by the blow of a blunt tool, all 
the part exposed to the blow is killed, and soon decays. That decay may 
either proceed no further than the vicinity of the injury, or, as will happen 
more frequently than we suppose, it will spread and infect the sound parts 
in contact with it. In either case, the production of young fibrous roots can 
only take place by forcing them through the bark which lies over the wood 
from which they have to spring. But when the wound at the end of a root 
is clean, decay will not take place ; and the surface of the wood will produce 
fibres from that part whicli is in contact with the earth. No resistance is 
offered to this process ; on the contrary, from the moment that the fibre 
begins to form, it finds itself in contact with the earth, where its food resides, 
and there, imbibing vigour from the soil, it immediately contributes to the 
general system something of that organizable matter out of which more 
fibres are to be produced." — (^Gard. Chron. 1841, p. 763.) 

Though root-pruning is chiefly employed to check the luxuriance of 
young fruit-trees and throw them into blossom ; yet it may be employed for 
these purposes with all trees and shrubs whatever, and even with some 
kinds of herbaceous plants. The dahlia may be rendered more pro- 
ductive in blossoms, either by ringing the stem just above the root 
stock, or by cutting through the main roots just beneath it. The Chinese, 
it is well known, are celebrated for their dwarf or miniature trees, and these 
are formed of the extremities of the branches of very old trees rooted by the 
process shown in fig. 190, page 276, and afterwards planted in shallow pots, 
in very poor soil ; and as the roots are produced, they are cut or burnt, so as 
to cramp the growth to any degree required. 

777. Girdling and Felling. — From the following account of the eflFects of 
this operation, it would appear to deserve being generally adopted before 
trees are felled. It is very general in America, not for the sake of iraprov- 



PRUNING. 



347 



ing the timber, but to destroy life and facilitate the destruction of the tree. 
We give the account of the process in the words of the author, W. Ward, 
Esq. of Chester. " Mr. ]\[onteath, in his Forester's Guides strongly recom- 
mends the disbarking of trees in the spring, before they are to be felled ; and 
the effect in hardening the timber is certainly very great ; but, in a hot 
summer, the exposed alburnum is apt to split more or less. A better mode 
has been found to be that of merely cutting out clean, a rim, about four 
inches in width, of the bark, close to the ground ; which, in larches, seems 
to cause the turpentine to be wholly incorporated in the wood, instead of 
passing down to the roots ; and, in fact, it so totally alters the condition of 
the trees, that the workmen complain of their being much more difficult to 
saw. Another result appears also very interesting. On February 9, 1831, 
a section was cut from a larch that had been girdled, as above mentioned, in 
the spring of 1830, and which then weighed 6540 grains. On March 21 it 
weighed 4990 grains, having lost 1550 grains. A similar section, cut at the 
same time, from an ungirdled larch, weighed, on February 9, 5610 grains, 
and, if it had lost by evaporation only in the same proportion as the other, 
should have shown, when weighed on March 21, a loss not greater than 
1330 grains ; instead of which, it then weighed only 3330 grains ; thus 
showing a loss of 2280 grains, nearly double the proportion of the former. 
The effect of this process in establishing the straightness of the wood 
is, moreover, very beneficial. A ladder made from a larch so treated 
will be useful; whilst one not so seasoned will twist so as to be quite 
worthless." 

778. The girdling machine. — " I have adopted a simple contrivance by which 
the girdling is effected readily, and with precision, of which fig. 26 i will give 

A some idea. In this figure, 
a is a piece of wood, two 
feet long, four inches wide, 
and two inches thick, hav- 
ing two saws screwed on 
it, one on the top and the 
other at the bottom, so as 
to be perfectly parallel at 
the distance of six inches 
from each other, and pro- 
jecting about three quar- 

Fig. 261. Side view of the girdling machine, ^^^^ an iuch ; b shoWS 

the uppermost saw ; c is another piece of wood of the same dimensions, hav- 
ing four small rollers projecting opposite to the saws ; d d show the upper- 
most two of these rollers ; e is a slip of tempered steel fixed to «, at one 
end, and set to c, at any requisite point, by a screw nut, /, passing through 
different holes made in e, at about one inch distance ; ^ is a leather strap 
fixed at one end to c, and fastened to a, by a button, ^, by suitable holes. 
Fig. 262 is a perspective view of this machine. The bark, after being girdled 
by the saws, may be taken off with any chisel, about three or four inches 
broad in the mouth. Allow me to add, that even with the common pine, 
(Pinus sylvestris), I find the process of girdling extremely beneficial. About 
ten years since I had a pine-tree, which had been so treated, sawn into 
boards, and made into a large door, which, though in a very exposed place, 
has stood as well as any foreign deal. I conceive that by girdling, the whole 




348 



PRUNING. 




Fig. 262. Perspective view of the girdling machine. 



of what would otherwise be mere alburnum, becomes shiiilar to the heart 
wood ; and this may be one reason why the boards made from such trees 

are found not 
to warp. Be- 
forel girdled, 
I never could 
have a ladder 
made of larch 
that would 
continue 
straight for a 
month ; but 
now I have 
them made 
durably per- 
fect. — Gurd. 
ifcfa^.xii.408. 

779. The seasons for pruning vary according to the object in view. Where 
wood is to be cut out or buds removed, so as to throw strength into the 
remaining parts of the tree, the sooner the operation is performed after the 
fall of the leaf the better ; because as the sap is more or less in motion, and 
consequently impelled to all the buds throughout the whole of the winter, 
that which would have been employed on the shoots and buds cut off is 
saved, and those which remain are invigorated by it. Next to autumn, 
winter is to be preferred for the same reason ; but in this season mild 
weather should always be chosen, because the frost, if severe, wUl seize on 
the moisture of newly-made wounds, and rupture then* surface. In pruning 
forest-trees, large branches should never be cut off in autumn, because as 
they cannot heal over till the folloAATUg summer, decay will commence on 
the surface of the wound. Spring, just before the rising of the sap, is a better 
season ; but better still, a fortnight before midsummer, at which period the 
returning sap will commence to deposit a coat of alburnum on the lips of the 
wound. The worst season in which any description of wood-pruning can be per- 
formed is the spring just before the expansion of the leaves, when the sap is 
rising with the greatest vigour. The slightest wound made in many plants both 
ligneous and herbaceous at this season, especially young vigorous ones where 
the sap-vessels are large, occasions a great loss of sap, which must necessarily 
weaken the plant, unless speedily checked by the only effectual mode in 
which this can be done, the expansion of the leaves. For disbudding and 
ringing, spring is the most suitable season, at least for the latter practice, 
because, as we have before observed, nothing is gained by ringing before the 
leaves begin to expand. Buds which are to be removed should remain as 
short a time after they are formed by the leaves as possible ; but as the 
labour is much greater in taking them off in autumn and winter when they 
are small, than in spring when all their parts are more or less expanded, 
the operation is generally deferred till the latter season. For disleafing, 
it is necessary to commence as soon as the leaves begin to expand, and 
continue it as long as they are produced. The advantages of pruning just 
before midsummer are, that the wounds may be partially healed over the 
same season, and that the sap which would have been employed in maturing 
the shoots cut off is thrown into those which remain. The disadvantages 



THINNING. 



349 



are, that the sap whicli would have been ehiborated by the leaves cut off, 
and which would have added to the strength of the tree and its roots, is lost. 
In the case of trees already sufficiently strong this is no disadvantage, but 
in the case of those which are too weak it is a positive loss. The summer 
season is found better than any other for pruning trees which gum, such as 
the cherry and the plum, provided too much foliage is not thereby taken 
away ; and it is also considered favourable for resinous trees. The autumn, 
on the other hand, is considered the best for trees that are apt to suffer from 
bleeding, such as the vine, the birch, and some species of maple. Evergreens 
may be pruned just before Midsummer, or in spring, before they have begun 
to develop their buds. 

§ IV. Thinning. 

780. Thinning is an operation founded on a general knowledge of the laws 
of vegetation and on the habits and bulk of particular plants. Its object is 
to allow sufficient space to entire plants, or to the parts of plants, to attain 
certain required dimensions and particular properties. When plants stand 
too close together for attaining these purposes, whether from want of nou- 
rishment at the root, or light and air at the top, they are thinned out ; and 
when branches, leaves, flowers, and fi'uit are too numerous on an individual 
plant to be properly nourished, and exposed to the sun and air, they also are 
thinned out. As this last operation is effected by pruning, it requires no 
farther notice in this article, which is confined to the thinning out of entire 
plants by uprooting them. Thinning by uprooting is performed by the 
hand alone, when the plants are small ; and when they are larger, by the aid 
of the trowel, spade, pick, or other implements (393, 397, and 400). The 
subject may be considered with reference to seedling crops in gardens, and 
transplanted crops in plantations. Transplanted crops in gardens, being 
generally of short duration, are placed at such distances at first as mostly to 
render future thinning unnecessary. One general rule in thinning is that 
the plants to be removed, when they cannot be taken away all round the 
plant to be left, should be taken from the east and west sides of it, in conse- 
quence of which it will receive the sun and air on two sides instead of on 
one, which would be the case if thinning took place only on the south side ; 
while if it were limited to the north side, air would be admitted, but no sun. 

781. Seedling crops in gardens. — To make sure of a sufficient number of 
plants, and of their distribution over every part of the surface in broadcast 
crops (569), or along every part of the row in crops sown in drills, much 
more seed is sown than is required for the number of plants requisite for a 
crop. As soon as the plants from these seeds make their appearance, and 
are considered safe fi-om accidents or insects, all or the greater part of those 
which are not judged necessary for producing a crop are pulled and thrown 
away, hoed up and left to die on the spot, or in some cases taken up by the 
trowel or spade and transplanted elsewhere. The distance at which the 
remaining plants are left depends on their nature and habit, on the richness 
or poverty of the soil, and on the kind of crop required. For example, in 
thinning out an autumnal crop of turnips, the distances between the plants 
left will be much less than in thinning out a spring crop ; because in the 
latter case, the plants being destined to benefit by the warmth and light of 
summer, their roots will attain a much larger size than those of the autumn- 
sown crop. On the other hand, an autumnal crop of spinach will be thinned 

A A 



350 



THINNING. 



SO as to leave tlie plants wider apart than in a spring crop ; because in the 
latter case the plants, from their nature, run very speedily to seed, producing 
much smaller radical leaves than they do during the slow vegetation of 
autumn. Again, a turnip crop, whether of spring or autumn, will be left 
thicker on a poor soil than on a rich one ; because the latter will raise the 
plants individually to a larger size, and thinner in the shade, and late in 
autumn, than at midsummer, in order to admit of the wider spreading of the 
leaves, to compensate, by breadth of surface exposed to the light, for what 
the season is deficient in solar brilliancy. It will readily be conceived that 
crops that have few or narrow leaves and perpendicular roots, such as the 
onion, require less thinning than such as have broad- spreading leaves, such 
as the turnip ; and that those which have tap-roots, like the carrot, do not 
require so much surface soil as those which have spreading roots, and creep- 
ing or trailing shoots, such as the New Zealand spinach. Thinning seedling 
herbaceous plants may take place at any season ; but when they are to be 
cut out with the hoe and left to die on the spot, dry weather and a dry state 
of the soil should be chosen ; and when they are to be pulled up by hand, 
or taken up by the roots with a tool for transplanting, a moist state of the 
soil and cloudy or rainy weather are essential, in order that the fibres may 
receive as little injury as possible in parting from the soil. 

782. Thinning plantations. — Timber trees when planted in masses are 
placed much closer together than they are intended to be finally, partly to 
shelter one another, and parti}'- to profit by the trees which are to be from 
time to time thinned out. By planting moderately thick, the nutriment con- 
tained in the soil is much sooner turned into wood than it would be if only 
the few trees were planted which are finally to remain ; and by these trees 
standing near together they are drawn up with straight stems, so that the 
timber produced, even by young trees so treated, is of some use. By increas- 
ing the distance between these trees by thinning, the source of nourishment 
to the roots of the trees which remain is increased, and the space round the 
branches for light and air enlarged, so that by degrees, with every successive 
thinnng, larger timber is produced. At what time the thinning of a planta- 
tion ought to commence, how long it ought to be continued, and at what 
distances the trees ought finally to stand, will depend on the kind of tree, the 
kind of plantation, the soil and situation, and the climate. In the case of a 
plantation where the object is to produce straight timber, the first point to 
determine is the probable height to which the kind of tree to be planted will 
attain in the given locality ; and then to obtain from the experience of others, 
or from observation of natural woods in similar localities, the distance 
required to enable a tree to attain that height. A tree in a sheltered valley 
and on deep rich soil not much above the level of the sea will attain double 
or triple the height which it will on a hill at a distance from the sea ; the 
temperature in the latter situation being much lower, the soil generally 
poorer, and the wind greatly stronger. The subject of timber plantations 
not forming a prominent feature in this volume, we shall only add that 
experienced planters have laid down certain rules for thinning timber planta- 
tions, and that the best of these we consider to be those of Mr. Cree, published 
in the Gardeners Magazine for 1841, and applicable to every situation from 
the level of the sea to an altitude of 1800 feet. Supposing the height which 
the trees in a plantation of round-headed kinds are supposed to attain is 
eighty five feet, and that they have been planted at the distance of about 



TRAINING. 



351 



four feet, tree from tree, and pinned in Mr. Cree's manner (758) ; then 
the first thinning should commence when the trees are thirteen feet six 
inches high, and the trees thinned so as those that remain may stand at 
twice the former distance from each other, or 8 feet apart each way. The 
second thinning should take place when they are between 24 and 25 feet 
high, when the trees should be left so as to be 16 feet apart each way, thus 
leaving 170 to the acre. The third thinning should take place when the 
trees are between 47 and 48 feet high, when only 42 trees should be left to 
the acre to attain the height of 85 feet ; and these must accordingly stand at 
the distance of 82 feet apart each way. It is not pretended that these rules 
should in all cases be exactly followed ; on the contrary, they are only given 
as approximations, the result of extensive experience and scientific reasoning 
for round-headed trees ; for poplars and coniferous trees, the final distance is 
too great. See Mr. Cree's table in the Gardeners Magazine for 1841, 
p. 553, and also some excellent observations on the subject in the Gardeners 
Chronicle for 1842, p. 19, and in various other parts of that journal and in 
the Gardener s Magazine. A forester should be well impressed with the 
importance of light, air, moisture, and shelter as regards vegetation ; and he 
should closely observe the density which the various trees will bear that are 
under his charge. In all extensive plantations some trees will be seen suf- 
fering from being too close : he should learn from cases of the kind how to 
proceed to thin others that he can easily foresee are approaching a similar 
condition. As a beau-ideal guide when to commence thinning, we should 
say. Always about to touch, but never touching. 

783. ITiinning ornamental plantations. — As the object of these is to dis- 
play the natural character of the trees, either of their heads at a distance, as 
in masses or groves of trees only, or singly, or in groups of trees among 
under growths, or on smooth turf, it is obvious that thinning is of as much 
importance to the desired result as in timber plantations. It is equally so in 
plantations of shrubs, especially flowering shrubs, where the object is to show 
the individual character of the shrub, and also the beauty of its blossoms 
and fruit. Every tree and shrub has two characters, both of which are 
natural to it ; the one when it grows up in a mass of other trees or shrubs of 
the same kind, or of other kinds, and the other when it grows up singly. 
In the former case the stem or stems are always straight and comparatively 
free from branches to some height, while in the latter it is generally clothed 
with branches from the ground, or a short distance above it, upwards. The 
thinning, therefore, of an ornamental plantation will depend on the natural 
character to be imitated. An open grove where the trees have clear trunks 
to half or two thirds of their height, affords a delightful retreat for walking 
in, in the hottest weather of summer ; and this is also the case with an 
avenue where the trees have been properly thinned and pruned to the 
height of fifteen feet or twenty feet ; while a lawn studded with trees and 
shrubs singly or in small groups, and with their lower branches resting on 
the ground, affords views from a gravel walk or a drawing-room window 
peculiarly characteristic of an English pleasure-ground. 

§ V. Training, 

784. To train a plant is to support or conduct its stem and branches in some 
form or position, either natural or artificial, for purposes of use or ornament. It 
is effected partly by pruning and thinning, but chiefly by pegging down to the 

A A 2 



352 TRAINING. 

ground, tying and fastening to rods, stakes, or trellises, or nailing to walls 
(466). The articles more immediately required are hooked pegs, ties, nails, 
and Ksts (452), with props of various kinds (451 and 452), and ladders (456). 

785. The principles upon which training is founded vary according to the 
object in view, but they all depend more or less on these facts : — that the sap 
of a plant is always impelled with the greatest force to its highest point ; 
that, in general, whatever promotes this tendency encourages the production 
of leaves and shoots, and whatever represses it, promotes the formation of 
blossom buds. When a plant is to be trained over the surface of the ground, 
it must be borne in mind, that, as the tendency of the sap is always to the 
highest bud, the shoots pegged down should be allowed to turn up at the 
points, in order to promote their extension. When the object is to induce 
blossoms or fruitfulness, a contrary practice should be followed, and the 
points of the shoots kept down, or in the case of upright-grown plants, 
trained horizontally, or even in a downward direction. This should also be 
done when the object is to restrain over-luxuriance, and a contrary practice 
when a weak or sickly plant or tree is to be invigorated. When the object is 
to economise space, the plants are trained against a trellis, as occupying 
length, but very little breadth ; and when it is to increase temperature, they 
are trained or spread out against a wall, which prevents the conduction of 
heat and moisture from the branches, by acting as a screen against winds ; 
and increases heat by reflecting the rays of the sun during the day, and 
giving out heat during the night, and whenever the atmosphere is at a lower 
temperature than the wall. 

786. Manual operations of training (454). — The tie or the list, by which 
the shoots are fastened to the trellis or wall, should be placed in the inter- 
node, and always immediately behind a bud or joint ; because when tying 
or nailing takes place in the summer season, and near the points of the 
growing shoots, the latter sometimes elongate after being fastened, and if 
this elongation is prevented from taking place in a straight line by the 
fastening being made immediately before a bud or leaf, instead of being 
made immediately behind it, the shoot will be forced into a curved direction, 
and the bud and its leaf injured. Ties, which in this country are commonly 
of bast, are gently twisted before being tied into a knot, in order that it may 
be the firmer, and the bast not liable to be torn during the operation of 
tying. Osier ties, which are sometimes used for espalier trees, are fastened 
by twisting together the two ends, and turning them down in a manner sooner 
and easier done than described. In fastening shoots with nails and shreds, 
when any restraint is required to retain the shoot in its position, the pressure 
must always be agamst the shred and never against the nail, as the latter 
would gall the shoot, and in stone fruits generate gum. The shred ought 
never to be placed in the hollow of a bend in the branch to be attached ; 
for there it is worse than useless. On the contrary, the shreds should be put 
on so as to pull the external bends inwards towards the direct line, in which 
it is desirable the branch should be trained. In fig. 263, the straight direc- 




Fig. 263. Bringi7ig a bent shoot into a straight direction by nails and shreds. 



TRAINING 



353 



tion in which it is desired to train the shoot is indicated by the dotted lines ; 
a represents the shreds and nails put over the shoot to bring it to its place 
over the dotted lines, and &, dotted lines indicating the points which will be 
covered by the shreds and nails when the shoot has been rendered straight, 
by drawing both shoots from a to h. The nails used, whether of cast or 
wrought iron, should have round shanks and small round heads, as being less 
likely to injure the branches than sharp-angled nails. Nails an inch in 
length are sufficient for ordinary branches, but twice that length is necessary 
for very large ones. Cast-iron nails are most generally employed, and they 
are so cheap, and, besides, not liable to bend in the points, that they are 
generally preferred to nails of wrought u'on. They seldom break when 
being driven into mortar joints; and if they do so when drawing them out, it 
is perhaps cheaper to buy new cast-iron nails than to point and straighten 
wrought-iron ones. Boiling nails in linseed-oil prevents, or, at all events, 
greatly lessens their rusting. Nails should in general be driven into the 
joints, and not into the bricks, because the joints are easily repaired. They 
should never be driven far in, and in summer training a much slighter hold 
of the wall will suffice than in winter training, because in the latter case 
the shoots will not be moved for a year ; for if they hold at the time of 
nailing, they become faster as they begin to rust ; the oxide requiring an 
additional space to that required by the metal on which it is formed. 
Before a nail which has been some time in a wall is attempted to be drawn 
out, it should receive a tap with the hammer (407), by which it will be 
loosened, and be more likely to separate without breaking. Shreds of 
woollen are preferred to those of any other cloth or to leather, as being 
softer and less influenced by the weather. Their length should be such as 
to contain a shoot double the size of that for which they are intended, in 
order that they may never compress the shoot so much as to impede the 
returning sap, and their breadth may be from half an inch to three-quarters 
or one inch. They should be folded up a little at each end, so that in 
driving the nail through the shred it will pierce four times its thickness, 
and be in no danger of tearing, as it often does when the nail passes through 
only twice its thickness. When a shoot is merely to be nailed to the wall, 
without requiring constraint on either side, then the nails are placed alter- 
nately ; but when a crooked branch is to be nailed in, two or more nails in 
succession will frequently be required on the same side. In driving the 
nails, they should incline with their heads downwards to prevent water as 
much as possible from hanging on them, as the rust produced is often 
injurious, especially to fruit. The list, as already observed, should always 
be placed on the internodes, and the branches should be fastened quite close 
to the wall, in order not to lose the benefit of its heat. The colour of the 
lists is a matter in w^hich gardeners have different tastes. The late Rev. W. 
Marshall, an ardent lover of horticulture, preferred scarlet lists : others 
select those of a grey colour ; some choose black ; and a few mix various 
colours together, which is perhaps the most picturesque mode. Brown 
and black, however, being least conspicuous, generally obtain the pre- 
ference. Shreds will last two or three years ; but every time they are 
taken off to be put on again they should be boiled, to destroy any eggs of 
insects there may be on them. Trained fruit-trees are generally loosened 
from the wall at the time of winter or spring pruning, when the wall 
can be cleaned and coloured if necessary, and the tree washed with 



354 



TRAINING. 



a composition for the destruction of insects. The renailing is in general 
performed immediately afterwards ; though some, in order to retard 
the blossoming of the tree next spring, tie the branches to stakes at some 
distance from the walls. This, however, can only be safely performed with 
the very hardiest kinds of trees, and even with them must be attended with 
danger during severe winters, unless in very sheltered situations. In refixing 
a trained tree, place all the leading branches in their proper positions first, 
beginning at the lower part of the tree, so as to make sure of covering the 
bottom of the wall. The main branches being placed, lay in the young 
wood, beginning also at the bottom of the wall, and at the further extremity 
of the branch, and working up to the main stem. We shall now describe the 
different kinds of training, commencing wdth the simplest, and concluding 
with the different forms employed in training fruit -trees. 

787. Training herbaceous plants in beds or borders is in some kinds 
effected by fastening them down to the surface of the ground, or to rock- 
work, or a surface of pebbles, by means of pegs, loops of matting, (630,) or 
Other material used as ties ; or by laying on the shoots small stones. Twin- 
ing flowers, such as the common convolvulus, or twining esculents, such as 
the scarlet runner, only require straight rods, or branches with upright 
shoots, such as those of the beech, placed close by the plants, or at most the 
point of the shoot when it is beginning to extend, slightly tied to the rod 
or branch. Branches are in general to be preferred to straight branchless 
rods for herbaceous climbers, because by offering a number of interruptions 
to the ascent of the climbing stem, they encourage it to divaricate, and conse- 
quently to produce a greater number of flowers and fruit within a limited 
space. Tendrilled climbers, such as sweet peas, and those with rambling 
stems, such as the nasturtium, are also supported by branches placed in a 
cu'cle round each patch, or along each side of a row, of the height to which 
the plants are expected to grow ; or straight hazel rods are inserted in the 
soil obliquely so as to touch at top and bottom, and cross in the middle, 
so as to fomi lozenge- work ; or wires may be supported by iron or 
wooden rods m any desired form. Tall-growing plants with stems 
having terminal flowers, and which do not branch, such as some asters, when 
they cannot support themselves, require to be loosely inclosed by three or 
four rods placed close to the roots at bottom, and spreading outwards at top, 
and connected by twine ; or, in some cases, a slender rod may be placed to 
each stem. On no account should such clusters of stems be tied together in 
bunches, a common practice among slovenly gardeners, as the compression 
rots the leaves and lessens the size of the flowers. Plants having branchy 
stems, such as the Xupinus mutabilis, and the Baptisia, if they require 
support, should have a stake to each stem, thinning them out where they arc 
so numerous as to produce a crowded appearance. Florists' flowers, such as 
the carnation, the dahlia, &c., require particular kinds of stakes, and the 
greatest care in tying. 

788. Herbaceous and shrubby phinls in pots being in a highly arti- 
ficial state, when they require training should have straight rods, or 
symmetrical frames of laths, or of wire- work. Pelargoniums when of large 
size arc trained by means of straight terminal shoots of wiUow or hazel, so as 
to radiate their branches from the pot, and form a regular hemisphere of 
foliage and flowers, close but not crowded. Various training frames have 
been adopted for ornamental climbers in pots : one is shown by fig. 57 in 



TIIAINING. 



355 



p. 143. A common mode for the Fuchsia, the pelargonium, the Maurandia, the 
Petunia, &c., and also for the grape, is shown in figs. 264 and 265, which 
are formed 
of rods and 
rings of 
stout wire, 
as shown in 
figures 266 
& 267, the 
whole be- 
ing painted 
green, or of 
the colour! 

of bark aC- f'Sr- 265. Frame-work for training the grape- 
cording to vine when grown in pots. 

the taste of the gardener or his employer. In 
training slender climbers or twiners, such as 
Kenuedia rubicunda, nails are driven into the 
wall near the ground (fig. 268, a), and three or 
four feet above it (&), close to which the plant 
is placed ; strings are drawn from the lower 
nails to those above, and the stems of the plant 
twined round them. 





Fig. 264. Wire-frame work for climbing- 
planta in pots. 



a 




789. Training hardy-fiowering shrubs in the open ground. — Trailing and 
creeping shrubs seldom requu-e any assistance from art, excepting when they 
are made to grow upright on posts, trellises, or 
walls. In general all creepers that are trained 
upright, and all climbers, whether by twining, 
tendrils, hooks, rootlets as the ivy, or mere 
elongation as in the Lycium and the climbing 
roses, when they are to form detached objects, 
should be trained to stakes with expanded tops. Fig. 267. wire-rings 
such as those shown in fig. 95 in page 164, as by ^64- 
this means ample heads are formed, which, in the case of the 
honeysuckle, the clematis, the rose, &c., exhibit splendid masse 
of blossom. Fig. 269 is a portrait 
of a climbing rose, trained down 
from a ring which forms the top to 
an iron rod, as shown in one of the 
figures in p. 164. This is called the 
Fig 2«G Wire ^^^^^^ manner of training, and was 
standard for first applied to applc-trecs. When 
supporting the rod is fixed in the ground, the 
MmthefrZiZ ^^"^ s^ould Stand an inch 

tfork shown in Or two higher than the graft at the 
fig.264. top of the stock, or than the head 
formed on the stem of the plant, if it should not 
have been grafted. Six or eight of the strongest 
shoots are then to be selected, and tied to the 

ring with tarred twine : and if, from their length, ^ ^, . . ^ , 

, •,. , ' " ^ I- MX- Mode of training herhnrroKs 

they are liable to blow about, their ends are at- chmicr, on « bnr/,- wau. 




356 



TRAINING. 



tached to twine, continued from the wire to pegs stuck in the ground, as 
\own in the figure. When it is desired to cover the stem of a spreading- 




Fig. 2G9. Portrait of a Bizarre de la Chine rose, trained in the balloon manner. 

headed climber with the foliage and flowers of a different plant, the taste 
of which is questionable, as they never grow so freely in such a situation 
where they are shaded and the roots of the plants starved, then, fig. 270, 

which was used on the lawn of George IV.'s 
cottage at Windsor Park, may be used. Climb- 
ing roses may also be advantageously displayed 
on such props as fig. 94, in p. 163, and more 
slender climbers, as well as standard roses, and 
other shrubs, trained to single stems, may be 
tied to stakes of larch, oak, ash, or sweet ches- 
nut, or to cast-iron stakes, such as those shown 
at a and b in fig. 95, in p. 164. When climbers 
or other flowering plants are trained on arched 
treUises, covering walks, it must be borne in 
mind that if the display of the flowers is an 
object, the trellis- work must not be continuous, 
but rather of arches springing from piers of 
Fig. 270. Prop with umbrella top for trcllis-work, or pilastcrs, at short distances 

spreading headed climbers, and for from Cach Othor, SO aS CO admit the light he- 
training other plants rormd their stems. ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^jg neglected, the plants 

will only look well on their outer surface. The laburnum, when trained 
over an arched trellis of this kind, has a splendid effect when in flower ; 
but when the trellis is continuous, the blossoms have a pale, sickly appear- 




TRAINING. 



357 



ance, as we witnessed some years ago at a country seat, where the trellis of 
which fig. 271 is a section was covered with laburnum ; the low table trellis 
a, a, being clothed with ivy. The contrast be- 
tween the dark green ivy and the yellow blos- 
soms would have been effective, had the latter 
enjoyed the benefit of light. 

790. Evergreeu shrubs require very little 
training, excepting in the case of fastigiate- 
growing species in situations exposed to high 
winds, or shrubs that are to be shorn into arti- 
ficial shapes. The evergreen cypress, and the 
^. „ ... ^ ' upright variety of arbor vitse, are apt to have 

Fig. 271. Section of a laburnum tr el- / °, , T i i i i . -i, . i 

Us over a walk, with table trellises, the sidc-shoots displaced by high winds or heavy 
a, a, for ivy. snows, for which reason these branches are fre- 

quently tied loosely to, or rather connected by tarred twine with, the main stem. 
When evergreen shrubs are to be shorn into common shapes, such as cones, 
pyramids, piers, pilasters, &c., little or no training is required ; but when they 
are to be grown into more artificial shapes, such as those of men or animals, 
the figure required is constructed of wire or trellis work, and being placed 
over the plant, the shoots are confined within it ; and if the plants are healthy, 
and in a good soil and situation, the figure is speedily formed. The best 
shrubs for this kind of ornament are those which have narrow leaves, such 
as the yew, the juniper, the arbor vitse, and the spruce fir. One of the 
figures, the most readily formed by any of these plants, is a hollow vase, 
which only requires a series of hoops tied to ribs, and the latter attached to 
a stake placed close by the main stem of the plant. In selecting plants for 
being trained into figures of men and women, it is usual to use variegated 
varieties to represent the female forms. 

791. Training fruit-trees. — By far the most important application of 
training is to fruit-trees, whether for the purpose of rendering them more 
prolific, improving the quality of the fruit, growing fruit in the open air 
which could not otherwise be grown, except under glass, or confining the 
trees within a limited space. Fruit-trees are trained either as protuberant 
bushes or trees in the open garden, or spread out on flat surfaces against 
walls or espaliers. In either case the operation is founded on the principle 
already mentioned — that of suppressing the direct channel of the sap, by 
which it is more equally distributed over the tree, the tendency to produce 
over-vigorous shoots from the highest part is diminished, and the produc- 
tion of flowers from every part increased. We find that trees in a state of 
nature always produce their first flowers from lateral branches, to which the 
sap flows less abundantly than to those which are vertical ; and the object 
of training may be said to be, to give all the parts of a tree the character 
of lateral branches. With a view to this, certain rules have been derived 
from the principle of the suppression of the sap, which it may be useful to 
notice as of general application to every mode of training : — 

1. Branches left loose, and capable of being put in motion by the wind, 
grow more vigorously than those which are attached ; and hence the rule 
to nail or tie in the stronger shoots first, and to leave the weaker shoots to 
acquire more vigour. Hence also the advantage of training with fixed 
branches against walls, as compared with training with loose branches in 
tlie oj en garden, when greater fruitfulness is the object. 




358 



TRAINING. 



2. Upright shoots grow more freely tlian inclined shoots. Therefore 
when two shoots of unequal vigour are to be reduced to an equality, the 
weaker must be elevated and the stronger depressed. 

3. The shoots on the upper side of an inclined branch will always be 
more luxuriant than those on the lower side ; therefore preserve, at the 
period of pruning or disbudding, only the strongest shoots below, and only 
the weakest above. 

4. The lower branches of every tree and shrub decay naturally before 
the upper branches ; therefore bestow the principal care on them, w^hether 
in dwarf bushes in the open garden, or with trees trained on espaliers or 
walls. When they are weak, cut them out, and bring down others to supply 
their place ; or turn up theu' extreme points, which will attract a larger por- 
tion of sap to every part of the branch. 

792. The different modes of training hushes and trees in the open garden 
are chiefly the conical form for tall trees or standards, and some modifi- 
cation of the globe or cylinder for dwarfs ; but it may be remarked that 
unless these and all other artificial forms are constantly watched to check 
the tendency to return to nature, they are much better dispensed with. By 
careful attention some of these artificial forms will bring trees sooner into 
a bearing state, and a greater quantity of fruit will also be produced in 
a limited space; but if the continued care requisite for these objects is 
withdrawn for two or three years, the growth of the tree, while returning to its 
natural character, will produce a degree of confusion in the branches that 
will not be remedied till all the constrained branches have been cut away. 
Wherever, therefore, fruit is to be grown on a large scale, and in the most 
economical manner, in orchards or in the open garden, it is found best to 
let every tree take its natural shape, and confine the pruner and trainer to 
such operations as do not greatly interfere with it. These are chiefly keep- 
ing the tree erect with a straight stem, keeping the head well balanced, and 
thinning out tlie branches where they are crowded or cross each other, oi 
become weak or diseased. There are however many persons who have 
small gardens, and who have leisure or means to attend or to procure atten- 
tion to all the minutiae of culture, and to these some of the modes of training 
protuberant dwarfs and standards may be of considerable importance, by 
bringing the trees into a bearing state sooner than would be the case if they 
were left to nature, and by producing much fruit in little space. 

793. The different modes of training fruit-trees against walls or espaliers, 
may all be reduced to three forms or systems ; — the fan or palmate form, 
which is the most natural mode, and that most generally applicable ; the 
horizontal system, whicli is adapted to trees with strong stems, and of long 
duration ; and the perpendicular system, which is chiefly adapted to climb- 
ers, such as the vine. Trees trained by any of the above modes against a 
wall or espalier are much more under the control of art than can ever be 
the case with trees or bushes in the open garden; because in the latter case, the 
whole tree as well as its branches are at all times more or less liable to be 
put in motion by the wind, whereas against a wall they are fixed, and 
have not the aid of motion to increase their thickness. For these reasons, 
and also because flat training is applied to trees which as protuberant bushes 
in the open garden would scarcely produce fruit at all, flat training cannot 
be dispensed with. In making choice of a mode of flat training, the nature 
of the tree, the climate, soil, and the object in view, must be jointly taken 



TRAINING. 



359 



into consideration. Trees of temporary duration, which naturally produce 
numerous divergent branches, such as the peach and the apricot, are best 
adapted for fan training, where the climate is favourable ; but in a cold cli- 
mate an approach to the horizontal manner may be preferable, by lessening 
the quantity of wood produced and thus facilitating its ripening. The hori- 
zontal system of training produces the greatest constraint on nature, and is 
therefore adapted for fruit-trees of the most vigorous growth, and of large 
size, such as the pear and apple, which are almost always trained in this 
manner, whether on waUs or espaliers. For plants producing shoots having 
little or no tendency to ramify, and which are of short duration, such as the 
vine, climbing roses, &c., the perpendicular manner is the most natural and 
the easiest ; nevertheless, by disbudding and training, plants of this kind can 
be made to assume the fan form, and thus be rendered more productive in 
blossoms and fruit, than if trained in a manner which is more natural to 
them ; and in the case of the vine, even the horizontal system may be 
adopted, because its shoots are of great duration. We shall first describe the 
methods of training dwarfs and standards in the open garden, and next the 
different modes of flat training on walls and espaliers. 

794. Dwarfs in the open garden are trained in the form of hollow bushes, 
concave, or shaped like cups, urns, goblets, or barrels, the form being in every 
case produced by training the shoots to a frame-work of rods and hoops. 
Dwarfs are also trained in the form of globes, balloons, cylinders, low cones, 
pyramids, triangles, and sometimes with the branches in regular stages 
like a girandole. Most of these forms are also capable of being varied by 
training the shoots which compose their form vertically, horizontally, ob- 
liquely, or spirally ; and also by tying down the current year s shoots as 
soon as they have ceased elongating, in the manner of quenouille training, to 
be afterwards described. All dwarfs, whether to be left to nature or trained 
artificially, are grafted on stocks naturally of humble growth , such as the 
quince or the mountain-ash for the pear, the doucin or paradise for the 
apple, the Mahaleb for the cheny, the myrobolan or the sloe for the 
plum, &c. 

795. Spiral cylinders. — Of all these different modes of training dwarfs, 
that which best deserves adoption in a small garden is the spiral cylinder, 
the trainmg of which is thus described by Mr. Hayward : — " Prune and 
manage the tree so that it shall form from three to six branches of as nearly 
equal size as possible, within about six or eight inches of the ground, as in fig. 
272 ; and as soon as the branches are grown from three to five feet long, fix six 
rods or stakes into the earth for supporting them, in a circle about the root, as in 



Fig 272. Spiral train- will movc in the Same direction, one above the other, like 
ing, first stage. §0 many cork-scrcws following in the same course, as 
sliown in fig. 274. As from this position of the branches the point bud of eacli 




360 



TRAlJNlNG. 




leader will present the most vertical channel for the sap, the strongest shoot 
will form there, and thus afford the means of continuing the leaders to a g rest 
height and for a great length of time, without crossing or 
obstructing each other, or throwing out useless collaterals ; 
at the same time, by the depressed position of the leading 
branches, enough sap will be pushed out on their sides to 
form and maintain vigorous fruiting spurs. As trees trained 
in this manner need never exceed the bounds allotted them 
on a border or bed, a greater number of trees may be 
planted, and a greater quantity of fruit produced, in a given 
space, than can be the case when they are trained in any other 
manner. But as pear and apple trees on free stocks may be 
Fig.2n.Spiraitrain- {ound to grow too rude and large after a few years, those 
ing, elevation. -^^^^ answer which are grafted on dwarf-growing stocks ; that 
is, pears on quince stocks, and apples on paradise stocks. However, to keep dwarf 
trees from growing too luxuriant and rude, it is a good practice to take them 
up and replant them every three or four years ; if this is done with due care 
as soon as the leaves are off the trees in the fall of the year, it will not injure 
them nor prevent them bearing a full crop of fruit the following year. — {In- 
quiry into the Fruitfulness and Barrenness of Plants and Trees^ S)C. p. 238.) 

796. Standards in the open garden are, in France, sometimes trained with 
heads in similar shapes to those we have mentioned as adopted for dwarfs ; 
but those in most general use, where the natural form is departed from, are 
the spurring-in system, the conical or pyramidal system, to either of which 
may be applied the quenouille system ; a term which is sometimes applied 
to the distaff or conical form of the tree, and sometimes to the mode of 
tying down the current year's shoots, like the fibres of flax on a distaff, so 
as to stagnate in them the returning sap. Trees trained in any of these 
manners are generally grafted on dwarfing stocks so as to keep their growths 
within moderate bounds. 

797. The spurring-in system. — Choose a tree that has a 
leading shoot in an upright direction, fig. 275, a ; having 
planted it, shorten the side shoot, leaving only two or three 
buds, and shorten also the leading shoot, according to its 
strength, so that no more buds may be left on it than 
will produce shoots, as at 6. The first summer the produce 
in shoots will be as at fig. 276, c ; and if before Midsummer 
Fig. 275. Spurring- the leading shoot be shortened as at it will probably throw 

JS^'**'''"^*'''''"'^^^* ^^^^ season, as at e. At the wmter 

pruning all the side shoots may be shortened to two or three 
buds, and the leading shoot to such a number as it is believed will be de- 
veloped. These 
are to be short- 
ened as at /; and 
the process of 
shortening is to 
be repeated every 
year till the tree 
has the appear- 
ance of fig. 277 ; 
or until it has 

Fig. 276. Spurring-'in, progressive stages- 





TRAINING. 



361 





attained the height required, or which the kind of tree is calculated to 
attain, 

798. Conical standards^ or, as they are erroneously called, pyramidal 
standards, may be pro- 
duced from trees par- 
tially spurred-in ; but 
the most general mode 
is to cut in the side 
branches, as shown in 
fig. 278, which repre- 
sents several successive 
stages ; while fig. 279 
shows the tree brought 
to its regular shape ; 
and fig. 280, the same 
tree with the branches 
of the current year tied 
down in the quenouille 
manner. The best ex- 
ample of this mode of 
training which we have 
'''^„?o«;«er-^«<'" inEngland, wasin 
the Horticultural So- 
ciety's garden in 1830; and in France, 
in the Royal Kitchen Garden at Ver- 
sailles, in 1840. There were in the latter garden, in that year, two hundred 
trees trained in the conical manner, with the current year's shoots tied down 
en quenouille. They had attained 
the height of from six to twelve 
feet before the branches were bent 
down ; but the effect of this was 
to cover the shoots with blossom, 
buds, and to produce most ex- 
traordinary crops. From the ex- 
perience of French gardeners, it 
would appear that trees trained 
in the conical manner and en 
quenouille do not last longer than 
ten or twelve years. Copper wire 
is used for tying down the 
branches, and the lower ends of 
the wires are attached to the 
stouter branches, to the main 
stem, to hooked pegs stuck in 
the ground, or to a wooden frame 
fixed a few inches above its sur- 
face. 

799. Hayway'd" s quenouille 



Fig, 278. Quenouille training, progressive 
stages. 





Quenouille or 



Fig. 279 
conical training 
pleted. 



. . Fig. 280. Conical training, 

com- training, — 1 ake a plant with with the summer shoots 
four 



three feet or four feet 



or five strong shoots of tied down. 

long, on a stem of four feet or more high 



362 



TRAINING. 





(fig. 281 ) ; " let a small hoop be bent round the bottom of the trunk, and 
all the branches brought regularly down and fixed to it, as in fig. 282 ; the 
consequences, if not guarded against, will 
be as explained in 792. As several of the 
uppermost buds on the base of each branch 
will probably throw out strong wood 
shoots, one of them, that is placed in the 
best situation to admit of being bent down 
to supply the place of the parent branch 
when worn out, should be selected, and 
all the rest rubbed ofiF close ; and as the 
shoot that is left will grow large and 
strong, m order that it may be better ^s-z. Haywards 
adapted for bending, it should, as soon as guenouuie training 
it is five inches or six inches long, be ^<^^p^^^^- 
brought gently down and affixed to the old branch, as in 
Fig. 281. Hayward's ^S' 283, a, a, marking the young shoot which has been 
quenouiiie train- tied down. Trained in this manner, whenever it may be 
ing, first stage. found necessary to cut out the old branches, these, by a 
half-twist, may be brought down without danger of breaking, and the bend 
wiU be less abrupt and unsightly. By the same rules, trees may be trained 
in the same manner, with two or more tiers, as in fig. 284. The success of 
this mode of training depends upon due 
attention being paid to the disbudding or 
rubbing off useless shoots in the spring, 
and taking due care of those which are 
intended either to cany on and extend 
the tree, or to succeed and occupy the 
place of the old bearers. It will," he con- 
cludes, "be found extremely well adapted 
to apple-trees on paradise-stocks, pear- 
trees on quince-stocks, cherry-trees, &c. ; 
and also to peach-trees in pots ; and it is 
Hayward's ^ ^^^^ economical mode, as it requires no 
quenouiiietraining, Stakes." — {Gard. May. vol. vii. p. 441.) 
showi7igtwosucces. 300. Fan-training is chiefly adapted 
sional shoots. „ . . . i . . n i 

for trees tramed agamst walls, and more 
especially for the peach and apricot. There are several 
modifications of the fan form, and five different varieties 
may be pointed out. The first is the equal fan, in which 
there are a number of main branches all radiating from the Fig. 284. Hayward's 
graft of the tree : in the case of dwarfs, all the branches ^ouue quenouiiie 
radiate from the horizontal line upwards, but in the case of 
standards against walls, or what in Scotland are called riders, they radiate 
downwards as well as upwards; and this forms the second, or what is 
called the steUate-fan manner of training. The third mode is called 
the open fan, or the Montreuil training, in which there are two main 
branches laid into the right and left of the centre, at an angle of 45°, 
and the wall is covered by subordinate branches from these and their late- 
rals. The great advantage of this mode of training is, that whenever the 
wall gets naked below, it can be covered by bringing down the two main 





TRAINING. 



363 



branches and their subordinates. An improvement on this mode of training 
as applied to the peach-tree was made by Dumoutier, and is described by 
Lelieur, m his " Pomone Fran9oise another, by SieuUe (a cultivator at 
Montreuil, to whom we were introduced, in 1819, by M. Thouin), is 
described ia Neill's Horticultural Tour., and in the first edition of our 
EncyclopcBdia of Gardening ; and a third improvement has been recently made 
in the Montreuil training, by F. Malot, a cultivator at Montreuil, which 
consists in first covering the lower part of the wall, by preventing any shoots 
from being produced from the upper sides of the two main branches till the 
part of the wall below them is covered. This mode is described in the 
Annales Horticulture de Paris for 1841, and in the Bon Jardinier fov 1842. 
A fourth mode of fan-training, is what is called Seymour's, which, on prin- 
ciple, appears to be the most perfect of all modes of training, and to which 
the nearest approach made by the French gardeners is that called the 
Palmette a la Dumoutier.^ alluded to above. A fifth mode is the curvilinear 
fan- training of Mr. Hay ward, which is good in principle ; but which has 
not yet been much adopted, notwithstanding some excellent points which 
it exhibits. If we describe the common English mode of fan-training, 
Seymour's mode, and Hay ward's mode, the other variations will be readily 
understood. In fact, there can be no difficulty with any mode of training, 
provided the operator possesses beforehand a clear conception of the form to 
be produced, and bears in mind the power of buds, and the influence on that 
power of elevation and depression. 

801 . Fan-training in the common English manner. — The following direc- 
tions for this mode of training are by an excellent practical gardener : — The 
maiden plant is to be headed down to four eyes, placed in such a manner as 
to throw out two shoots on each side, as shown in fig. 285. The following sea- 
son the two up- 
permost shooTs 
are to be headed 
down to three 

Pig. 28 . Fan-training, first eyes, placed in 

such a manner 
as to throw out one leading shoot, and ^'^■''"-■-■j^^I 

one shoot on each side ; the two lower- pjg. gge. Fan-training, second stage. 

most shoots are to be headed down to two 

eyes, so as to throw out one leading shoot, and one shoot on the upperaiost side, 
as shown in fig. 286. We have now five leading shoots on each side, well 
placed, to form our future tree. Each of these shoots must be placed m 
the exact position in which it is to remain ; and as it is these shoots 
wJiich are to form the leading character of the future tree, none of them are 
to be shortened. The tree should by no means be suffered to bear any 
fruit this year. Each shoot must now be suffered to produce, besides the 
leading shoot at the extremity, two other shoots on the uppermost side, 
one near to the bottom, and one about midway up the stem ; there must also 
be one shoot on the undermost side, placed about midway between the other 
two. All the other shoots must be pinched off in their infant state. The 
tree will then assume, at the end of the third year, the appearance shown 
in fig. 287. From this time it may be allowed to bear what crop of fruit 
the gardener thinks it able to carry ; in determining which he ought never 
to overrate the vigour of the tree. All of these shoots, except the leading 





364 



TRAINING. 




Fig. 287. Fan-training, third stage. 



ones, must at the proper season be shortened, but to what length must be 
left entirely to the judgment of the gardener, it, of course, depending upon 

the vigour of the tree. In short- 
ening the shoot, care should be 
taken to cut back to a bud that 
will produce a shoot for the fol- 
lowing year. Cut close to the 
bud, so that the wound may 
heal the following season. The 
following season each shoot at 
the extremities of the leading 
branches should produce, be- 
sides the leading shoot, one on 
the upper and two on the under part, more or less, according to the 
vigour of the tree; whilst each of the secondary branches should pro- 
duce, besides the leading shoot, one other, placed near to the bottom ; 
for the grand art of pruning, in all systems to Avhich this class of 
trees are subjected, consists in preserving a sufficient quantity of young 
wood at the bottom of the tree ; and on no account must the gardener 
cut clean away any shoots so placed, without well considering if they 
will be wanted, not only for the present, but for the future good appear- 
ance of the tree. The quantity of young wood annually laid in must 
depend upon the vigour of the tree. It would be ridiculous to lay the 
same quantity of wood into a weakly tree as into a tree in full vigour. 
The gardener here must use his own judgment. But if any of the leading 
shoots manifest a disposition to outstrip the others, a larger portion of young 
wood must be laid in, and a greater quantity of fruit than usual suffered 
to ripen on the over-vigorous branch. At the same time a smaller quantity 
of fruit than usual must be left to ripen on the weaker branch. This will 
tend to restore the equilibrium better than any other method. Fig. 288 




Fig. 288. Fan-training, complete. 

presents us with the figure of the tree in a more advanced state, well 
balanced, and well calculated for an equal distribution of sap all over its 
surface. Whenever any of the lower shoots have advanced so far as to 
incommode the others, they should be cut back to a yearling shoot : this 
will give them room, and keep the lower part of the tree in order. In 



TRAINING. 



365 



nailing, care must be taken not to bruise any part of the shoot ; the wounds 
made by the knife heai quickly, but a bruise often proves incurable. 
Never let a nail gall any part of the tree : it will endanger the life of the 
branch. In nailing in the young shoots, dispose them as straight and as 
regular as possible : it will look workmanlike. Whatever system of train- 
ing is pursued, the leading branches should be laid in in the exact position 
they are to remain ; for wherever a large branch is brought down to fill the 
lower part of the wall, the free ascent of the sap is obstructed by the exten- 
sion of the upper and contraction of the lower parts of the branch. It is 
thus robbed of part of its former vigour, whilst it seldom fails to throw out 
immediately behind the part most bent one or more vigorous shoots. To 
assist the young practitioner in laying in the leading branches of the tree, 
the following method may perhaps be acceptable. Drive a nail into the 
wall, exactly where the centre of the tree is to be, then with a string and 
chalk describe a semicircle of any diameter, divide the quadrant into 90° ; 
the lower branch wiU then take an elevation of about 12°, the second of 
about 274°, the third about ASP, the fourth 58^°, and the fifth about 74|o. 
A nail should then be driven into each of these points, and the chalk rubbed 
off.— (G^. M.il p. 144.) 

802. Fan-training according to Seymour s mode. — Head down the maiden 
plant to three eyes, as shown in fig. 289, a. Three shoots being produced, the 




Fig. 289. Seymour's fan-training, progressive stages. 



second year head down the centre one to three eyes, and leave the two side 
shoots at full length, as at h. Rub off all the buds on the lower side of the 
two side-branchos, and leave only on the upper side a series of buds from 
nine inches to twelve inches apart. When these buds have grown five inches 




Fig. 290. Seymour's fan-training , third stage, in summer. 

or six inches, stop the shoots produced, but still allowing the leading shoot 

B B 



366 



TRAINING. 



to extend itself. At the end of the summer of the second year, there will 
be four side shoots, and six or more laterals, as at c. In the following 
spring, the laterals d, which had been nailed to the wall, are loosened and 
tied to their main shoot, as at e, and the upright shoot or main leader 
shortened to three buds, as at /, or if the tree be very vigorous, to five buds. 
At the end of the third summer, the number of laterals will be doubled on 
the two lower branches, as shown in fig. 290 : a new lateral having sprung 
from the base of the one tied in, as at ^, and another from its extremity, as 
at ^. In the pruning of the spring of the fourth year, the original laterals, 
now of two years' growth, which had borne fniit, are cut off close to the 
branch, and the young laterals which had sprung from their base are loosened 
from the wall, and tied down to succeed them, as at fig. 291, i. The other 




Fig. 291. Seymour's fan-training, third stage after the winter pruning. 

laterals produced are tied in, as at k, and the upright shoots shortened, as at 
as before. This method of pruning and training the peach, its author, 
Mr. John Seymour, describes as truly systematical, as all the principal 




Fig. 292. Seymour^s fan-training, fifth year. 



leading shoots are trained by a line stretched from the setting on or origin 



TRAINING. 



367 



of the shoot to beyond its extreme length, and the distance of the leading 
shoots from one another is regulated by a semicircular line, at about ten feet 
from the stem, as shown in fig. 292. On this line is marked oflf the distances 
between the shoots, which are ten inches each. The lateral shoots are laid in 
about a foot asunder, as at «, in this figure. In the third or fourth year, and 




Fig. 293. SeymouT^s fan-training, sixth year. 



sometimes in the second, instead of laying in all the side shoots at full 
length, some of them are shortened, so as to get two leading shoots from 
as many side shoots as may be necessary to fill the wall, as shown at 
&, h. If the double side shoots thus produced are strong, they may be 
laid in their whole length ; but if weak, they must be cut short to give 
them strength. Occasionally a side shoot may be made to produce three 
others, as at c ; so that there never can be any difficulty in producing a 
sufficient number of leading shoots to furnish the wall. Fig. 293 is a por- 




Fig. 294. Seymour's fan-training, in progress for a low wall. 



trait of one-half of a Vanguard peach of six years' growth, taken in March, 

E s 2 



368 



TRAINING. 



1826. This tree, we are informed, still exists in Carleton Hall Gardens, 
where it covers nearly eight hundred square feet of wall, and is universally 
admired. It will be evident, we think, to every gardener, that this mode 
of training is not so well adapted for low walls as for such as are high. For 
high walls it is recommended to train the tree in form of the fig. 294, till it 
reaches the top of the wall, and afterwards to change the position of the 
shoots in the manner shown in fig. 295, encouraging the shoots produced 




Fig. 295. Seymour'' s fan-training, suited to a lotv wall. 

from «, a, to throw out branches to fill the centre of the tree. i^Ihid. vol. vi. 
p. 437.) There can be no doubt that this is a very systematic and beautiful 
mode of training, but being more difficult than the common fan mode, it 
has not been generally adopted by gardeners. Its perfect symmetry ought 
strongly to recommend it to the amateur of leisure. 

803. Fan-training in the wavy or curvilinear manner. — This mode of 
training was first described and its advantages pointed out by Mr. Hayward, 
in his Science of Horticulture, published in 1822 ; but it had been in practice 
to a certain extent long before, which shows its foundation in nature. Mr. 
Callow, to whom the idea was suggested by the lower branches of some large 
elms, which, though they projected ever so far horizontally, still had their 
extremities inclined upwards, practised it with the peach and nectarine 
nearly half a century ago. {Gard. Mag., 1834, p. 88.) This mode of training, 
which we shall describe from Mr. Hayward's very scientific work, is 
founded on the fact, that the sap will always flow in the greatest quan- 
tity to the most vertical buds ; so that a branch bent like an inverted 
syphon, however low the centre may be, yet if the extreme point be turned 
upwards, the buds there will produce vigorous upright shoots, however 

distant they may be from 
the main stem. If a ? V a 

branch be fixed in a ver- '■'^'^**==5=-a-5£^^ 
tical position, the strong- — -<==:i>J 

est shoot will be pro- Fig. 297. Illustrative of 
duced at the point bud a, ^avy-training. 

in fig. 296, as it will also if the shoot should 

Fig. 296. Illustrating the principles of ^ , ^^^^^ ^ ^ 

wavy-traimng. > 




TRAINING. 



369 





Fig. 298. Illustrative of 
wavy -training. 



Fig. 299. Wavy-training , first stage. 



lignre. Again, if a branch be fixed in a horizontal position, as in fig. 297, 
the strongest shoot will be produced from the most vertical bud near the 
base of the shoot, as at and the shoot produced from e will be the weakest ; 
but by turnmg up the point of this horizontal shoot, as at fig. 298 /; 
nearly as strong a shoot 
will be produced as if 
the branch had been 
fixed in a vertical po- 
sition, even though the 
bud at g should be at 
a considerable distance from the main stem of the plant. The bud at/, in 
this example, will also make a strong shoot. It is easy to conceive how 
these facts may be taken advantage of in training trees on flat surfaces. 
All the main branches, which in the common mode of fan-training, and also in 
Seymour's mode, are laid in at an angle of 45°, are by Hay ward's mode laid 
in much nearer the horizontal position, but always with their extreme 
points turned up. Trees may be trained m this manner either without a 
main stem, which constitutes the slightest deviation from common fan- 
training, and which has been found greatl}^ preferable to it by Mr. Callow, 
Mr. Glendinning, and others ; with one main stem, or with two main stems, 
both of which modes have been tried and approved by Mr. Hay ward . 

804. Wavy fan-training with two stems. — Suppose that the object is " to 
cover a space of wall of sixteen feet in length and twelve feet high, and at 
the same time to provide a length of stem of eight feet from the root for the 
sap to pass through to prepare it for fmctification (which is required by the 
peach tree), we must obtain a plant with two equal stems, growing from the 
same base, of four feet each ; for by each takmg one-half of the sap supplied, 
and passing it over four feet, both surfaces together will be equal to op.e 
stem of eight feet high ; and in order to bring the fruiting part of the tree as 
near the earth as possible, and to fill the lower part of the wall or trellis, we 
must bend each of the stems down, as in fig. 299 ; and all the buds being 
removed, but three at each extremity, \ ^, (and it must be remembered that 

unless this is particularly attended to, it 
will be almost impossible to succeed in 
training a tree in this manner,) those will 
take the full quantity of sap supplied by 
the root, and form shoots of proportionate 
strength, and those shoots during the sum- 
mer may be trained upwards, as in fig. 300. 
The following winter the side-branches 
must be brought down to their proper position to the right and left, as in 
fig. 301. If the horizontal branches are four feet long, or of the full length 
required to fill the space of 
sixteen feet allowed, the 
points of those branches must 
be laid flat, as at on the 
righthand side of 301 ; but if 
they are requu'ed to grow 
longer, the points must be Fig. SOl. Wavy-tralning, third stage. 

turned up, as on the left-hand side, k. The next object must be to manage 
the centre shoots, or stems, which are to furnish horizontals, so as to cover 




Fig. 300. Wavy-training, second 




370 



TRAINING. 



the upper part of the wall. There are two modes of effecting this : the one 
to bend the leading branch in a serpentine form, as represented at in fig. 301, 
and form the bends so that they may present a wood bud on the upper side of 
each, at from four inches to nine inches apart, which will place the hori- 
zontals from nine inches to eighteen inches apart on each side ; all other 
buds but these being removed, they will be furnished with sufficient sap to 
form horizontals of due length the following year, and also a centre shoot to 
form the stem, to be managed in the same manner to produce horizontals 
the following year ; and so on every year, until the tree has attained the 
height of the wall. The other mode of proceeding with the stem is to train 
it in an upright direction, and to cut it off, or shorten it, as at i, in the last 
figure, from nine inches to eighteen inches every year; rubbing off all the buds, 
except the three which are best placed at the end to furnish two horizontals 
and a leader for the following year. This is not only the most simple, but 
perhaps the most certain, mode of providing horizontals of due strength, and 
at the distances wanted. Indeed this mode of shortening the centre branch 
must be adopted with all fruit trees, except the peach. The peach tree, 
with care and attention, may be trained on the serpentine plan, so as to place 
the horizontals with great regularity. When it is thus trained, there is this 
advantage, — the current of the sap being checked in the buds, a larger 
portion is sent into the horizontals, and the sap is more equally divided ; 
they are thus sustained in greater luxuriance at the lower part of the tree, 
and sometimes two tiers of horizontals ma}^ be obtained in one year. But 
as almost all other trees are prone to form their shoots at the ends of 
the last year's shoots, the bending will not always force out shoots where 
wanted. In order to secure this, therefore, the leading shoots must be 
shortened every year, down to the place where it is desired to form the 
horizontals ; and even by this mode of forcing out branches (by shortening), 
the upright flow of the sap may be checked by bending the leader each year 
from one side to another, on an inclination of about 45°, as in fig. 802, 
^ which as indicated by the 

^^^^^'^-^^^^'HvLssSs^^ V . numbers 1 to 5, is of five 

^^^^^^==^U^-^=&=s==^>^ / years' growth. Proceed- 

^'^ZZ^^^^r''''^°^^~^*V' \ ^ ^^^^ manner, a tree 

/L a -yyjji advance in height 

^^^"^^^^^^^^^^^^^^'''^^^ ' 1 ^ ' ^ ^^^^ horizon- 

"^fflitimS^i^^^^^irT r-, „.-ri^ ^^j^ ^^^^ yoar, aud hence 

it will appear to fill the 

upper part of the wall but 
Fig. 302. Wavy.troAning,fmyear ^j^^^j^ . ^^^^ 

considered, that the time you lose in covering the upper part of the wall, 
you gain in width on the lower part. It may also appear on a superficial 
view, that by extending the branches so long, and rendering them so naked 
of shoots, for the first year or two, you lose so much time ; but it is not so 
in reality, for by this mode you lose no time in cutting back the stem, as by 
the usual mode. By the common mode of training, two or more years are 
lost before it is attempted to produce bearing wood. Moreover, by laying 
down the first branches to such lengths, you obtain a space sufficient, the 
second or third years, to dispose of every inch of wood the tree makes, 
without crowding it too closely together ; and indeed the means of appro- 
priating to a profitable purpose all the nutriment extracted from the soil by 



TRAINING. 




the tree. From a tree trained in this manner above seven hundred per- 
fectly ripened peaches have been gatiiered the fifth year of training, all 
growing within six feet of the surface of the border. When a tree is full 
grown, it will have the appearance of fig. 303. Particular attention must 

be paid to the 



rubbing off all 
or most of the 
" shoots, as soon 
as they appear in 
the spring, from 
the front and 
under sides of 
the horizontals, 
as. well as from 
all other parts of 
the tree where 
young wood is 
not wanted." — 
{Haywardon the 
Fruitfulnessand 
Barrenness of 

Fig. 303. Wavy^training, completed. Flants and 

]834.) To Mr. Hay ward's directions, the observations which 
we have made on some trees trained in this manner enable us to suggest, 
that a sufficient number of shoots and leaves should be left on the main 
stems, for the purpose of strengthening them and the roots. For this pur- 
pose, it will be advisable to leave some shoots on the stems, even where they 
are not ultimately wanted, till such time as the ramification of the top 
affords a sufficient breadth of foliage for strengthening them. The stems, in 
their naked state, are also liable to be scorched by the rays of the sun, un- 
less they are protected, either by a covering or screen of some kind, or by 
training down some of the shoots, so as that the foliage may overhang them. 
A similar objection may be made to Hitt's mode of training with two stems, 
which may be considered the parent of Mr. Hay ward's mode. 

805. Wavy fan-training with a single stem will readily be understood. On 
planting, if the stem is without branches, cut it back to three buds ; but if it 
has already three shoots, shorten the centre one to nine inches or a foot, 
according to the kind of tree, and leave only three buds at its upper ex- 
tremity, laying in the side shoots as in fig. 304. In like manner after next 

years growth shorten the centre 
shoot, and lay in the two side shoots 
as before, and proceed in this manner 
till the wall is filled, or till the tree 
\i has the appearance of fig. 305. It is 



Trees, Sjc. 




necessary to observe, with reference 

Fig. 304. Wav2,-traininp with a single stem, first to this figure, that the length of stem 

is for the purpose of admitting a single 
shoot of a vine, to be trained horizontally^ below it, a mode which Mr. Hay- 
ward finds to be productive of early and abundant crops. In wavy fan-training 
with a single stem which is short, Mr. Hayward observes, " It will be dif- 
ficult to prevent the horizontal branches near the centre of the tree from 



372 



TRAINING. 




becoming naked of bearing wood, because the sap cannot pass through a 
sufficient space of bark to prepai-e it for fructification, until it is a great 

distance from the trunk. 
But this defect may in a great 
measure be remedied, if, 
instead of being cut back to 
make it throw out branches 
to form the tree from a short 
stem, a stem of four or five 
feet be bent down as in fig. 
306 ; and if all the buds, as 
they push out, be rubbed off, 
except the three at the end, 
those may be trained up in 
the same manner as if the 
stem had been cut back or 
shortened, and afterwards the 

Fig. 305. A half rider trained in the wavy manner. stem Or centre maybe treated 

in the same manner as the one that is cut back ; the difi^erence will then be, 
that the centre of the tree will be formed four feet on one side of the root, 
instead of being immediately over it ; but as the sap will thus have a space 
of four feet of bark to pass, the tree will produce its bearing wood in greater 
abundance near the stem, and fill the wall more equally with fruit." — 
(^Inquiry., S^c. p. 228.) 

806. Horizontal training is in a great measure confined to Britain, for it is 
not generally approved of on the Continent, more especially in France. It was 
first systematically described by Hitt, and is practised either with one or two 
stems, and either with the upright stem straight, or in a zigzag direction to 
stimulate the lateral buds to develop themselves. From this upright stem 
the branches proceed at right ^ 
angles, generally at nine inches jr 
apart for apples, cherries, and _j^^^^^[ W-.---.~_ ^ 
plums, and from ten inches to a ^^pl 
foot, or eighteen inches for pears. ^^M^-^^ 

^. _ , , ^ "^^^^^ Pl^^* ^^^^^ ^^"^^^Figm. Horizontal train- 

Fig. 306. Illustrati ve of wavy. gj^Qots having been procured, the inq, first stage, 
training with along stem. , ^ , . , . , . 

two Side ones are laid m horizon- 
tally, and the centre one upright, as in fig. o07 ; all the buds being rubbed off 
the latter but three, viz., one next the top for a vertical leader, and one on each 
side as near the top as possible, for horizontal branches. In the course of the 
first summer after planting, the shoots may be allowed to grow without being 
stopped. In the autumn of the first year the two laterals produced are 
nailed in, and also the shoots produced from 
the extremities of the lower laterals ; the centre 
shoot being headed down as before, as shown in 
fig. 308. But in the second summer, when the 
main shoot has attained the length of ten inches, 
or twelve inches, it may be stopped ; which if the 
plant is in proper vigour will cause it to throw 
out two horizontal branches, in addition to those 
V hich were thrown out from the wood of the preceding year. The tree will 





Fig. 308. Horizontal training, 
second stage. 



TRAINING. 



now be in its second summer, and will have four horizontal branches on each 
side of the upright stem as in ftp-. 309 ; and by persevering in this system 

four horizontal branches 
will be produced in each 
year, till the tree reaches 
the top of the wall, when 
the upright stem must 
terminate in two horizon- 
tal branches. In the fol- 
lowing autumn the tree 
will have the appearance 
of fig. 810 ; supposing an 
apple tree be the plant to 
be trained, and that it 
Let it be planted early in autumn, 
Every bud pushing two or 




Fig. 309. Horizontal training, third stage. 




consists of a single shoot from a bud. 
and next spring head it down to seven buds, 
three shoots, the 
third and fourth, 
counting up- 
wards, must be 
nibbed off when 
they are three 
inches in length ; 
the uppermost 
shoot must be 
trained straight 
up the wall for a 
leading stem, and 
the remaining 
four horizontally 
along the wall. 

The leading shoot training, fourth year. 

having attained about fifteen inches in length, cut it down to eleven inches. 
From the shoots that will thus be produced select three, one to be trained as 
a leader, and two as side branches. In the second autumn the tree will have 
the appearance of fig 311. Proceeding in this way for seven years, the tree 

will have reached the top of a wall 
twelve feet high. With weak trees, 
or trees in very cold, late situations, 
this practice will not be advisable, as 
the wood produced from the summer 
shoots would be too weak, or would 
not ripen ; but in all ordinary situa- 
tions the plan will succeed." — {^Har- 
rison on Fruit-trees^ chap, xx.) 

8O7. Fan-training and horizontal 
training combined. — In training trees 
^^z<:^^y^^' horizontally, we have seen that a 

Fig. 311. Horizontal training, the apple. considerable period must elapse before 
the wall is filled. It is alleged also that heading-down does not always 
produce two lateral shoots, and also that it has a tendency to make the 




374 



TRAINING. 



shoots already produced grow more rank than is desirable : by the following 
method practised by Mr. Green of Stepney, this inconvenience is avoided, 
and the wall is much sooner filled in height with shoots :— Suppose the wall 
to be under twenty feet long, and that it is intended to train a pear-tree 




Fig. 312. Horizontal training and fan-training combined. 

against it ; plant the tree at one end of the wall, and then proceed as follows : 
Let the situation of the tree be at a, in fig. 31 2 ; stick a nail in the wall at &, 




Fig. 313. Horizontal and fan-training combined. 

and another nail at c, and strike a line on the wall from 6 to c ; then train 

all the shoots to one side after the fan man- 
ner, and bend the whole of the shoots into a 
horizontal position, as soon as they reach the 
line that is drawn from b to c ; after which 
continue to train them horizontally. If the 
wall is from thirty to forty feet in length, 
plant the tree in the middle of it as at d, in fig. 
313, and proceed as follows : — Stick a nail in 
the wall in the centre, near the top, at e; 
stick another nail at /, and another at g; 
then strike a line from e to /, another line 
from eto g ; train the tree in the fan manner 
until the shoots reach the lines drawn upon 
the wall, and then bend them hori- 
zontally. If the wall is higher 
than it is wide, proceed as follows : 
— Plant the tree in the middle of 
the wall at in fig. 314 ; stick one 
nail at one at k, and one at / / 
strike the lines as before ; but, in- Yig.^^^f- 

Stead of spreading out the shoots /an training, 

horizontally, train them perpendi- 





Fig, 314. Horizontal and upright 
training combined. 



TRAINING. 




Fig. 316. Half-fan training, 
second stage. 




Fig. 317. Half-fan training, third stage. 



cularly. This process answers well for pears, vines, or any other rank- 
growing tree. — (G. ilf., vol. viii. p. 539.) A similar mode of training has 

been adopted by 
Mr. Smith of 
Hopeton House, 
for the finer ap - 
ples and best 
late pears, and 
is thus described 
by him: fig. 815 
represents a tree 
one year from 
the graft, newly planted, and afterwards 
cut down to two buds on each shoot. 
Fig. 316 represents the same tree two 
years old, and fan-trained. Fig. 317, the same tree three years old, cut back 
and fan-trained. Fig. 318, the same tree, six years old, fan-trained ; the 

shoots brought 
down in a curvi- 
linear form to the 
horizontal direc- 
tion; and the differ- 
ent years' growth 
marked one, two, 
three, four, five, 
six. The centre is 
still trained in the 
fan form, and the 
branches are 
brought down 
yearly ; until the 
tree reaches to the 
top of the wall. 

Fig. 318. Half-fan training, sixth year. where the fan- 

training terminates, and the branches are trained forward horizontally. 
Nothing more is necessary than to keep the trees in good order, and to en- 
courage the leading shoots. — (Gr. M. x. p. 267.) 

808. Perpendicular training is comparatively little used, excepting for 
climbing shrubs, such as roses, the vine, and the gooseberry and cuiTant, 
when trained against a wall or espalier rail. The principle is to have two 
horizontal main stems on the lowest part of the wall or trellis, and to train 
from these upright shoots at regular distances. Sometimes four horizontal 
main stems are used — two at the bottom, and the other two half way up the 
wall or espalier ; but this mode is chiefly adopted with the vine. With the 
exception of the latter plant and the fig, when trained in this way, the main 
horizontal branches are very short, seldom in the case of the rose, goosebeny, 
or currant, extending more than two feet or three feet from 
each side of the stem. A young plant with two shoots may have 
these shortened to one foot each in length, and tied to the lower 

Fig.319 Perpen- 

riic 'uior train- ^ar or wire of the trellis, as in fig. 81 9. This being done in 
tug jir St stage, autumn, next year two upright shoots will be produced, and an 




376 



TRAINING. 




addition made to the horizontal shoots, as in fig. 320- The third year, two 
other upright shoots, or if the plant is in a vigorous state, four will be pro- 
J I duced, as in fig.321; and this will 
I I generally be found sufficient hori- 

^, \ / zontal extension for a gooseberry, 

currant, or rose. See fig. 322. The 
Fig. 320. Per^dicu- "P"^^^ established 

lar training, second will advance at the rate of from Fig. 321. Perpendicular train- 

stage. nine inches to a foot in a year, if ing,ihird stage. 

the plants are gooseberries or currants, but a great deal faster if they are 
climbers of any kind. This mode of training is frequently combined with 
the fan manner, when vines, roses. Wistarias, or other luxuriant climbers, 
are to be trained against the gable ends of houses, as shown in fig. 313. 

809. Instruments and materials. — In addition to those mentioned (784) as 
l_ required for training in general, we may add for 

training against walls and trellises,— a pair of 
scissors for clipping the shreds ; a hammer, with 
a shaft of sufficient length, that when hung on 
one round of the ladder by the head, the other 
may rest on the round below so as not to fall 
through ; a leathern wallet, such as that figured 
and described in p. 167, or in default of it a 
basket, fig. 323, about twelve inches long, six 
inches broad, and six inches deep, 
with loops to put a belt through on 
one side, that it may hang before the 
operator, having the side on which 
the loops are made bending to rest Fig 323. Train 
the better against his body, and a di- ''''' 
vision in the middle for two different sorts of shreds 
— the longer of these should be an inch or more in breadth, and the shorter, for 
the bearing shoots of peaches and nectarines, about a third of an inch (Hitt) ; 
a deal plank to tread upon, with a strap at each end to drag it along either 
way, or to lift it with one hand ; a small pair of pincers for drawing out 
nails in places where the hammer cannot be so conveniently employed, and 
a pair of pliers, if wire is used as ties ; a key or narrow saw (fig. 202, in 
p. 290) for taking off old branches ; a mallet, and a chisel about two inclies 
broad at the mouth, for the same purpose ; to which we may add a couple 
of step-ladders, on which a plank may be "placed at different heights parallel 
to the wall for the operator to stand on, by which he will do much more 
work, and with much greater ease to himself. In cutting branches of trees 
trained against walls, the cut or wounded section should always, if possible, 
be on the under side of the branches, or next the wall ; and in the case of 
espaliers, it ought to be on the under side. 

810. Comparative view of the different modes of training. — It is well to 
understand the various methods of training detailed in the foregoing pages ; 
and knowing them, any modification may be adopted which circumstances 
may require, provided the general principles are kept in view. Ornamental 
shrubs are easily managed, because they have not a tendency to rear them- 
selves by forming a strong stem ; but with regard to fruit-trees, the case is 
otherwise. These, it is well known, if left to nature, form one strong stem, 





Fig. 322. Perpendicular training 
complete. 



TRAINING. 



377 



supporting a top which reaches the height of twenty, thirty, or forty feet, or 
more. In order to attain this, the sap rushes, whilst the tree is young and 
vigorous, towards the leading shoot ; and if lateral branches are occasionally 
produced, the flow of sap is not strongly directed towards them compared to 
that wliich is impelled towards the more upright part. At length, however, 
a ramification does take place, in comparison with which the leading shoot 
becomes less and less predominant, till it becomes ultimately lost amongst its 
compeers. A tolerably equal distribution of sap then results, and 3j conical 
or spherical top is formed bearing fruit, not generally in the concavity, where 
it would be greatly excluded from light, but at the external surface, where 
the fruit itself and the leaves immediately connected with the buds producing 
it can be fully exposed to light, air, and dews. It was remarked that lateral 
branches were occasionally produced on the stem in the progress of its ascent. 
When the top is formed, these are placed at gTeat disadvantage, owing to 
their being overshaded, and they are then apt to decay, the tree assuming 
the character of a large elevated top supported on a strong naked stem. This 
is the natural disposition of trees, and to this it is necessary to attend in 
order that it may be counteracted where the natural form of the tree cannot 
be admitted. It should be borne in mind that the disposition to form an 
elevated naked stem is still strongly evinced in dwarf trees ; although sub- 
divided, yet each branch possesses its share of the original disposition, and 
its lower and horizontal shoots are left to become weak in comparison with 
the upper and those that are vertical. 

811. A standard tree^ from its being least restrained from attaining its 
natural habit, requires least management in regard to training, as has been 
already explained. When trained in any dwarf form, attention is in the 
first place required towards counteracting the disposition to form one large 
elevated stem by stopping the leading shoot. In this and other processes in 
pruning and trainmg, it is necessary to be aware of the nature of the buds 
on different parts of the shoot, and the effect of cutting near or at a distance 
from the base. Where a shoot is shortened, the remaining buds are stimu- 
lated^ and those immediately below the section seldom fail to produce shoots, 
even although they would have otherwise remained dormant. The lowest 
buds on the base of a shoot do not generally become developed, unless the 
shoot is cut or broken above them. They remain endowed with all their 
innate vital power, although comparatively in a state of repose ; but should 
the shoot on the base of which these buds are situated be destroyed or 
amputated, very soon they are called into vigorous action, producing supple- 
mentary shoots much stronger than could be obtained from any other buds 
more remote from the base. Were these buds as prone to development as 
others, a mass of shoots and foliage would be produced in the central parts, 
where the foliage could not have a due share of light, an arrangement that 
would prove bad. They must be looked upon as being placed in reserve 
for furnishing wood shoots, whenever the pruner chooses to stimulate their 
development by amputating the portion of shoot above them. 

812. From this view of the properties belonging to the lowest situated 
buds, it is evident they are the most unlikely to become fruit -buds. These 
are formed towards the extremities. In some cases they are terminal ; but 
generally about two-thirds from the base is the situation where fruit-buds 
are first formed, and in some kinds of fruit-trees are developed into blossom 
the foUowii^ season, and in others the basis of a spur is established. This 



378 



WEEDING. 



spur sometimes continues slowly to elongate for years before it produces 
fruit. As the strongest shoots are obtained from buds near the bases of 
shoots, and as all horizontally trained branches grow weak compared with 
those that have a more vertical position, it follows that all horizontal branches 
and those approaching that direction should be obtained, as far as circum- 
stances will permit, from buds situated near the base. Hence in horizontal 
training, say a foot apart between the tiers of branches, it is not well to 
encourage two tiers in the same season ; for in that case the tier that pro- 
ceeds from buds two feet from the base of the current year's shoot, has a 
much less substantial origin than those that are produced from buds only 
a foot from the base. The formation of two tiers should therefore never 
be attempted whilst the lower part of the wall is being furnished ; for the 
lower horizontals have a tendency to become ultimately weak, and on this 
account it is requisite that their origin should be well established. Towards 
the top of the tree, where the sap flows with greater force, two tiers are less 
objectionable. According to the principles of Seymour's training, the ori- 
ginating of the side branches from buds near the base of the vertical central 
shoot is well provided for, and this ought to be kept in view in every mode 
of training adopted. In order to furnish well the lower part of a tree, it is 
necessary to procure strong branches, and these can be best obtained from 
the lower part of a strong central shoot ; and in order that this shoot may 
have sufficient strength, it must have a vertical position. If no central 
shoot is retained, one of three evils must result : either the central pai t 
must remain open as the tree increases, with half fans on each side ; or a 
shoot to produce others to fill the centre must be encouraged from one side, 
thus upsetting the balance of the tree ; or, to avoid this, two or more vertical 
or nearly vertical shoots must be allowed, the divarications from which 
cannot be kept clear of each other, whilst likewise a great proportion of 
shoots must inevitably be placed nearly or quite perpendicular, relatively 
with which the horizontal branches below are situated at an infinite disad- 
vantage as regards the distribution of sap. Trees commenced to be trained 
in nurseries have often the objectionable form imposed upon them of an open 
centre, being deprived of an upright shoot and set off^ like a V ; and similarly 
objectionable are the Montreuil and other modes on the same principle. 
With skilful management, these modes do succeed in France ; but in the 
rich soil and humid climate of Britain, the flow of sap cannot be equalised 
by any mode that admits of a competition between vertical and horizontal 
branches. One upright is necessary for furnishing side branches ; but being 
annually cut back for this purpose, it does not gain any increasing ascend- 
ency, and forms but a slight exception to the whole flow of sap being 
directed to the growth of the side branches ; and in consequence of this, 
these branches will become so well established, that they will be capable of 
receiving a due share of sap to enable them to continue healthy, instead of 
dying off^, as is their tendency when the vigour of the tree is wasted in 
exuberant wood induced by permitting shoots, either intentionally or through 
neglect, to follow their natural disposition to grow up into stems, wherever 
they can avail themselves of a favourable, that is, an upright position, for 
appropriating an abundant supply of sap. {Gard. Mag. 1842.) 

§ XI. — Weeding. 

813, A weed is any plant which comes up in a situation where it is not 



WEEDING. 



wanted. It may be either an absolute weed, such as are all plants of no 
known use ; or a relative one, such as a useful plant where it comes up and 
is not wanted among other useful plants, or on walks, walls, &c. Weeds 
are injurious by depriving the soil of the nutriment destined for other plants ; 
by depriving other plants of the space they occupy, as in the case of weeds 
in beds of seedlings, and of broad-leaved plants on lawns ; by their shade, 
when they are allowed to grow large ; and by their mere existence, as when 
they appear on gravel-walks. In those parts of gardens where the soil is 
kept constantly pulverised on the surface, the most numerous weeds consist 
of annual plants ; but among the grass of lawns, and sometimes among crops 
which remain in one place for more than a year, perennial weeds also make 
their appearance. The seeds of weeds are brought into gardens by stable 
dung, by birds, by the wind, by fresh soil brought in for the renewal of 
borders, for compost, &c., and by some other sources ; and they are perpe- 
tuated there by being allowed to come to maturity and shed their seeds. 
The obvious mode of preventing the existence of all absolute weeds, whether 
annual or perennial, would be to prevent all weeds, whether in gardens or 
fields, from ripening seeds, by cutting them down before they come into 
flower ; and this, we think, ought to be made an object of national concern 
for the sake of the agriculture of the country, even more than for its gar- 
dening. Prices per peck or per bushel might be offered for the unopened 
flower-buds of different weeds, according to their bulk or frequency, to be 
paid by parish-officers to such children and infirm persons as might find it 
worth while to collect them, nothing being paid for those buds which have 
been suffered to expand. This practice, we are informed, exists in some 
parts of France and in Bavaria ; but to be effective in any country it ought 
to be general. In the mean time, all that can be done is to destroy weeds 
as fast as they appear. 

814. Annual weeds among growing crops are readily destroyed in dry 
weather by hoeing, and leaving them, if very young, to die where they have 
grown ; but if large, they may be raked off" and wheeled to the compost 
ground, where mixed with soil or with other putrescent matters, they will 
be speedily decomposed and rendered fit for manure. Wherever casings of 
dung or other fermenting materials to hotbeds are in use, weeds, if laid on 
them or mixed with them, will assist in aiding fermentation ; or when dig- 
ging and trenching are going forward, they may be buried in the soil at 
once. In hoeing up annual weeds, it is sufficient, as far as regards their 
destruction, to cut them over beneath the seed-leaves, which commonly rest 
on the surface of the ground ; but as the object of hoeing is commonly not 
only to destroy weeds but to stir the soil, the hoe ought to be thrust in much 
deeper in order to attain both objects. In moist soils and in moist weather, 
care must be taken not to hoe so deep as partially to bury the weeds, which 
in that case, instead of being destroyed, may be said to undergo a kind of 
transplantation. Weeds among broadcast crops which stand thick on the 
ground, such as onions, spinach, &c., require to be pulled up by hand ; and 
for this purpose a moist state of the soil is preferable, but not so much as to 
occasion poaching by the feet of the weeder, unless indeed the plants should 
be in beds, where they may be weeded immediately after the heaviest rains. 

815. Perennial weeds, except when they are quite young and not far 
advanced beyond the sead-leaf, when they may be treated as annuals, require 
more care to eradicate than annual weeds. Their roots generally must be 



380 



WEEDING. 



raised up by a fork, weeding-hook, spade, trowel, or some other implement, 
which penetrates deeper than the hoe ; and great care must be taken with 
underground stems, such as those of the couch-grass, the small field convol- 
vulus, the hedge nettle, and others, to take up every joint, otherwise the 
result will merely be the propagation of these weeds by division. Among 
growing crops, the two-pronged fork (fig. 34, in p. 135) is the only safe 
instrument' for eradicating root- weeds, for reasons which we omit, because 
like many other reasons which we do not give, we consider them sufficiently 
obvious to the reader who has perused the preceding chapters of tliis work 
with due attention. 

816. Weeds in gravel-walks should always be taken out by weeding, and 
never, in our opinion, by hoeing and raking ; and for amateurs, who do not 
wish to stoop, there is the implement, fig. 30, in p. 135, as well as the 
Guernsey weeding-prong, fig. 165, in p. 238. Salt has been used to destroy 
vegetation on walks, but its effects do not last above a year, as the first 
winter's rain washes it into the subsoil ; besides, the attraction of salt for 
moisture has been found (Gard. Chron for 1841, p. 846) to encourage the 
growth of mosses and other cryptogamic plants to such an extent, as to give 
the walks a slimy, slippery surface after rain, and during winter and spring. 
Sulphate of copper (the blue vitriol of druggists) effectually destroys moss 
and other plants, is more durable in its effects than salt, and is not attended 
with the same humidity and attraction for the seeds of cryptogamic plants. 
It must not be forgotten, in using salt and other compositions for destroying 
weeds on walks in kitchen-gardens and shrubberies, that the roots of wall 
and espalier trees generally find their way under gravel, and consequently 
that if such mixtures are used for two or three years in succession, they 
may destroy the trees as well as the weeds. In some gardens, in order to 
destroy weeds in walks at the least expense, the walks are hoed and raked, 
and frequently left in this state without being rolled. In wet climates and 
retentive soils, where walks are covered with loose rough gravel in order 
that they may be walked on immediately after rain, as is the case in some 
country residences in Scotland, this is proper ; but where walks are made of 
binding gravel or sand, we consider this practice in bad taste, because it 
confounds the character of the surface of the walk, which to walk comfort- 
ably on ought to be firm, even, and smooth, with that of the dug border, 
which ought to be always more or less rough to facilitate the admission of 
air and moisture to the roots of the plants. In a shady shrubbery walk, or 
a gravel- walk through a wood, the appearance of moss is to our eyes much 
less offensive than would a surface hoed and raked, however free the latter 
might be of vegetation. 

817. Weeds in lawns or on grass-walks include all the broad-leaved plants 
which spring up among the proper grasses, not even excepting the clovers, 
commonly sown with them to give the grass a better hold of the scythe in 
mowing. All these broad-leaved plants, and even all broad-leaved grasses, 
such as the cocksfoot, ought to be weeded out if it is intended to have a per- 
fect lawn, which to be so ought to resemble a piece of cloth in uniformity of 
texture and appearance. The worst weeds in lawns are those which have very 
broad and flat reclining leaves, which the scythe is apt to pass over, leaving 
them to feed the roots, such as certain species of plantago, dandelion, &c. ; 
and these are the more difficult to eradicate, because they have tap-roots, fur- 
nished with adventitious buds which seldom fail to be developed, unless the 



WEEDING. 



381 



roots are cut over two or three inches beneath the surface. The common 
daisy is very troublesome in lawns by the breadth of the tuft formed by its 
leaves ; but being a fibrous-rooted plant it is easily eradicated, and provided 
none are allowed to ripen seed, a lawn may soon be cleared of them. In 
lawns not frequently mown, the daisy rake (fig. So, in p. 136) or daisy knife 
(fig. 50 in p. 140) ought to be employed to cut off the flowers before they 
expand. 

818. Weeds in shrubberies and plantations. — So long as shrubberies are 
annually dug, the weeds are kept under by hoeing and raking ; but when 
these operations have ceased, and the shrubs do not cover the whole of the 
surface, the interstices generally exliibit coarse grasses and rampant weeds ; 
and it is not a little remarkable that this is often found to be the case in 
grown-up shrubberies, where the walks are kept clear of w^eeds, and their 
edgings carefully trimmed, as if the eye of the spectator were not directed to 
the scenery on each side. If the object were a fac-simile imitation of a 
natural wood, then every weed that came up might be allowed to grow and 
flourish ; but as we are referring to shrubberies, which are always artificial 
plantations, and chiefly of foreign plants, — in these, we say, no herbaceous 
plant ought to be allowed to grow up and flourish, that is, not as artificial as 
the trees and shrubs among which it appears. If therefore the shrubbery in 
its young state contained flowers as well as shmbs, and is to maintain a pictur- 
esque character, the flowers may be allowed to exist till the encroachment of 
the shrubs destroys them ; but if the character to be maintained is the 
gardenesque (in which every plant should stand free, with sufficient room to 
display its natural shape), then no more herbaceous plants ought to be 
allowed to exist than can attain a proper size and degree of perfection. All 
the others interfere with the character to be maintained, and ought therefore 
to be treated as weeds. The manner in which these are removed in shrub- 
beries and plantations which have ceased to be dug is chiefly by mowing, 
which ought to be done three or four times in the course of summer. Where 
shrubberies are properly managed, digging, or at least hoeing, among the 
plants will not cease till the shrubs have nearly or altogether covered the 
ground, in w^hich case very few weeds will appear. In many cases, the 
ground may be covered with low evergreens, such as ivy, tutsan, periwinkle, 
spurge, laurel, &c., when the larger shrubs and trees may stand at a consi- 
derable distance apart, and yet little or no weeding become necessary. When 
large weeds only are to be pulled out of shrubberies, this may sometimes be 
done with weeding pincers (fig. 824) after the weeds have thrown up their 
flower- stems ; but the evil, both in regard to exhausting 
the soil and appearance, is in that case in a great measure 
already eff'ected, therefore the best mode is to cut them over 
a few inches beneath the surface with the weeding spud 
(fig. 28, in p. 134), as soon as they make their appearance 
in spring. 

819. Weeds in woods and park scenery are chiefly de- 
stroyed by mowing ; and it has been found, as already 
mentioned (774), that bmising and tearing off" the stems 
often destroy the root more effectually than cutting with 
the scythe. In thick woods consisting of trees and un- 
der gTowths, the ground is generally so effectually covered 
Fig. 324. Weeding ^jj-j^ bushes that no weeds can make their appear- 

G C 




382 



WATERING. 



ancc ; but in groves of trees, and in plantations formed in Mr. Cree's 
manner, there will always be spaces more or less liable to throw up 
rampant weeds, which in merely useful plantations ought to be mowed and 
left to decay on the spot, for the sake of the manure which the}'- will afford 
to the trees. In cultivated or smooth park scenery, all coarse weeds should 
be got rid of, so as to present a smooth turf ; but in rough forest park 
scenery, all the plants which it produces should be allowed to grow as being 
appropriate : of these, the large fern or brake {pteris aquUina) is peculiarly 
characteristic. 

820. Weeding ponds^ rivers^ and artificial waters^ in garden and park 
scenery, is often very expensive by its being necessary to empty and clean 
out the bottom and sides of the excavation. Much of this trouble and 
expense might be rendered unnecessary in many cases by mowing over the 
weeds in the bottom of the water, when they first make their appearance 
there in early spring, and repeating the operation at short intervals till the 
roots are destroyed from the want of elaborated sap sent down by the leaves. 
(See more on this subject in par. 548.) It should be constantly borne in 
mind, that all weeds and all plants whatever may be effectually destroyed by 
depriving them of their leaves as fast as they are produced (113). 

^ XII. Watering. 

821. Water, whether as a source of nutriment or a medium of affecting 
various other objects, is one of the most important agents of culture. A 
certain degree of moisture in the soil is essential to the existence of plants ; 
because no food can be absorbed by the roots that is not held in solution 
by water, and because the decomposition of water, and its perspiration from 
the leaves and bark are continually going forward. Plants require a certain 
degree of moisture at their roots not only when in active growth, but when 
in a state of comparative rest, because even then perspiration is going on 
with those parts which are above the ground, and with the roots themselves 
when plants are taken up for transplanting. In the season of growth the 
demand for water is greatly increased, and it diminishes as the period of 
growth advances, and the power of decomposition and evaporation ceases. If 
water in excess is given at this period of the growth of a plant, its parts 
become distended in consequence of the absorption by the spongioles still 
going on, while the power of decomposition and perspiration by the leaves is 
diminished ; it becomes sickly, its leaves assume a yellow colour, and if the 
excess of water is not soon withdra-um from the soil, death ensues. By 
pulverizing soils and increasing their depth, their capacity for holding water 
is increased, while hy underground draining it camiot be retained in excess. 
By these means, and by the addition of manures acting mechanically 
and keeping the soil open, a great facility is afforded to the extension of 
the roots, and the vigour of the plants is increased in proportion, but at 
the same time the power of the roots to exhaust the soil of water becomes 
greatly increased. If under such circumstances a proportionate supply 
of water is not afforded at the proper time, either by nature or art, 
the growth of the plant will fall much short of what it might be ; of which 
examples may be seen both in garden and field crops, by comparing the crops 
of a moderately wet summer with those of a very dry one. It may be con- 
cluded, therefore, that the full benefits of stirring the soil, draining and 
manuring, cannot be obtained without a command of water. 



WATERING. 



383 



822. The specific purposes for which water is used in Horticulture are numer- 
ous. In general it may be applied wherever a stimulus is wanted to growth, 
unless indeed the soil be already sufficiently moist. It is given to newly 
sown seeds, or newly planted plants ; for the purpose of setting blossoms, 
swelling fruits, increasing the number and succulency of leaves ; conveying 
manure held in suspension ; conveying matter for destroying insects, or 
parasitic fungi, such as the mildew ; or poisoning plants on walls or gravel 
walks ; for causing substances in powder to adhere to plants, as in applying 
sulphur and other articles ; for clearing the leaves and stems of plants from 
dust or other foreign matters ; for accelerating vegetation when the water is 
warmer than the soil ; for retarding it when it is cooler ; for thawing frozen 
plants ; for forming steam or dew in plant structures ; for rooting cuttings 
of some kinds of plants (602) ; for growing aquatics, for heating plant struc- 
tures, and for producing fountains and other aquatic ornaments. Water 
in the form of snow, forms a valuable protection to low plants when they can 
be covered by it, acting as a non-conductor of the heat of the soil, and pre- 
venting it from escaping into the atmosphere ; and water as ice is an object 
of the gardener's care, the filling of the ice-house being generally committed 
to him. On the quantity of rain or snow which falls in any country, and on 
the proportions which fall in different seasons of the year, depends, as we 
have already seen, (140 to 144,) the natural vegetation of that country, its 
agriculture, and all that part of its horticulture which is carried on in the 
open garden. 

823. The ordinary sources from which water is obtained in gardens are 
chiefly wells, and the collection of rain water in cisterns ; but it occasionally 
happens that a natural stream passes through or near the garden, or that 
water is conveyed to it by pipes or drains from some abundant source. In 
whichever w^ay water is supplied it ought always to be exposed in a pond or 
basin, so as to be warmed by the sun to the same temperature as the surface 
of the soil before being used ; unless indeed the object be to retard vegetation 
by its coldness, which can very seldom be the case. Some very interesting 
experiments were made by Mr. Gregor Drummond, in 1826, on the com- 
parative effects of spring water and pond water, in lowering or raising the 
temperature of the soil of a peach border, which it may be useful to quote. 

1. " The first experiment was made on the 10th of May. At the depth 
of 18 inches the temperature of the border was 64°, and that of the spring- 
water used 46°. In twenty-four hours after, the temperature of the border 
was reduced to 52°, or had lost 12°. At the same time the temperature ot 
the soil being 64° as above, and heat of the pond water 67°, the soil at the 
close of twenty-four hours was 66°, or instead of losing 12°, had gained 2°. 

2. "June 20th the second watering was given. The temperature of the 
border at the depth of 18 inches was now 74°, and that of the spring water 
52°. In twenty-four hours the border was reduced to 58°, or had lost 16°. 

" At the station where the pond water was used the temperature of the 
border at the above-mentioned depth was 77°, and that of the water 82°. In 
twenty-four hours the temperature of the border was 80", or had gained 8°. 

8. "The third and last watering was performed on the 28th of July. 
The temperature of the border at 18 inches below the surface was 72", and 
that of the spring water 57°. In twenty-four hours the border was reduced 
to 61°, or had lost 11° of temperature. At the pond water station the border 
at the depth of 18 inches was 78°, and the water itself 74°. In twenty-four 

c c 2 



384 



WATERING. 



hours the temperature of the border was still 78°, or had suffered no change 
of temperature from the watering it had undergone. 

" It is very clear from these facts, that whilst spring water greatly cooled 
the soil, that from the pond exerted no such operation, but on the contrary 
often raised its temperature." — {Rort. Trans. ^ vol. ii. 2nd series, p. 57-) 

Hence in our opinion every complete kitchen garden, and every flower 
garden whatever, ought to have a basin, or basins of water in a centrical 
situation fully exposed to the sun. In every plant structure there ought to 
be a cistern to receive the rain water which falls on the roof ; and if con- 
venient, another for pond or well water, which should only be used when 
there is a deficiency of rain water. In plant structures where little air is 
given, and the atmosphere kept constantly moist, as in the propagating 
houses of Mr. Cunningham of Edinburgh (574), the water which falls on 
the roof is found abundantly sufficient for every purpose for which it is 
required within throughout the year. 

824. The distribution of water in gardens is in some cases effected by open 
surface gutters of hewn stone, as was the case in the gardens at Douglas 
Castle, in Kirkcudbrightshire, in 1804 and for many years afterwards, and in 
others by leaden pipes under the surface, the gutters or pipes communicating 
with small basins, or sometimes with sunken casks, conveniently distributed 
over the garden. When these basins do not exceed eighty feet or one 
Iiundred feet apart every way, the entire surface of the garden may be 
watered from them by means of a portable engine, (fig. 83 in p. 155). In 
some cases a cistern or reservoir is placed on an eminence exterior to the 
garden, or in a tower connected with its walls or its plant structures ; and 
the water is conveyed by pipes to different places throughout the garden 
and hot-houses, from whence it may be drawn into watering pots or engines 
by means of cocks ; or leathern hose may be screwed on to the cocks, and 
the water, in consequence of the elevation of the cistern or basin, distributed 
at once among the plants. In some instances where the basin is considerably 
higher than the top of the walls, the water is delivered with such force from 
the orifice of the hose, as to wash the trees as effectually as is done by a 
syringe or an engine. Gardens situated on declivities are favourable for 
this kind of arrangement, which is not unfrequent in the north of England 
and in Scotland. Where there is an abundant supply of water from a source 
40 or 50 feet above the level of the garden, a series of pierced pipes might be 
distributed over it, about the height of the walls, and thus a shower over 
any pai't of the garden commanded at pleasure, on the same principle as in 
the hot-houses of Messrs. Loddiges. (513.) 

825. The ordinary mode of giving water to plants is by watering pots (425 
and 426) and by watering 
engines (440). On a large 
scale it is sometimes con- 
veyed in barrels on carts, y-. ...u.- .■. ' .'".•T 
and distributed over lawns, 

and plantations of straw- Fig. 326. fra<er-d/.«»77;M«or/o»- 

. , ^ , the watering barrovis. 
berries or other low plants 

Fig. 325. TFaf^H^^^I^otll/or "^o^^^ by the same means as in watering roads ; 

strawberries. or by such barrels as fig. 325. To this barrel is 

joined the perforated cylinder fig. 826, which projects about two feet from one 

side ; a plug b prevents the escape of the water till the barrel is wheeled to the 





WATERING. 



385 



proper spot ; this plug has a cord a, attached to which a slip of wood c, is suspend- 
ed; and themoment the operator entersbetweentherowsofplaritsto be watered, 
he pulls the string, and as he wheels along the barrel, the water rapidly escapes, 
watering two rows at a time. In this manner the strawberries in the market 
gardens in the neighbourhood of London are watered, when they are in 
blossom. "Wlien the leaves of plants are to be cleaned from dust or other 
matters that water alone will bring off ; or when liquid compositions, such 
as lime water, tobacco water, sopy water, &c., are to be thro\^^l on them, the 
syringe or engine is used, and when water is applied to small plants, or very 
small seeds newly sown, recourse is had to a small watering pot with a very 
fine rose. 

826. Tl'lien it is proper to water, and how much water to give, must be 
determined by the circumstances in which the plant is placed. In nature 
the atmosphere is very rarely otherwise than saturated with moisture, 
when it rains ; but as artificial watering is a substitute for rain, it must not be 
withheld when the plant requires it, on account of atmospheric dryness. As 
the nearest approach to the state of the atmosphere in which nature suppL'es 
water, the afternoon or evening may be chosen when the air is both cooler, 
and somewhat moister than during sunshine. As in soils that are stirred on 
the surface, the greater part of the roots are always at some depth, the 
quantity of water given should be such as will thoroughly moisten the 
interior of the soil, and reach all the roots. A slight watering on the surface, 
unless the soil is already moist below, will not reach the fibres, and will 
soon be lost by evaporation. When a less quantity of water is supplied than 
will saturate the soil to the depth of from nine inches to twelve inches, " it 
often," Mr. Hayward observes, " does more injury than good to plants ; for 
when in want of water the roots penetrate deep, and under such circum - 
stances a small quantity of water on the surface checks the capillary attrac- 
tion of moisture from below ; and thus the roots that are grown deep, which 
are those on which the plant is made to depend in times of great drought, 
are deprived of their supply of w^ater, and the plant exerts its efforts to throw 
out horizontal fibres ; by the time these fibres are formed and the young 
shoots extended, the supply of water on the surface agam fails, and they are 
again checked, and perhaps destroyed : thus the efforts of the plant being 
uselessly exhausted between the two extremes of a supply and a deficiency 
of water, it naturally declines in its growth, and hence arises the general 
opinion that watering in dry weather injures, more than it benefits plants." 
(^An Inquiry, S^'c.^ p. 53.) Most water is required b}^ plants that are in a 
vigorous state cf growth and have a large breadth of foliage ; least by those 
which have nearly completed then- growth ; and m general none by plants 
in a dormant state, excepting in such cases as that of watering grass lawns in 
summer to stimulate vegetation, or irrigating meadows after they have been 
moAvn for the same purpose. In the case, however, of excessive dryness, 
some degree of moisture must be afforded to such plants as are liable to 
become desiccated even though dormant. Succulent plants, for example, 
w^ill bear a great degree of diyness, through a protracted period ; whereas 
others that perspire more through the bark would be completely dried up if 
equally exposed to drought. The application of water to plants in pots in a 
dormant state is one of the commonest and most injurious errors committed 
by persons unacquainted with the principles of culture. It does compara- 
tively little harm to plant'j in the fi-ee soil in the open garden, but to plants 



386 



WATERING. 



in pots, and especially to those having suflfruticose stems, such as the pelar- 
gonium, or to hair-rooted plants, such as heaths, and to all bulbs, it is ex- 
tremely injurious, and often destructive of life. In the first case more water is 
absorbed by the roots than can be decomposed by the leaves ; in the second 
case the roots are suffocated and rotted from their delicacy ; and in the third, 
rotting takes place from mere organic absorption ; for when the leaves of 
bulbs decay, their roots decay also, and consequently they cannot absorb 
Avater by their spongioles ; while absorption by the tissue still going on, the 
vessels become surcharged and burst, and the bulb rots. Hence in the case 
of bulbs, and such like plants in pots, the soil in which they are kept 
should contain no more moisture than what is necessary to keep the 
bulb, tuber, or corm, in a succulent state; but in proportion to the 
dryness in which bulbs are kept at this season, should be the abundance 
of the supply of water when they begin to grow. All bulbs will be found 
to flower in their natural habitats, either during, or immediately after a 
rainy or moist period of the year, as is the case with our wood hyacinths 
in spring, and with the colchicum in autumn ; and much more strikingly 
so with the bulbs and corms of Africa, which grow and flower only in 
the rainy season. When plants are ripening their fruit, a diminished 
supply of water increases the flavour, because at that period of growth the 
power of decomposing it is diminished ; and if it is absorbed without 
being decomposed, the effect will be to render the fruit watery without 
flavour ; to crack it in some cases, to burst it in others, and in the case of 
all keeping fruits to shorten the period for which they may be kept. The 
same effects are produced by excess of water on bulbs, such as those of 
the onion ; on roots and tubers, (underground stems,) such as the turnip and 
the potato ; and even on leaves, such as those of the lettuce and the cabbage, 
which in wet cloudy seasons are never so highly flavoured as in seasons 
moderately moist, when succulency and flavour are combined. Water 
should sooner be withdrawn from tender plants than from hardy ones in 
vigorous growth, and when practicable, it should be withdrawn from all 
plants in a growing state in time to admit of their ripening their wood. 

827. Whether plants should he watered over the leaves or only over the soil in 
which they grow depends on the state of the plant, the temperature iji which 
it is placed, the time of the day, the season of the year, and other circum- 
stances. Plants in a state of vigorous growth, in a suitable temperature in 
spring or summer, and in the afternoon or during cloudy weather, are better 
watered over the top, in order to make certain of clearing their foliage ; but 
late in autumn or during winter, when growth even in hothouses is or ought 
to be slow, owing to the deficiency of light, plants should be watered chiefly 
at their roots ; and while the most abundant supplies might be given in the 
former case, in the latter they ought to be moderate, because the vital 
powers of the plant are comparatively weak, and because a cold damp atmo- 
sphere, which watering over the top at that season might produce, would, 
by obstructing the perspiration of the leaves, occasion their decay. In general, 
all plants, whether in the open air or in plant stractures, ought to be watered 
over head during spring, summer, and the early part of autumn, unless they 
are in a dormant state, or there is some specific reason why what water they 
do receive should be given at the root. On the other hand, all plants in 
houses not undergoing forcing, and all plants whatever in the open air during 
the latter part of autumn, during winter, and in the early part of spring, 



WATERING. 



387 



should be Avatei-ed only at the root. Watering over the top should in general 
never be performed during bright sunshine ; yet there are various plants 
with which this may be done with impunity, such as all the grasses ; and in 
the royal kitchen-garden at Versailles the Alpine strawberry is watered 
over head during bright sunshine throughout the whole summer, without 
any inconvenience being found to result to the plants. (G. M.^ vol. xvii., 
p. 387.) Watering during summer should in general be performed in 
the afternoon or evening, because at these periods less will be carried off by 
evaporation than during the day ; while during winter and spring, watering 
ought to take place during the morning, that during the day the surface of 
the ground may be warmed and dried by evaporation and infiltration. In 
general, watering over the top is only necessary with plants in leaf; but 
plants, and especially trees, which have been newly transplanted, may be 
advantageously watered over the top to diminish evaporation from the bark, 
which without being so moistened might (786) lessen the amount of sap 
returned by it to the root. 

828. Watering plants in pots requires much more consideration on the 
part of the waterer than watering in free soil. When the plant is in a 
dormant state, though it must not receive so much water as to excite it into 
growth, or distend its parts more than is necessary to prepare it for active 
vegetation, yet still it must receive as much as to prevent the soil from being 
so dry as to extract moisture from the roots. As a test for this being the case, 
the soil in the pot, when opened or stirred up on the surface, ought to have 
a fresh appearance, neither moist nor dry ; nearly dry in the case of bulbs 
and tubers, and nearly moist in the case of dormant deciduous plants. 
Another difficulty in watering plants in pots is to ascertain that the wtiter 
given has penetrated the whole of the soil in the pot. The ball or mass of 
soil is frequently so filled with roots, or from its nature and treatment so 
compact (742), as not to be readily peraieable by water, which in that case, 
after merely moistening the surface, escapes between the ball and the pot ; 
while the operator, seeing the water escaping from the bottom of the pot, 
concludes that the mass of soil has been thoroughly penetrated and saturated 
by it. Many greenhouse plants, particularly oranges, camellias, and heaths, 
are killed by this mode of deceptive watering, which may be traced to this 
<;ause, viz., that when once soil is thoroughly dried so as to become like 
dust, it loses the power of capillary attraction, and resists the entrance of 
Water unless accompanied by extraordinary pressure. Soil containing peat- 
earth is peculiarly liable to this kind of dryness when watering in proper 
time has been neglected ; and hence the value of Mr. McNab's mode (749) 
of mixing with such soil pieces of broken freestone. To ascertain when the 
water has penetrated the mass of soil in a pot, it is common to thrust into it, 
not far fi-om the stem of the plant, a round pointed stick, and to make sure 
of moistening the interior, to pour in water in the hole so formed. In 
loamy soils, or soils containing a large proportion of sand, this mode will 
suffice for saturating the ball ; but in the case of heath-soil, it becomes 
necessary to immerse the pot and the plant in a vessel of water, so that the 
soil shall be sis inches or a foot under its surface, and thus receive a pressure 
sufficient to cause the escape of the contained air. Another class of evils 
in watering plants in pots arises from their not being sufficiently drained, 
which may arise either from the operation having been improperly per- 
formed in potting or shifting, or from the crevices among the drainage 



388 



STIRRING THE SOIL, AND MANURING. 



having become choked up by the washing down of the soil. In this case, 
the water, not escaping freely from the pot, pi'oduces all the evils of stagna- 
tion already mentioned (821) ; the spongioles burst and tlie fibres rot, the 
leaves become yellow and drop off, and the bark, being distended by moisture, 
separates from the wood, the plant in the meantime being killed. Nothing 
is more common than cases of this kind in the greenhouses and window- 
gardens of amateurs ; and it is very frequent also in collections of plants in 
pots, such as alpines, under the care of regular gardeners, whose workmen or 
apprentices water them indiscriminately, with little or no regard to the state 
of the plant or the soil in the pot. The obvious manner of preventing this 
evil is, whenever there is the slightest suspicion of overwatering, to turn the 
plant out of the pot, examine the drainage, which wUl come out with the 
ball, and take it off and replace it with fresh materials. It would be well 
also, ill the case of all plants that are likely to be overwatered, to use a 
larger proportion of sand in the soil, and to put extra drainage in the bottom 
of the pot, and also to introduce among the soil a considerable proportion of 
fragments of freestone. 

829. Aquatic and marsh plants^ being grown in water, or in soil saturated 
with it, form exceptions to the treatment required for plants in general ; 
nevertheless it has been observed of these that they always grow with most 
vigour when the atmosphere is moist, whether produced in hot-houses by 
watering over the top, or in the open air by rain. The cause, De Candolle 
thinks, may be in part traced to the state of the electricity of the atmosphere 
during rain ; and perhaps something also may be due to the temporary 
cessation of excessive evaporation. 

830. Wate7'ing with liquid manure is necessarily confined to the soil, and 
is most advantageous when given to plants in a growing state ; because, 
though at other seasons a portion of it would still be absorbed by the roots, 
yet the greater part would be washed into the subsoil. See § xiii. 

831 . To economise the water given to plants^ more especially in the open 
air, the surface is sometimes mulched with fibrous or littery matter., or even 
with small stones or pebbles. Both materials retain moisture and heat ; 
while stones or pebbles, by becoming soon dry, prevent surface-damp, and 
reflect much heat during sunshine. The strawberry is sometimes mulched 
with straw, and sometimes with tiles or slates, or pebbles, for the double 
purpose of retaining moisture and keeping the ripening fruit clean ; and 
the surface of the ground in the rose nurseries about Paris is sometimes 
mulched with straw, to save watering, and prevent the rose -beetle from 
depositing her eggs in the soil. 

§ XIII. Stirring the Soil, and Manuring. 

So much has already been said on these subjects that it is only necessary 
here to advert to the chapters in pages 45 and 56, and to page 227. 

832. Stirring the soil is advantageous by the admission of air, rain, and 
heat to the roots of plants, by promoting evaporation in moist soils, and by 
retaining moisture in such as are dry. In the latter case the dry loose soil 
on the surface acts as a mulching or non-conductor to the soil below ; and 
in the former it acts by exposing a greater number of moistened particles to 
the air than could be the case if these particles were consolidated. The 
celebrated agriculturist Curwen found that an acre of pulverised soil eva- 



PROTECTION PROM ATMOSPHERICAL INJURIES. 



389 



porated 950 lbs. of water in an hour, wliile tlie same soil and the same 
extent of surface not pulverised, scarcely evaporated anything. 

833. Manuring. — Permanent manures, such as stable dung and other 
solid substances, are for the most part incorporated with the soil when it is 
dug or trenched before being cropped, and it is generally thought that most 
advantage may be obtained from them when they are deposited near the 
surface. Temporary manures, such as soot, bone-dust, and other powders, 
waste yeast (one of the richest of manures), and liquid manures, such as decoc- 
tions of dung, and solutions of salts of different kinds, are most advantageously 
applied on the surface of the ground, and to growing crops. 

§ XIV. Blanching. 

834. The operation of blanching, or depriving the leaves and stems of 
plants of their green colour, is effected by excluding light from the 
growing plant, in consequence of which it is produced without colour, and 
without that portion of its flavour which depends on colour. The tubers 
of potatoes are blanched naturally, because in general they are produced 
under the surface of the soil, or they are shaded by the foliage of the plant. 
The points of the shoots of asparagus are blanched, in Britain, by covering 
the crowns of the plants with a stratum of light loose soil, and on the 
Continent by the same means, or by placing covers of different kinds over 
them, as is done in this country with the sea-kale and tart rhubarb, by the 
use of the blanching-pot (fig. 58, in p. 143). Celery is blanched as it 
grows, by drawing up earth so as to cover the petioles of the leaves ; and 
this operation is performed from time to time as long as the plants continue 
to advance in height. The leaves of the chardoon are blanched in a similar 
manner, and sometimes by tying them round with ropes of hay or straw. 
The interior leaves of the common cabbage, and of the cabbage -lettuce and 
endive, are blanched naturally, but the process is sometimes heightened by 
tying up the leaves, and sometimes by coverings. In general, perennial 
plants in which the nutriment for the leaves of the coming year have been 
deposited in the roots during the year preceding, such as the asparagus, 
sea-kale, chicory, &c., may be blanched by covering them entirely either 
with soil or some kind of utensil ; while annual plants, the leaves and every 
part of which is the produce of the current year, require to have the ope- 
ration performed by degrees as the leaves advance in size, whether by tying 
up, earthing up, or by both modes. By the operation of tying up, 
two effects are produced : the inner leaves as they grow, being excluded 
from the light, are blanched ; and being compressed, in proportion to their 
number and the degree of growth which takes place after tying up, the 
head of leaves becomes at once tender and compact. Perennial and biennial 
plants with ramose roots may be blanched on a large scale, by placing the 
roots in soil, in a cellar or dark room ; but this cannot be done with annual 
plants, which must be grown in light, and blanched as they grow. Gourds, 
cucumbers, and apples, are sometimes blanched by growing them in opaque 
boxes or cases ; or they are grown with pale stripes, by partially covering 
them with strips of paper or cloth, made to adhere by gum or paste. 

§ XV. Protection from Atmospherical Injuries. 
The great number of plants cultivated in this country, even in the open 
ah'j many of them from climates very different from ours, have given riee 



390 



PROTECTION FROM ATMOSPHERICAL INJURIES. 



to a variety of contrivances to protect them from atmospherical injuries. 
The most effective of these is without doubt that of forming for such 
plants artificial climates, such as the different kinds of hot-beds and hot- 
houses ; but there are also various contrivances for protecting plants growing 
in the open air or against walls, and it is to these that we at present intend 
to confine our attention. They may be included under shading from the 
sun, sheltering from wind, and protecting from rain or from cold. Most of 
these operations are founded on the doctrine of radiation, which has been 
treated in so much detail in chap, iv., p. 67, that very little more requires 
to be said on the subject. 

835. The object of shading is to lessen evaporation from the soil or from 
plants, or to exclude light or heat. It is effected b}'- interposing some opaque 
medium, or even glass in some cases, the purest of which as we have seen 
(486) excludes a certain portion of light, between the objects to be shaded 
and the direct rays of the sun, and this medium differs in its texture and 
other properties according as it is intended to be temporary or permanent. 
Mats and canvas are the common articles for temporary shading in the 
case of plants under glass ; but for plants in the open garden, hurdles of 
wicker-work, or frames filled in with beech or birch branches, screens of 
reeds are used, or the plants are placed in the north, east, or west sides of 
walls or hedges. Sometimes also they are planted under trees ; but as this 
kind of shade excludes raui and dew, it is only adopted in particular cases. 
A slight degree of shade is produced by forming the surface of ground into 
narrow ridges in the direction of east and west, and sowing or planting the 
crop on the north side of the ridge. On the same principle, crops in rows 
in an advanced state are made to shade seedling crops sown between them, 
when shading them is desirable. Oil paper-caps, and other articles for 
shading individual plants have been figured and described (449), and also 
canvas shades for hot-house roofs (464). Some of the most severe injuries 
which plants trained against walls sustain in this country is by the powerful 
action of the sun in early spring, succeeded by extreme cold ; but by judi- 
cious shading such evils may be greatly mitigated or altogether avoided. 

886. Sheltering from wind, the principles of which have been pointed out 
(265), is effected on a large scale by plantations, and in gardens by walls, 
hurdles, wicker-work covers (461), hand-glasses, and other articles described 
and figured in sect, vi., p. 158. 

837. The principles of protecting from cold have been described at length 
in our chapter on the atmosphere (p. 67), and the different materials and 
contrivances for this purpose have been enumerated in the section (p. 168) 
just referred to. Coverings for the surface of the ground include dead 
leaves, litter, straw, sawdust, spent tan, rotten dung, coal ashes, coarse sand, 
spra}^ and branches of trees or shrubs, &c. Coverings for standard plants 
in the open garden include temporary roofs of thatch, boards, canvas, wicker- 
work, bark, or manufactured materials, such as pitched paper, asphalte 
sheeting, &c. Coverings for walls include branches with the leaves on, 
such as those of the silver or spruce-fir, of the beech, birch, or hornbeam, 
cut before the wood is ripened, in consequence of which the leaves will 
adhere to the shoots, and being dead and without moisture, they are better 
non-conductors than green leaves, straw or hay roi)CS, rope-netting, canvas, 
bunting, woollen-netting, oiled paper-frames, wicker-work, hurdles, &c. 
By referring to p. l73, it will be seen that thin canvas has been found the 



ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 



391 



preferable article for protecting wall fruit-trees in the Horticultural Society's 
garden, after fifteen years' experience. 

838. Protecting from rain requires the application of some description of 
temporary roofing, impervious to water. P^or beds or borders in the open 
garden, frames or hurdles, thatched with drawn wheat straw or reeds, may 
be employed, and these will also protect standard plants ; or projected from 
the tops of walls, and supported by props in front, they will protect from 
rain both the tree and the border in which they are planted, (see 476). 

§ XVI. Accelerating Vegetation. 

839. The acceleration of the growth of plants may be effected by the 
position in which they are placed relatively to the rays of the sun, by with- 
drawing moisture, by sheltering from cold winds and rains, by the choice 
of early varieties, by pruning, and by the application of artificial heat. 
For crops of herbaceous vegetables in the open garden, the most general 
modes of acceleration are to cover with hand-glasses. Or other portable 
frames with glass roofs (462) ; and to sow or plant in borders on the south 
side of east and west walls, and as near to the wall as circumstances will 
admit. Next to walls, the south sides of hedges or espalier rails are selected ; 
or, in default of either of these, ridges in the open garden, in the direction 
of east and west, are thrown up, their sides forming an angle of 45^, and on 
the south side of these the crop is sown or planted. The growth of early 
peas and early potatoes is frequently accelerated in this manner, and also 
the ripening of strawberries, and the growth of spinach, lettuce, and other 
culinary plants ; and Mr. Errington, a scientific gardener of great experience, 
says that all early crops whatever may be thus produced within one week 
of those on a south wall border. The different modes of protection from 
cold and rain, mentioned in the preceding section (834 to 835), are sub- 
servient to acceleration ; and dry warm soil, culture in pots by which 
the plants are rendered portable, and the selection of early varieties, are 
obvious adjuncts. The ripening of fruit, more especially on ligneous 
plants, may be hastened by ringing, after the blossoms are fully expanded, 
or even after the fruit is set. Mr. Williams, of Pitmaston, found that 
ringing vines, not only ripened the fruit earlier, but rendered the berries 
larger, and of higher flavour. Of two vines growing together against 
a wall, the one ringed shortly after the blossoming season ripened its fruit 
perfectly in the beginning of October, while the fruit on the other vine 
which was not ringed was destroyed by frost. The rings of bark taken off 
were rather less than a quarter of an inch in width [Hort. Trans., iv,, 
p. 55). It is probable also, that the fruit of herbaceous plants, such as the 
tomato or the capsicum, or the seeds of tender annuals, such as the Zinnia 
and the Thunbergia, may be accelerated by ringing or constricting the stems 
by tying, to check the return of the sap. 

840. Artificial heat for the purpose of acceleration is applied by means of 
fermenting substances, as in hot-beds (465 and 489), the combustion of fuel, 
as in hot walls (475) and hot-houses of various kinds, whether heated by 
flues, hot-water, or steam (480). The different kinds of hot-houses and 

I pits, and their general management, have been already given (480 to 622) ; 
I and we shall here confine ourselves to what concerns hot-beds and pits 
heated by fermenting materials. 

841. Hotbeds are chiefly made of stable-dung ; but tanners' bark, leaves 

1 



392 



ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 



of trees, and especially oak-leaves, mown grass, weeds, clippings of hedges, 
and almost every other article capable of putrescent fermentation, may be 
used either alone or with stable-dung. Tanners' bark, or oak-leaves, are 
found the preferable fermenting materials for hot-beds in hot-houses, because 
they imdergo less change in bulk, and retain their heat longer than dung 
or any other fermentable substance that can be readily obtained in equal 
quantities. Leaves do not produce such a powerful heat as bark, but they 
have this advantage, that when perfectly decayed, they form a rich mouldy 
which is useful both as soil and as manure ; while rotten tanners' bark is 
found rather injurious than useful to vegetation, unless it be well mixed 
with lime or with earth, or left till it is thoroughly decayed into mould. 
When it ceases, therefore, to be used in the hot-house or hot-bed, it is 
employed in the open garden as a surface-mulching, to keep in heat or 
moisture. 

842. Preparation of materials for hotbeds. — The object being to get rid of 
the violent heat which is produced when the fermentation is most powerful, it 
is obvious that preparation, whether of leaves, tan, and stable dung,must consist 
in facilitating the process. For this purpose, a certain degree of moisture 
and air in the fermenting bodies are requisite ; and hence the business of the 
gardener is to turn them over frequently, and apply water when the process 
appears impeded for want of it, and exclude rain when it seems chilled and 
retarded by too much water. Recent stable-dung generally requires to lie a 
month in ridges or beds, and be turned over in that time thrice before it is 
fit for cucumber beds of the common construction ; but for M'Phail's hot- 
beds, or for linings or casings, or any description of hot-bed or pit, no time 
at all need in general be given, but the dung formed at once into linings. 
Tan and leaves require hi general a month to bring them to a proper degree 
of heat ; but much depends on the state of the weather and the season of the 
year. Fermentation is always most rapid in summer ; and if the materials 
are spread abroad during frost, it is totally impeded. In winter, the process 
of preparation generall}'' goes on, under cover from the weather, in the back 
sheds ; which situation is also the best in summer, as full exposure to the 
sun and wmd dries too much the exterior surface ; but where sheds cannot 
be had, it will go on very well in the open air. A great deal of heat is un- 
doubtedly lost in the process of fermentation ; and some cultivators have 
recently devised plans to turn it to some account, by fermenting dung in 
vineries which are just beginning to be forced, or in vaults under pine-pits 
or plant stoves. The latter mode seems one of the best in point of economy, 
and is capable of being turned to considerable advantage, where common 
dung-beds are extensively used ; but the most economical plan of any is un- 
doubtedly that of employing MThail's pits, or such as are constructed on 
similar principles. 

843. M''Pliaits hotbed or pit consists of two parts, the frame and lights of 
which are of wood, and not different from those used for grov/ing cucumbers, 
or other ordinary purposes, and the basement on which the frame is placed, 
which is flues of brickwork, with the outer wall uniformly perforated, or as 
it is commonly called pigeon-holed, as shown in fig. 135, in p. 190. Against 
these perforated flues linings of dung are formed, the steam of which enters 
the flue, and heats the earth inclosed. The chief objections to this plan are 
the first cost and the greater consumption of dung, which some allege is 
required to keep up the proper heat. Its advantages are, that hot dung may 



ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 



393 



be used without any preparation, by which much heat is gained ; and that 
in the winter months, when a powerful artificial heat is required, which (in 
the case of common hot-beds) is apt to burn the plants, they are here in 
the coldest part of the soil, and cannot possibly be injured by any degree of 
heat, which can be communicated by dung. Fig. 3.27 is a section of a pit on 




Fig. 327. Cross section of a pit on M'Phail's principle, with variations. 



this principle, with some improvements : a a is the surface of the ground ; 
b 6, excavations for the dung-casings, 2|- feet deep, 18 inches wide at bottom, 
and 2 feet wide at the ground's surface ; the greater width at top being to 
prevent the dung from shiinking from the side of the excavation as it sinks ; 
c is the outer perforated wall, a brick in width ; rf, the inner wall of brick 
set on edge, and tied to the outer wall wdth occasional cross bricks ; e, is a 
layer of billet wood 1 foot in thickness to admit of the heat penetrating from 
each side, or the same object may be effected by a layer of loose stones ; /, a 
covering of fagot wood, over which a layer of turf or litter is placed to pre- 
vent the soil from sinking into and choking up the interstices in the layer of 
billet wood ; g, the bed of soil ; a trellis for vines, melons, or other plants, 
at one foot from the glass ; a gutter for receiving the water from the glass, 
and which should conduct it through a small pipe, either at one end, or in 
the middle to a small barrel, or to a cistern of slate or other material sunk 
in the soil of the pit in front. The preferable situation is mid way be! ween 
either end, in order that the vapour of the water may be equally diffused in 
the atmosphere of the pit. By keeping the upper surface of the dung of the 
form sho^^^l in the figure, it will throw off the rain, which may be conducted 
away in small surface gutters. 

844. The formation of common hotbeds is effected bv first making out the 
dimensions of the bed, which should be six inches wider on all sides than 
that of the frame to be placed over it, and then, by successive layers of dung 
laid on by the fork, raising it to the desired height, pressing it gently and 
equally throughout. In general, such beds are built on a level surface ; but 
Mr. Knight's forms a surface of earth as a basis, which shall incline to the 
horizon to the extent of 15°; on this he forms the dung-bed to the same in- 
clination ; and, finally, the frame, when placed on such a bed, if, as is usual, 
it be deepest behind, will present its glass at an angle of 20°, instead of six or 
eight, which is imdoubtedly of great advantage in the winter season. This 
seems a very desirable improvement where light is an object, which it must 



394 



ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 



be, in a high degree, in the case of the culture of the cucumber and melons, 
as well as in forcing flowers. Sometimes a stratum of faggots or billet 
wood is placed on the ground as a foundation for the dung, which keeps it 
from being chilled ; and if here and there the stratum is carried up vertically 
for a foot in width and 18 inches in height, it will facilitate the entrance of 
heat when casings are applied, or of cold air, if the heat of the bed should be 
found too great. The ends of these vertical strata, when not to be used, 
should be covered with litter to prevent the escape of heat by them. 

845. Ashes, tan, and leaves. — Ashes are often mixed with the dung of 
hotbeds, and are supposed to promote the steadiness and duration of their 
heat, and to revive it if somewhat decayed. Tan and leaves have also been 
used for the same purpose ; and it is generally found that about one-third 
of tan and two-thirds of dung will form a more durable and less violent 
heat than a bed wholly of dung. The heat of dung-beds is revived by 
linings, or collateral and surrounding walls, or banks of fresh dung, the old 
dung of the bed being previously cut down close to the frames. These 
linings, as before observedj require less preparation than the dung for the 
beds. The dung-bed being formed, and havmg stood two or three days with 
the frame and lights placed over it to protect it from rain, is next to be 
covered with earth, of quality and in quantity according to the purpose to 
which it is to be applied. In severe weather, the sides of the bed are often 
protected by hurdles of straw or faggots, which tend to prevent the escape 
of heat. 

846. The nightly cam'wg to hotbeds and pits may be of boards, or of 

and the following mode of retaining the 

Three pieces of iron of 
a, are screwed on to the end of the frame, one piece at 

^ the top, another at 



bast-mats, or reed or straw mats 
covering will be found neat as well as economical 



the form of fig. 328, 

0 



.0 




the bottom, and 
the other in the 
middle, so that the 
top of the iron is 
about two inches 
above the light; on 
the opposite end 
three pieces of the 

Fig. 328. Details of wire fastening mats on frames, one-sixth of the full size, forni of C, are 

screwed on at the same distances as a / 6 is a side view of a, and d is b. side 
view of c. A wire, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and rather longer 
than the frame it is intended for, must be made with a loop at one end (/), 
to place over the iron d ; the other end must be fitted with a thumb-screw 
(e), to screw up the wire when it is placed in the notch which should 
be counter-sunk m the centre. Small hooks should be driven in the frames, 
either front or back, to lay the wires in when not m use. (G. ikf., 1842, p.l09) . 

847. Management of hotbeds and pits heated by dung.— As the body of 
air inclosed is small, its temperature is easily raised too high by the sun, 
and depressed too much by high winds or very cold nights. The artificial 
supply of heat from the fermenting material not being under control is 
another cause of overheating, and hence the constant attention required to 
give or take away air during the day, and to regulate the coverings put on 
at night. Much mischief, as has been already observed, is produced by 



RETARDING VEGETATION. 



395 



over-covering, and yet, for the reasons wliich we have just mentioned, it 
would be very unsafe to leave a hotbed uncovered during any of the nights 
of winter or early spring ; though later in the season, or where plate-glass 
is used, covering at night might be dispensed with. The covering should 
not be drawn over the linings so as to confine the steam ; which in that 
case would find its way into the frame to the injury of the plants. The 
temperature and moisture to be kept up in hotbeds vary with the kinds of 
plants, and the object in view. 

§ XVII. Retarding Vegetation. 
848. The different modes of retarding vegetation being in many cases 
the opposite of those for its acceleration, the subject may be similarly 
arranged. As on the south side of ridges of ground, in the direction of east 
and west, plants are accelerated by meeting the rays of the sun at a larger 
angle, so on the north side of such ridges, as well as on the north side of 
walls and hedges, they will be retarded by the exclusion of the sun's direct 
influence. Opaque coverings, put on in winter or in early spring, are also 
effective, more especially when of some thickness, by excluding the stimulus 
of light, and presenting a thicker mass to be penetrated by atmospheric heat. 
Thus herbaceous perennials, such as asparagus, rhubarb, sea-kale, and other 
plants which do not retain their leaves during winter, may, by a thick 
covering of leaves or litter put on in January, when the soil is at the coldest, 
be prevented from vegetating for a week or a month later than the same 
plants on a surface sloping to the south, without any covering, and with the 
soil dry and loosened about the collars of the plants. The production of 
blossoms and fruit may in many cases be retarded by taking off the flower- 
buds at their first appearance in spring or early summer, as is often done 
with roses, strawberries, and raspberries, which when so treated flower and 
fruit a second time in the autumn. Even the common hardy fruit-trees, — 
the apple, pear, cherry, &:c., — when so treated will blossom and set their 
fruit a second time in the same year, but it will not ripen from the length 
of time required. Currants and gooseberries, and even pears and apples on 
dwarfs, are preserved on the trees till Christmas, by matting them over ; 
and the season of wall-fruits and of grapes in hothouses is prolonged by 
excluding the sun and preserving the air dry. In general, all exogenous 
perennial herbaceous plants, when cut over as soon as their flower-buds are 
formed in spring, will spring up again and produce flowers a second time in 
autumn ; but this does not happen with endogens, excepting in the case of 
grasses and a few other plants. Retarding no less than accelerating may be 
effected by changing the habits of plants ; and thus, as plants which have 
vegetated early one season are likely also to vegetate early the season fol- 
lowing, so plants which have continued to grow late in autumn one year 
will be later in vegetating in the following spring, and continue to grow later 
in the autumn. There is a considerable difference in the natural earliness 
and lateness of vegetation in all plants of the same species or variety raised 
from seed, and hence, early and late varieties may always be procured by 
selection from the bed of seedlings. By this means have been obtained all 
the earliest and latest varieties in cultivation both in fields and gardens. 
Seeds or plants procured from cold and late soils and situations, and brought 
to earlier ones, continue for a time to be late from habit, and the contrary ; 
and hence the practice of farmers in cold, late districts procuring their seed- 



396 



RESTING VEGETATION. 



com and potato-sets from low, warm districts, and the contrary. When 
plants are grown in pots, they can generally be more effectually either 
accelerated or retarded than by any other means ; because they may be at 
pleasure transferred to a cold-cellar, to an ice-house, or to a forcing-house. 
Thus fruit-trees and flowering shrubs in pots, put into an ice-house in 
January, will have their vegetation retarded for any length of time, as no 
growth can take place where the temperature is under the freezing-point. 
Plants so treated, if not retained too long, may be made to vegetate at any 
season that is desired, but the transition from the temperature of the ice- 
house to summer-heat must be very gradual, in order that the buds may be 
fully distended with sap before they are developed. Fruit or vegetables 
which would spoil or advance too far if left on the plants, such as peas, 
cauliflowers, cucumbers, peaches, &c., may be retained several days in the 
state required in the ice-house, or in a room adjoining it, and even for a 
certain period in a cool cellar or shed. The earliest potatoes are obtained 
by some gardeners by keeping them in a place so cool as to prevent vege- 
tation for two seasons : that is, the produce of the summer of one year is to 
be planted in the December of the year following. The German gardeners, 
by retarding the roots of the ranunculus in this manner, are enabled to pro- 
duce it in flower all the year, and the same thing might be efi^ectcd with 
various bulbs. The flowering of annual plants is easily retarded by sowing 
them late in the year ; and on this principle the gaiety of the flower-garden 
is preserved in autumn, and culinary productions, such as spinach, lettuce, 
&c., obtained throughout winter. 

§ XVIII. Resting Vegetation. 

849. In the natural state of vegetation all plants experience a more or less 
low degree of temperature during the night than during the day. In the 
tropics the diff^erence is but little, particularly as regards plants that grow^ in 
the shade. It, however, increases from the torrid to the frigid zone ; and 
therefore artificial temperature should be regulated accordingly. Tropical 
plants are injured by a greater discrepancy of temperature than occurs in 
their native regions. There the temperature independent of direct sun heat 
is next to uniform. But in the case of such plants as the vine, the fig, and 
the peach, the natural habit of which extends to a latitude as high as 45°, a 
considerable range of temperature is necessary. They enjoy, in summer, a 
long day of high temperature — indeed a tropical heat ; but at night a tro- 
pical temperature is not maintained. These plants, and others having cor- 
responding habitats, require not only a temperature lower by night than by 
day, but also lower in winter than in summer. Tropical plauts, on the con- 
trary, are injured by having a wintering imposed upon them, a condition 
they are never naturally placed in. In particular situations, even in extra- 
tropical countries, plants may be found growing where the temperature 
varies little, owing to shade and shelter, the vicinity of springs, &c., but 
these are only the exceptions. 

850. Nightly temperature requires to be considered chiefly with reference to 
plants under glass. The fear of too low a temperature within being produced 
by the cold without, has naturally led gardeners to bestow particular care on 
covering up hotbeds, and raising the temperature of the air in hothouses in 
the evenings. In consequence of this, it often happens that when the tem- 
perature of the external air has not fallen so low during the night as was 



RESTING VEGETATION. 



397 



expected, the temperature under glass becomes greater than was intended. 
The effect of this on plants is to produce elongation without sufficient sub- 
stance ; great in proportion to the length of the night, the absence of light, 
and the want of atmospheric moisture. Mr. Knight, who has the merit of 
first having called the attention of gardeners to the night temperature of 
hothouses, observes that " a gardener, in forcing, generally treats his plants 
as he would wish to be treated himself ; and consequently though the aggre- 
gate temperature of his house be nearly what it ought to be, its temperature 
during the night relatively to that of the day is almost always too high." 
The consequences of tliis excess of heat during the night are, I have reason 
to believe, in all cases highly injurious to the fruit-trees of temperate cli- 
mates, and not at all beneficial to those of tropical climates ; for the tem- 
perature of these is, in many instances, low during the night. In Jamaica, 
and other mountainous islands of the West Indies, the air upon the moun- 
tains becomes, soon after sunset, chilled and condensed, and, in consequence 
of its superior gravity, descends and displaces the warm air of the valleys ; 
yet the sugar-canes are so far from being injured by this sudden decrease 
of temperature, that the sugars of Jamaica take a higher price in the market 
than those of the less elevated islands, of which the temperature of the day 
and night is subject to much less variation. In one of Mr. Knight's forcing- 
houses, in which grapes are grown, he always wishes to see its temperature, 
in the middle of every bright day m summer, as high as 90° ; " and," he 
adds, " after the leaves of the plants have become dry, I do not object to ten 
or fifteen degrees higher. In the following night, the temperature some- 
times falls as low as 50° ; and so far am I from thinking such change of 
temperature injurious, I am well satisfied that it is generally benefici^. 
Plants, it is true, thrive well, and many species of fruit acquire their greatest 
state of perfection, in some situations within the tropics where the tempera- 
ture in the shade does not vary in the day and night more than seven or 
eight degrees ; but in tliese climates, the plant is exposed during the day to 
a full blaze of a tropical sun, and early in the night it is regularly drenched 
with heavy wetting dews ; and consequently it is very differently circum- 
stanced in the day and in the night, though the temperature of the air in the 
shade at both periods may be very nearly the same. I suspect/' he continues, 
" that a large portion of the blossoms of the cherry and other fruit-trees in 
the forcing-house often proves abortive, because they are forced, by too high 
and uniform a temperature, to expand before the sap of the tree is properly 
prepared to nourish them. I have therefore been led during the last tiu-ee 
years to try the effects of keeping up a much higher temperature in the day 
than in the night. As early in the spring as I wished the blossoms of my 
peach-trees to unfold, my house was made warm during the middle of the 
day ; but towards night it was suffered to cool, and the trees were then 
sprinkled, by means of a large syringe, with clean water, as nearly at the 
temperature at which that usually rises from the ground as I could obtain it ; 
and little or no artificial heat was given during the night, unless there 
appeared a prospect of frost. Under this mode of treatment, the blossoms 
advanced with very great vigour, and as rapidly as I wished them, and pre- 
sented, when expanded, a larger size than I had ever before seen of the same 
varieties. Another ill effect of high temperature during the night is, that 
it exhausts the excitability of the tree much more rapidly than it promotes 
the growth or accelerates the maturity of the fruit ; which is, in conse- 

D D 



398 



RESTING VEGETATION. 



quence, ill supplied with nutriment, at the period of its ripening, when most 
nutriment is probably wanted. The muscat of Alexandria, and other late 
grapes, are, owing to this cause, often seen to wither upon the branch in a 
very imperfect state of maturity ; and the want of richness and flavour in 
other forced fruits is, I am very confident, often attributable to the same 
cause. There are few peach -houses, or indeed forcing- houses, of any kind in 
this country, in which the temperature does not exceed, during the night, in 
the months of April and May, very greatly that of the warmest valley in 
Jamaica in the hottest period of the year : and there are probably as few 
forcing-houses in which the trees are not more strongly stimulated by the close 
and damp air of the night, than by the temperature of the dry air of the noon 
of the following day. The practice which occasions this cannot be right; it is in 
direct opposition to nature." — Physiological and Horticultural Papers^ p. 217. 

851. What the night temperature of a hotbed or hothouse ought to be as 
compared with that of the day, can only be determined by experience ; 
because plants under glass are so far removed from plants in the free air, 
that the same difference which takes place in the latter case may not in the 
former case be advisable. Nevertheless it is clear from the experience of 
gardeners that a very great fall during the night is seldom or never attended 
with bad effects, provided there has been sufficient heat and light during the 
day. Much of the evil of a high temperature during night, especially where 
opaque coverings are used, must be owing to the absence of light. A scien- 
tific gardener of great experience observes, " Without extreme caution in the 
application of coverings to prevent the escape of heat, the worst effects will 
soon become apparent. I find that, upon the shutters being put on, the internal 
temperature is raised about five degrees or thereabouts in ordinary circum- 
stances in cases of cold rain or high winds, more ; therefore the injury they 
cause may probably proceed from this : the plants are inclosed in total dark- 
ness, with an almost instantaneous and most unnatural increase of tempera- 
ture, which is in some measure maintained through the night, and the same 
amount of depression takes place when the coverings are removed and light 
admitted in the morning. In houses heated by combustion this can in some 
measure be guarded against, but in those heated by fermentiug substances, 
such as hotbeds, the evil becomes aggravated ; and therefore to structures 
heated by such materials I cannot see the utility of this application, as 
economy here cannot be the motive ; materials capable of maintaining a 
sufficient temperature during a sunless winter s day will in all cases be suffi- 
cient during night, when a fall of temperature is so beneficial ; yet these 
structures are covered more than all others, the evils not becoming so appa- 
rent, possibly because the plants there contained are generally but of 
annual growth. The debilitating effect of covering houses heated by fire is 
particularly perceptible in vineries, probably from the position that the 
plants occupy in the house. Thus, were economy not a material object, 
and were heating power at command, I certainly should add no covering to 
the glass roof."— -G. M. 1812, p. 106. 

852. Double glass roofs would evidently form the least objectionable nightly 
covering to plant-structures of every kind ; and next to this the use of 
damaged plate-glass, instead of common crown glass, as from the much 
greater thickness of the former far less heat would be allowed to escape by 
conduction. The use of plate glass in cucumber and melon frames, and also 
in greenhouses and forcinghouses, has of late years been adopted by several 



RESTING VEGETATION. 



399 



persons, and the glass being much less liable to be broken, and requiring no 
covering during nights, it is found to be on the whole more economical than 
common glass, and much better for the plants. 

853. The annual resting of plants is effected, as we have seen, either by cold 
or by dryness, and both these causes can be imitated in a state of culture, 
either separately or combined. Plants in the open garden may be safely left 
to the influence of the seasons ; but half-hardy plants against walls, or in 
borders by themselves, may be brought to a state of rest by thatching the 
ground so as to prevent what rain may fall on it from sinking in ; the lateral 
supplies being cut off by surface gutters or underground drains. The supply 
of sap by the roots being thus reduced, growth will gradually cease, and the 
parts will be matured, and at once enabled to resist the winter and vegetate 
with redoubled vigour the following spring. It may be observed here that 
the shoots of a tree which is to be protected from frost during winter, do not 
require to be ripened to the same degree with shoots which are to be exposed 
to the action of frost in the free atmosphere ; because buds, like seeds, will 
vegetate provided the embryo be formed, even though they should not be 
matured. Plants which have been forced have their period of rest brought 
on naturally by the maturation of the plant, and artificially by removing the 
glass with which they are covered, and exposing them to the free action of 
the atmosphere, which at that season being dry, is much more favourable for 
evaporating the watery part of the sap than it is later in the autumn ; and 
hence peach-trees which have been forced, have almost always better-ripened 
wood, containing more blossom-buds, than peach-trees on the open walls. 
In the case of peach-houses, vineries, &c., the glass roof is removed and the 
plants left in their places ; but where vines are grown in a hothouse or 
greenhouse along with other plants that require artificial heat throughout 
the year, the shoots are withdrawn and exposed to the common atmospheric 
temperature for three or four months. Greenhouse plants, such as natives 
of the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, are brought to a state of rest, 
partly by lowering the temperature of the greenhouse and partly by with- 
holding water. The last mode is that which is most to be depended on, 
because in most greenhouses there are some plants in flower at every period of 
the year, and for these a greater degree of heat must be kept up than would 
suffice alone, for throwing greenhouse plants into a state of rest. All tropical 
plants are brought to a state of repose by dryness, and this is readily imitated 
in hothouses, in consequence of the plants being in pots. There are some 
tropical plants, however, which though in certain localities they have what 
almost amounts to a short cessation of growth, yet in a state of culture they 
succeed better without it. Of these plants the pine-apple is one which 
when kept in a state of active growth till it has produced its fruit, brings 
it to a far larger size than when allowed a period of repose ; and this would 
appear to be practicable with all ligneous plants that are without buds ; such 
as most endogens, in which class of plants buds are chiefly found among 
herbaceous species in the form of bulbs. 

854. The natural period of rest in hardy plants may be varied or changed 
by withholding moisture, even without reference to temperature. We see 
this taking place both with trees and herbs in dry seasons : when wood is 
ripened, leaves drop off; and grass fields become brown, in July and August, 
which in moist seasons would have continued growing till October or Novem- 
ber. By imitating these effects in gardens, the operations of accelerating 

D D 2 



400 



RESTING VEGETATION, 



and retarding may be greatly facilitated ; and the imitation Is easy when 
plants are kept in pots. Ligneous plants may be thrown into a state of rest 
by stripping them of their leaves, wlien the wood of the year is nearly ripe, 
and at the same time shortening back the shoots to matured buds. Vines 
against walls in the open air, when treated in this manner, come into leaf the 
year afterwards somewhat earlier than vines in the same circumstances, but 
not so treated : but when the practice of early pruning is continued every 
year, the habit becomes fixed, and in a few years they will be found to break 
earlier by ten days or a fortnight. Even pruning after the leaves drop in 
autumn, as we have seen, has a tendency to produce an earlier development of 
the buds than when that operation is deferred till spring ; because the num- 
ber of buds to be nourished during winter being smaller, they are swelled to a 
larger size (779), and the more ready to be developed. In general, whatever 
tends to ripen the wood in ligneous plants, and mature the leaves in herbs, 
tends to bring the plant into a state of repose ; and hence the value of walls, 
dry borders, dry soils, and warm exposures. It may even be affirmed, that 
with plants under glass the period of repose may be changed from what it is 
in their native countries to what is most suitable for ours. Thus the natural 
period of rest for plants which are natives of the Canaries is from April to 
October, and of growth and maturation during our winter and early spring, 
when we are most deficient in solar light ; but there can be little doubt that, 
by the application for a series of years of a system of acceleration and retard- 
ation, plants, natives of the Canaries, might be induced to flower during our 
summers, and undergo their period of rest during our winters. We do not 
say that the object would be worth attempting, but merely that we think it 
is practicable. 

855. The advantages of putting trees that are to be forced into a state of 
rest, and thus rendering them as excitable as possible previously to the appli- 
cation of artificial heat, have been forcibly pointed out by Mr. Knight. The 
period which any species or variety of fruit will require to attain maturity, 
under any given degrees of temperature, and exposure to the influence of 
light in the forcinghouse, will be regulated to a much greater extent than 
is generally imagined, by the previous management and consequent state of 
the tree, when that is first subjected to the operation of artificial heat. 
Every gardener knows that when the previous season has been cold and 
cloudy and wet, the wood of his fruit-trees remains immature, and weak 
abortive blossoms only are produced. The advantages of having the wood 
well ripened are perfectly well understood ; but those which maybe ob- 
tained, whenever a very early crop of fruit is required, by ripening the wood 
very early in the preceding summer, and putting the tree into a state of 
repose as soon as possible after its wood has become perfectly mature, do not, 
as far as my observation has extended, appear to be at all known to gar- 
deners ; though every one, who has had in any degree the management of 
vines in a hothouse, must have observed the diff'erent eff'ects of the same 
degrees of temperature upon the same plant in October and February. In 
the autumn, the plants have just sunk into their winter sleep ; in February, 
they are refreshed and ready to awake again : and wherever it is intended 
prematurely to excite their powers of life into action, the expediency of 
putting these powers into a state of rest early in the preceding autumn 
appears obvious. {Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 368.) Mr. Knight placed some 
vines in pots in a forcinghouse, in the end of January, which ripened their 



OPERATIONS OF GATHERING, ETC. 



401 



fruit in the n)iddle of July ; soon after which the pots were put under the 
shade of a north wall in the open air. Being pruned, and removed in Sep- 
tember to a south wall, they soon vegetated with much vigour, till the frost 
destroyed their shoots. Others, which were not removed fi'om the north 
wall till the following spring, when they were pruned and placed against a 
south wall, ripened their fruit well in the following season in a climate 
not nearly warm enough to have ripened it at all, if the plants had 
previously grown in the open air. Peach-trees somewhat similarly treated 
unfolded their blossoms nine days earlier, " and their fruit ripened three 
weeks earlier than in other trees of the same varieties." (Hort. Trans. 
vol. ii. p. 372.) Pots of grapes which had produced a crop previously to 
Midsummer were placed under a north wall till autumn ; on the 12th of 
January, they were put into a stove and ripened their fruit by the middle of 
April. {Rort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 440.) 

§ XIX. Operations of Gathering.^ Preserving^ Keeping., and Packing. 

856. Gathering. — The productions of horticulture are in part enjoyed as 
scenery, and in part as articles of cookery, and other parts of domestic 
economy ; and the gathering of articles for the latter purposes forms a part 
of the duty of the gardener. All crops are taken from the plant when 
mature, as in the case of ripe fruits or roots ; or they are cut from it when 
the plant is in a growing state, as in gathering herbs or cabbages ; or the 
entire plant is taken up, as in the case of turnips, carrots, &c. In all these 
cases the part of the plant to be gathered should not have been moistened 
by rain, and the weather at the time should be dry. Wherever the knife 
requires to be used in gathering, the operation may be considered as coming 
under pruning, and should be performed with the same care in respect to 
buds and wounded sections. In gathering fruit, care should be taken not 
to rub off the bloom, particularly from cucumbers, plums, and grapes. 
When ripe seeds are gathered, the capsules or pods should be perfectly dry, 
and they should be spread out afterwards in a shaded, airy shed or loft, or 
on a seed-sheet in the open air, till they are ready to be mbbed out, cleaned, 
and put up into paper bags till wanted. 

857. Preserving. — Culinary vegetables may be preserved in a growing 
state by placing moveable covers, such as thatched hurdles, over them in the 
open garden, as indicated in fig. 329 ; or they may be preserved in a living 

state by planting them in soil, in 
pits or frames, to be covered during 
severe w^eather ; or they may be 
planted in soil, in light cellars, the 
windows being opened in the day- 
time, — a practice common in the 
colder countries of the Continent. 
Aromatic herbs, such as mint, thyme, 
&c., may be preserved by first dry- 
ing them in the shade, and nextcom- 
Fig. 329. Low-roof thatched hurdles for protecting pressing each kind into small packets, 
'plants in the open garden. covering these with paper. Aro- 

matic herbs, and also pot-herbs, such as parsley, celery leaves, chervil, &c., 
may be preserved by drying in an oven, and afterwards tying up in paper. 
Flowers and leaves, and also ripe fruit, may be preserved in dried sand by 




402 



OPERATIONS OF GITHERING, ETC. 



the following process : — The articles are suspended in a cask or jar, by 
threads attached to cross-sticks^ fixed immediately within the position of 
the lid. This being done, pure white dry sand is poured slowly in till 
it surrounds all the articles suspended, which become as it were immersed 
in it. AVTien the flowers or fruits are to be taken out, the plug is removed 
from a hole in the bottom of the vessel, and as much of the sand allowed to 
run out as uncovers as many of the fruit or flowers as it is desu-ed to take 
out at one time. This mode of preserving is given in some French and 
Italian authors ; but we believe it is very seldom put in practice. Roots, 
tubers, and bulbs are preserved in soil or io. sand, moderately dry, and 
excluded from frost ; and some kinds, which have coverings which protect 
them from evaporation, such as the tulip and the crocus, are kept ia cool 
dry shelves or lofts, or in papers till the planting season. Potatoes, turnips, 
carrots, &c., are preserved ^^^th most flavour by leaving them where they 
have gi'own, covering the ground with litter, so as to exclude frost, and 
admit of their being taken up daily as wanted. Towards the growing 
season they should have a thicker covering to exclude atmospheric heat ; or 
a portion should have been taken up in autumn, and buried in sand or soil, 
in a cool cellar, in order to retard vegetation as long as possible. The 
roots mentioned, and also onions, will keep upwards of a year without 
rotting or vegetating, if mixed with sand and buried in a pit in dry soil, the 
upper part of which shall be at least five feet under the surface of the 
ground, so as efi^ectually to exclude air and change of temperature. Hen- 
derson, an eminent gardener at Brechin, makes use of the ice-house for 
pre3er^iug ^' roots of all kinds till the return of the natui'al crop." " By 
the month of April,'' he says, " the ice in our ice-house is found to have 
subsided four or five feet ; and in this empty room I deposit the vegetables 
to be preserved. After stuffing the vacuities with straw, and covering the 
surface of the ice with the same material, I place on it case-boxes, dry-ware 
casks, baskets, Sec, and fill tliem with turnips, carrots, beet-root, celery, 
and in particular potatoes. By the cold of the place, vegetation is so much 
suspended that all these articles may be thus kept fresh and uninjured, till 
they give place to another crop in its natural season." 

858. Keeping-fruits, such as the apple and pear, are preserved in the 
fruit-room, in shelves, placed singly so as not to touch each other ; the finer 
keepiug-pcars may be packed in jars or l)oxes, -with diied fern, or with 
kUn-dried barley-straw ; and baking apples and pears may be kept in heaps 
or thick layers on a cellar -floor, and covered with straw, to retain moisture 
and exclude the fi'ost. But the subject of keeping fruits will be recurred to 
in treating of the fruit-garden, 

859. Parking and transporting plajits and seeds. — Rooted plants and 
cuttings, and other parts of plants intended to gi'ow, may be preserved for 
weeks, and, under certain circumstances, even for months, in moist live 
moss, the direct action of the air and the sun being excluded ; and in this 
medium also they may be packed and sent to any distance witliin the tem- 
perate hemispheres, but not in tropical regions, on accoimt of the extreme 
heat. Plants that are to pass through these regions are planted in soil, in 
boxes with glass covers, and being occasionally watered, they are transferred 
from India to England with a ver}' moderate proportion of loss. Seeds are 
in general most safely conveyed from one comitry to another in loose paper 
packages, kept in a dry airy situation, so a> neither to be parched with dry 



SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE. 



403 



heat nor made to vegetate by moisture ; but some seeds which are apt soon 
to lose their vitality, such as the acorns of American oaks, may be packed 
in moist moss, in which they will germinate during the voyage ; but if 
planted in soil as soon as they arrive, they will suffer little injury. Nuts 
and other large seeds may probably preserve their vitality by being allowed 
to gei-minate in masses of moderately dry soil, as Mr. Knight suggested 
might be done with the seeds of the mango. The roots or root-ends of 
plants or cuttings are enveloped in a ball of clayey loam, wi-apped up in moist 
moss, or in the case of cuttings or scions of ligneous plants, stuck into a 
potato, turnip, or apple, and sent to any distance ; or, as already observed 
(67 6), they may be inclosed in moistened brown paper, or wrapped up in oiled 
paper, and sent by post. Mr. Knight found that shoots containing buds of 
fruit-trees might be preserved in a vegetating state, and sent to a consider- 
able distance, by reducing the leaf-stalks to a short length, and inclosing the 
shoot in a double-fold of cabbage-leaf, bound close together at each end, and 
then inclosing the package in a letter. It was found advantageous to 
place the under-sui-face of the cabbage-leaf inwards, by which the inclosed 
branch was supplied with humidity, that being the perspiring surface of the 
leaf, the other surface being nearly or wholly impervious to moisture." — 
{HorL Trans., vol. iv., p. 403.) 

860. Packing fruits and flowers. — Firm fruits, such as the apple and 
pear, and flowers either in a growing state in pots, or cut for nosegays, are 
easily packed ; but grapes, peaches, strawberries, &c., are with more diffi- 
culty sent to a distance without being injured. To pack such fruit, and also 
the more deKcate flowers, a box is suspended within a box, hi such a manner 
that the inner case can never touch the outer one. This mode is " found 
better than any other for insuring the safe transport of delicate philosophical 
instruments, and is equally adapted to ripe fruit. Having packed the fruit 
in an inner case with soft cotton, or whatever may be deemed best for the 
purpose, let that inner case be suspended within an outer one by lines or 
cords. Suppose, for instance, that the outer case is two or three inches 
clear all round the inner case, and the eight cords proceeded from the eight 
outer corners of the one, and were fastened to the eight internal corners of 
the other case. In this way, whatever side was uppermost, the inner case 
would be suspended from the four upper cords, the four lower ones serving 
only to steady it and to prevent its swinging against the outer case. If 
the whole be turned upside down, the functions of the cords become 
reversed, so that they must all be strong enough to perform either office, 
about which, however, there is no difficulty. A still better plan, for those 
who have frequently very choice specimens of fruit to transmit, would be 
to insulate the inner case by spiral springs, with the additions of small por- 
tions of felt or woollen cloth, to limit the vibrations ; the springs would 
be very cheaply made, and would avoid the repeated trouble of packing or 
tying ; but the cords will do extremely well." — (^Gard. Chron., vol. i., 
p. 485.) 

§ XX. Selecting and improving Plants in Culture. 

861. All the plants in cultivation that are remarkable for their value as 
culmary vegetables, fruits, or flowers, are more or less removed from their 
natural state ; and the three principal modes by which this has been effected, 
are, increasing the supply of nourishment, selection from seedlings, or acci- 



404 



SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE. 



dental variations, and cross-breeding. " Nature," Mr. Knight observes, 
" has given to man the means of acquiring those thmgs which constitute the 
comforts and luxuries of civih'sed life, though not the things themselves ; it 
has placed the raw material within his reach, but has left the preparation 
and improvement of it to his own skill and industry. Every plant and 
animal adapted to his service is made susceptible of endless changes, and as 
far as relates to his use, of almost endless improvement. Variation is the 
constant attendant on cultivation, both in the animal and vegetable world ; 
and in each the offspring are constantly seen, in a greater or less degree, to 
inherit the character of the parents from which they spring." — (Knight's 
Physiological Papers, &^c. p. l72.) 

862. Cultivation^ then, is the first step in the progress of improving vege - 
tables. It is almost needless to state that this consists in furnishing a plant 
with a more favourable soil and climate than it had in a wild state ; supply- 
ing food by manure to as great an extent as is consistent with health and 
vigour ; allowing an ample space for its branches and leaves to expand and 
expose themselves to the action of the sun and the air ; guarding the plant 
from external injuries, by the peculiar kind of shelter and protection which 
it may require, according as the object may be the improvement of the 
entire plant, of its foliage only, of its flowers, or of its fruit. All cultivation 
is founded on the principle that the constitution and qualities of plants are 
susceptible of bemg influenced by the quantity and quality of the food with 
which they are furnished, and that the constitution and qualities so formed 
can be communicated to their offspring. The seeds of plants abundantly 
supplied with food, and growing in a favourable climate, will produce plants 
of luxuriant foliage, and larger than usual in all their parts ; while the con- 
trary will be the case with seeds produced by plants grown in a meagre soil, 
and in an unfavourable climate. Seeds produced in a hot climate will pro- 
duce plants better adapted for that climate than seeds from a climate that is 
cold, and the contrary ; and hence also the seeds of plants grown in a poor 
soil and ungenial climate will succeed better in that soil and climate than 
plants raised from seeds produced under more favourable circumstances. 
Hence, in improving plants by cultivation, the experiments ought to be made 
in the soil and climate for which they are intended. " No experienced 
gardener," Mr. Knight observes, " can be ignorant that every species of fruit 
acquu-es its greatest state of perfection in some peculiar soils and situations, 
and under some peculiar mode of culture. The selection of a proper soil and 
situation must therefore be the first object of the improver's pursuit ; and 
nothing should be neglected which can add to the size, or improve the fla- 
vour, of the fruit from which it is intended to propagate. Due attention to 
these points will in almost all cases be found to comprehend all that is neces- 
sary to insure the introduction of new varieties of fruit, of equal merit with 
those from which they spring ; but the improver, who has to adapt his pro- 
ductions to the cold and unsteady climate of Britain, has still many difficulties 
to contend with : he has to combine hardiness, energy of character, and early 
maturity, with the improvements of high cultivation. Nature has, how- 
ever, in some measure pointed out the path he is to pursue ; and if it be 
followed with patience and industry, no obstacles will be found which may 
not be either removed or passed over. If two plants of the vine, or other 
tree of similar habits, or even if obtained from cuttings of the same tree, 
were placed to vegetate during several successive seasons in very different 



SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE. 



405 



climates ; if the one were planted on the banks of the Rhine, and the other 
on those of the Nile, each would adapt its habits to the climate in which it 
was placed ; and if both were subsequently brought in early spring into a 
climate similar to that of Italy, the plant which had adapted its habits to a 
cold climate would instantly vegetate, whilst the other would remain per- 
fectly torpid. Precisely the same thing occurs in the hothouses of this 
country, where a plant accustomed to the temperature of the open air will 
vegetate strongly in December, whilst another plant of the same species, and 
sprung fi'om a cuttiag of the same original stock, but habituated to the 
temperature of a stove, remains apparently lifeless. It appears, therefore, 
that the powers of vegetable life in plants habituated to cold climates are 
more easil}'- brought into action than in those of hot climates ; or, in other 
words, that the plants of cold climates are most excitable : and as every 
quality in plants becomes hereditary, when the cause which first gave exist- 
ence to those qualities continues to operate, it follows that their seedling 
offspring have a constant tendency to adapt their habits to any climate in 
which art or accident places them." — {Knight's Horticultural Papers, p. 172.) 

863. Selection. — An individual wild plant being thus improved, the next 
step is to sow its seeds under the most favourable circumstances of soil and 
situation, and from the plants so produced to select such, or perhaps only one, 
or even a part of one, which possesses in the highest degree the qualities we are 
in search of. This plant being carefully cultivated, its seeds are to be sown, 
and a selection made from the plants produced as before. In this manner 
one generation after another may be sown and selections made till the desired 
properties are obtained. In the case of annual plants the object may be 
attained in a few years, but in the case of trees, and especially fruit-trees, a 
number of years are requisite. Mr. Knight, who has had more experience 
in raising new fruits by selection from seedlings than perhaps any person 
ever had before his time, has the following instructive observations : — 
" When young trees have sprung from the seed, a certain period must elapse 
before they become capable of bearing fruit, and tliis period, I believe, can- 
not be shortened by any means. Pruning and transplanting are both 
injurious ; and no change in the character or merits of the future fruit can 
be effected, during this period, either by manure or culture. The young 
plants should be suffered to extend then- branches in every direction in 
which they do not mjuriously interfere with each other ; and the soil should 
just be sufiiciently rich to promote a moderate degree of growth, without 
stimulating the plant to preternatural exertion, which always induces 
disease. The periods which different kinds of fruit-trees requu-e to attain 
the age of puberty are very varied. The pear requires from twelve to 
eighteen yeai's ; the apple, from five to twelve or thirteen ; the plum and 
cherry, four or five years ; the vine, three or four; and the raspberry, two 
years. The strawberry, if its seeds be sown early, affords an abundant crop 
in the succeedmg year." — (Physiological Papers^ S^c. p. 178.) 

864. Selecting from accidental variations, or as they are technically termed, 
sports. Among a gTeat number of seedlings raised in gardens, or of plants 
in a wild state, some entire plants, or parts of plants, vnil exliibit differences 
in form or colour from the normal form and colour of the species. Among 
these peculiarities may be noticed double flowers, flowers of a colour different 
from those of the species, variegated leaves, leaves deeply cut w. ere the 
normal fomi is entire, as in the fern-leaved beech ; and even the entire plant 



406 



SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE. 



may be of more diminutive size, or its shoots may take a different direction, 
as in fastigiate and pendulous-branched trees. All these, and many other 
accidental variations, which, as we have seen (551), cannot generally be 
reproduced from seed, may be perpetuated by cuttings, or some other mode 
of propagating by division. 

865. Cross-breeding. — This process is effected by fecundating the stigma 
of a flower of one plant with the pollen from the flower of another of the 
same species, but of a different variety. Sometimes fecundation may be 
effected with the pollen of a different species, and in that case the produce is 
said to be a hybrid, while in the other the result is merely a cross or a cross- 
bred variety. The mode of performing this operation has been very well 
described by Mr. Hayward. " Supposing," he says, " for instance, you have 
two geraniums producing differently-shaped leaves and differently-coloured 
blossoms — or two apple-trees, bearing apples of different sizes, colours, and 
qualities, and it be desired to produce geraniums of differently-shaped leaves 
and differently- coloured flowers, and apples of different sizes, colours, and 
qualities, that is, different from either of the two plants or trees which you 
possess : the mode of effecting this is to select a blossom of the plant from 
which you wish to obtain the seed ; when it is just on the point of opening and 
exposing the anthers, take a pair of scissors, and, gently forcing open the petals 
of the blossom intended to bear the seed, cut off the stamens, and remove the 
anthers, and then leave the blossom thus operated upon for a day or two, or 
until the petals are quite expanded, and the pistil arrived at a state of 
maturity ; when it is in tliis state, select a blossom of the plant with which 
it is desu'ed to impregnate the prepared female blossom, and when this is in 
a state of maturity, and in a state to part with its pollen or farina freely, 
take a small camel's-hair pencil, collect the farina on the point, and place it 
on the stigma or crown of the pistil of the prepared blossom. This opera- 
tion may be performed, with an equal chance of success, on plants of all 
descriptions." {An Inquiry^ S)-c. p. 120.) " New varieties of every species 
of fruit," Mr. Knight observes, " will generally be better obtained by intro- 
ducing the farina of one variety of fruit into the blossom of another, than by 
propagating from any single kind. When an experiment of this kind is made 
between varieties of different size and character, the farina of the smaller 
kind should be introduced into the blossoms of the larger, for, under these 
circumstances, I have generally (but with some exceptions) observed in the 
new fruit a prevalence of the character of the female parent ; probably 
owing to the following causes. The seed-coats are generated wholly by the 
female parent, and these regulate the bulk of the lobes and plantule : and I 
have observed, in raising new varieties of the peach, that when one stone 
contained two seeds, the plants these afforded were inferior to others. The 
largest seeds, obtained from the finest fruit and from that which ripens most 
perfectly and most early, should always be selected. It is scarcely necessary 
to inform the experienced gardener that it will be necessary to extract the sta- 
mina of the blossoms from which he proposes to propagate, some days before 
the farina begins to shed, when he proposes to generate new varieties in the 
manner I have recommended." — {Knight's Physiological Papers., p. 177.) 

866. Precautions against promiscuous fecundation require to be taken 
both in the case of flowers the seeds of which are to be sown for the purpose 
of selection, and in those which have been cross-fecundated. In the former 
case, the plants should as much as possible be isolated from all others of the 



SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE. 407 

same, or of allied kinds ; and in tiie latter something more should be done. 

The reasons are, that in both cases the farina of adjoining flowers of the same 
kind is in all probability floating in the atmosphere, and will adhere to 
whatever stigmas of its own species it may light on ; and secondly, that bees 
and other insects which frequent flowers carry ofi" the pollen from one to 
another, and thus produce accidental cross-fecundation, which would render 
nugatory that which was attempted by ai't. The only mode to guard against 
pollen floating in the atmosphere is by placing the plants from all others of 
the same kind, though what distance is required is uncertain. For the 
cruciferas generally most space is required ; varieties of cabbages and turnips 
having been adulterated when at the distance of upwards of a mile, in an 
open country and in the direction of the prevailing winds. To guard against 
the efiects of bees and other insects, the blossoms w^hen selected and fecun- 
dated by art may be surrounded by coarse gauze, or inclosed in a case of 
glass, till the blossom begins to fade. To strengthen the embryo seeds, the 
plant may be pruned in such a manner as to throw an extra share of sap 
into the branch, stem, or pedicel on which the flower is situated. Thus, if 
the fecundated flower form part of a spike, the upper part of the spike may 
be cut off ; a corymb or an umbel may be thinned out ; the suckers may be 
taken from a sucker-bearing plant, such as the raspberry ; the runners from 
the strawberry ; the offsets from a bulb, the tubers from a potato, and so 
forth. 

867. Fixing and rendering permanent the variety produced is effected, in 
general, by one or other of the modes of propagation by division (551). 
Improved varieties of fruit-trees are generally perpetuated by grafting ; fruit- 
shrubs, such as the gooseberry, by cuttings ; perennials, by division, offsets, 
or suckers, &c. ; improved annuals and biemiials, and some perennials, are 
perpetuated by seeds, which forms an exception to the general rule. What 
we have already advanced on tliis subject in the paragraph last quoted ren- 
ders it unnecessary to dwell on it here, farther than to notice a practice, the 
result of the experience of cultivators, the rationale of which it is difficult to 
explain. This is the transplantation of culinary biennials, such as the turnip, 
carrot, parsnep, beet, cabbage, cauliflower, onion, and many such plants, after 
they are full grown, previously to their being allowed to send up their flower- 
stems. By this practice the variety is said to be prevented from degene- 
rating ; and if so, it may probably be on account of the greater part of the 
nourishment to the seeds being furnished by the store laid up in the plant, 
and but only a small portion taken from the soil. It is certain that trans- 
planted plants do not produce nearly so much seed as they would have done 
if not transplanted ; and it is equally certain that in the case of the turnip, 
when the bulb is of a moderate size, and even small rather than large, much 
stronger flower-stems are sent up, and more seed produced, than when it is 
large. The reason probably is that the roots below the unswelled bulb are 
stronger, not having yet fulfilled their functions, and hence are enabled to 
draw a larger proportion of nourishment from the soil. 

868. The production of double fiowers is a subject not yet thoroughly 
understood by physiologists. As double flowers are seldom found in a wild 
state, they appear to be the result of culture, and yet there is scarcely any 
well-authenticated instance of culture having produced them. It is certain, 
however, that double flowers degenerate into single ones when culture is 



408 



SELECTING AND IMPROVING PLANTS IN CULTURE. 



•withdrami, and that extraordinary supplies of nourishment and moisture, as 
in moist and warm seasons, produce flowers more double than in dry 
seasons. Mr. Munro, a scientific practical gardener, endeavours to account 
for the production of double flowers, by supposing that there is one fluid or 
sap of plants destined for growth, and another for reproduction ; and that 
double flowers are produced when the latter sap is in excess. He concludes, 
therefore, that by reducing the number of seed-pods in a plant, those left 
would be so amply nourished by the excess of the reproductive sap, as to 
produce double flowers. To prove this he selected a number of single scarlet 
ten- week stocks, and as soon as he observed five or six seed-pods fairly 
formed on the flower-spike, every succeeding flower was pinched off. From 
the seeds saved in this manner he had more than 400 double flowers from 
one small bed of plants {G. M. for 1838, p. 122). De Candolle states that 
Mr. Salisbury assured him that by putting plants with single flowers in a 
very rich soil, and fixing ligatures round the stem near the neck, he obtained 
seeds which produced double flowers (Phys. Veg., p. 734) ; but this as a 
general principle he considers very doubtful. One thing is certain, that 
seeds saved from semi-double flowers frequently produce flowers which are 
double ; and it would also appear that from the authority of gardeners, seeds 
from single flowers which have been growing among double ones, more 
frequently produce double flowers, than seeds from plants which have not 
been so circumstanced. 

869. Duration of varieties. — All the plants of a variety which have 
been procured by division, for example all the plants of any particular 
variety of grape, apple, or potato, being in fact only parts of one individual, 
it has been argued by Mr. Knight, that when the parent plant dies all 
the others must die also ; or to put the doctrine in a more general form, 
that all varieties are but of limited duration. This opinion, though it 
has been adopted by many persons, has not met with the approbation of 
Professor De Candolle, who says that the permanence of the duration of 
varieties, so long as man wishes to take care of them, is evident from the 
continued existence of varieties the most ancient of those which have 
been described in books. By negligence, or by a series of bad seasons, 
they may become diseased, like some of our varieties of apple or potato ; but 
by careful culture they may be restored and retained to all appearance foi 
ever. Wo are not sure that De CandoUe's theory will hold good with the 
finest fruits and florists' flowers. The species might be recovered, but we 
question whether in many instances that will be the case with the variety. 
Perhaps a hypothesis might be devised which would coincide with both 
authorities. It would coincide with that of De Candolle, if Mr. Knight had 
spoken with reference to actually wild varieties only ; but with regard to 
improved varieties, as they are understood in a horticultural point of view^ 
they are doubtless prone to decay in proportion to their degree of departure 
from that physiological perfection which enables the wild variety to mauitaiu 
itself continually on the surface of the globe, independent of the care of man. 
A wild variety will produce seed under favourable circumstances, but 
many highly improved varieties, in a horticultural sense, do not perfectly 
mature their seeds under any circumstances whatever ; and therefore must 
be physiologically imperfect, and being so, a priori^ if it be admitted that 
imperfection is a principle of decay, it will not be denied, that no plant 



OPERATIONS OP ORDER AND KEEPING. 



409 



imperfectly constituted can carry on its functions but for a more or less 
limited time, even under the most favourable circumstances. 

870. "NV^e have dwelt longer on this subject than may appear necessary, 
because we consider the civilisation of wild plants by cultivation, the originat- 
ing of new varieties of those already in our gardens from seed, or of wild plants 
from accidental variations, among the most interesting and rational amuse- 
ments which can engage the amateur. There is a great deal of enjoyment 
in displaying our power over plants in propagating them, by cuttings, leaves, 
and the different modes of grafting and budding ; but greater still is that of 
creating new kinds of fruits or flowers by cross-fecundation, or improving a 
wild plant so as entirely to change its character. As examples of what may 
be done, we may, among culinary vegetables, refer to the common carrot, 
which in five generations from seed, in as many years, has been brought 
from a wild state to be fit for the table, by M. Vilmorin ; and among flowers 
to the heartsease, which in the course of the last twenty years has by cross- 
breeding and selection, been raised from a flower with thin crumpled petals 
and irregular shape, to one of our most symmetrical and flat firm-petalled 
florists' flow^ers. We conclude by reminding the amateur that the blossoms 
or fruits produced by newly-originated plants the first or second year, are 
often inferior to what the same plant will produce when it has acquired a 
greater degree of vigour ; and that to do justice to new varieties of herbaceous 
plants, they should be allow^ed to flower at least two years, and ligneous 
plants to flower and fruit, three or even four years, before they are rejected. 

§ XXI. Operations of Order and Keeping. 

871. By order is to be understood that relation of objects to one another, 
which shows that the one follows the other as an obvious or natural conse- 
quence. Thus, suppose that on entering a kitchen-garden we observe a border 
along the walk separated from the larger compartment by a continuous espalier 
rail ; this rail we naturally expect will be continued all round the garden, 
or if interrupted it will be by some obvious and satisfactory cause. Suppose 
the line of railing discontinued without any obvious reason ; in that case we 
should say there was a want of order. Still more so should we be stnick wdth a 
want of order, if the walk were bordered by dw^arf fniit- trees, not in a straight 
line or in a line parallel to that of the walk, but sometimes nearer and some- 
times farther from it, and with the trees also at irregular distances in the line. 
There is a secondary meaning in which the vrord order is used among gar- 
deners, which has reference to keeping ; and thus a border of flowers or 
other plants confused with weeds w^ould be said to be disorderly, or not in 
order. In the former case, the term refers to design, and in the latter to 
management ; and it may be easily conceived that the unfavourable impres- 
sion on a stranger is much graver in the case in which it is of a permanent 
nature, than in the other where it is only temporary. Neatness, as applied 
to horticultural scenes and objects, may be considered as synonymous with 
cleanliness. 

872. The term keeping in horticulture relates to the degree of order and 
neatness which are maintained in management ; and hence the expressions, 
badly kept, highly kept. A garden that is in high order and keeping must 
have been correctly laid out and planted at first, and cultivated and managed 
with great care afterw^ards. This care must not be devoted merely to some 
particular department, or to some object under the gardener s charge, but 



410 



OPERATIONS OF ORDER AND KEEPING. 



must extend to everything according to its importance. In a kitchen-gar- 
den, the system of managing the wall and espalier fruit-trees, and of crop- 
ping the compartments, demands the first attention, because the result will 
not only influence the most conspicuous features in the garden, but also 
increase or diminish the quantity and quality of the produce. 

873. The following rules may perhaps be of some use, if impressed on the 
mind of the young gardener, and if insisted on being kept by workmen by 
the master or the amateur :• — 

1. Perform every operation in the proper season and in the best manner^ on 
the principle that " whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well." 
Nothing can be more annoying to a person who is desirous of having his 
garden kept in the highest order, than to see the slovenly manner in which 
some gardeners thrust plants into the soil, tie them up when they require 
support, and hack and cut at them when they require pruning. " Cut to 
the bud " is a precept too often disregarded by such persons ; among whom 
we have known excellent growers of crops, both in the open au' and under 
glass. 

2. Complete every operation consecutively. — The neglect of this is a very 
common fault. For example, the wall-trees are receiving their summer 
pruning, and as this occupies a day or two, or is necessarily performed at 
intervals, so as not to deprive the trees of two much foliage at once, the 
shoots cut off are left on the ground till all the trees have been gone over. 
The same mode of proceeding is followed in every other operation. We 
allow that, on the principle of the division of labour, this is the most econo- 
mical mode, but on the prmciple of high keeping it is objectionable ; and in 
the event of changes of weather, such as a fall of rain, it may, in the case of 
neglecting to rake off weeds the same day in which they are hoed up, defeat 
the intention of the operation. 

8. Never ^ if possible^ perform one operation in such a manner as to render 
another necessary. — It is a common practice with many gardeners, when 
weeding borders or trimming plants, to throw the weeds or trimmings on the 
gravel- walks, thereb}'' occasioning the labour of sweeping them up, as well 
as soiling the gravel of the walk. There is scarcely a practice more to 
be condemned than this, both with reference to economy of time and to high 
keeping. The walk is disfigured by the weeds and trimmings perhaps for a 
whole day, and when they are swept off it is found that the gravel has been 
disturbed and is discoloured. In all cases of weeding borders and pruning 
shrubs, or hedges, close to walks, the weeds and prunings should be put at 
once into a wheelbarrow or basket. 

4. When called off from any operation, leave your work and your tools in 
an orderly manner. — Do not leave a plant half planted, or a pot half watered, 
and do not throw down your tools as if you never intended to take them up 
again. Never leave a hoe or a rake with the blade or the teeth turned up, 
as if you intended them as man-traps. Never stick in a spade where it will 
cut the roots of a plant ; but if you must stick it in among plants, let its blade 
be in the direction of the roots, not across them. 

5. In leaving off work, make a temporary finish, and clean your tools and 
carry them to the tool-house. — Never leave off in the midst of a row. Never 
leave the garden-line stretched. Never show an eagerness to be released 
from work. Never prune off more shoots, pull up more weeds, or make 
more litter of any kind than you can clear away the same day, if not the 
same hour. 



OPERATIONS OP HORTICULTURAL DESIGN AND TASTE. 



411 



6. Never do that in the open garden or in the hothouses^ which can be 
equally well done in the reserve ground or in the back sheds : potting and 
shifting, for example. 

7. Never pass a weed or an insect without pulling it up or taking it off^ 
unless time forbid. Much might be done in this way towards keeping down 
weeds, were it not for the formality of some gardeners, who seem to delight 
in leaving weeds to accumulate till a regular weeding is required. 

8. In gathering a crop, take away the useless as well as the useful parts. — 
Never leave the haulm of potatoes on the ground where they have grown. 
Take up all the cabbage tribe by the roots, unless sprouts or second crops 
are wanted ; and carry every kind of waste to the reserve or the frame 
ground, to rot as manure or mix with dung linings. 

9. Let no plant ripen seeds, unless these are wanted for some purpose useful 
or ornamental, and remove all the parts of plants which are in a state of decay, 
— The seed-pods of plants should not be allowed even to swell, unless the 
seeds are wanted for some purpose, because being the essential result of 
every plant, they exhaust it more than any other part of its growth, and 
necessarily always more or less weaken it for the following year. 

874. To these rules many others might be added, but it is not our wish 
to render gardeners mere machines. One great object of the young gardener 
ought to be to cultivate his faculty of seeing, so that in every garden he may 
be able to detect what is worth imitating, and what ought to be avoided. 
There is nothing tends more to this kind of cultivation than seeing the gar- 
dens of our neighbours, in which we may often detect those faults which 
exist hi our own, but which, from having become familiar to us, we had not 
been able to see in a similar light. Without a watchful and vigilant eye, 
and habits of attention, observation, reflection, and decision, a gardener will 
never be able to be a complete master of his profession. 



CHAPTER IV. 

OPERATIONS OF HORTICULTURAL DESIGN AND TASTE. 

We have introduced the title of this chapter, chiefly for the sake of show- 
ing that we have not forgotten any part of our subject, and that the whole 
of what would have been treated of here has already been given in the 
Suburban Architect and Landscape Gardener. In order, therefore, to keep 
this work within certain limits, we shall only here give an outline of what 
would otherwise have been treated of in detail. 

875. Taking plans of gardens, garden-buildings, or of any part of them, 
or of garden implements, or of modes of performing operations, ought to be 
understood by every gardener who aspires to eminence in his profession, 
and by every amateur who wishes to improve his own garden by what he 
sees in those of others. 

876. Carrying plans into execution by transferring them from paper to 
ground, or in whatever manner they require to be realised, is equally neces- 



412 



OPERATIONS OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 



sary to be understood by both the gardener and the amateur ; and for this 
purpose, and that of the preceding paragraph, some knowledge of geometry, 
land-surveying, and drawing is requisite. We would recommend Pasleys 
Practical Geometry and Plan-drawing, 8vo. 16*., and Crocker's Land-sur- 
veying, 8vo. 12*. 

877. Reducing a surface to a level, or to a uniform slope, is one of the 
most common operations required of a gardener in forming a garden or 
laying out grounds. For this purpose he must have learnt the use of the 
spirit-level or of the common mason's level, so as to be able to stake out level 
or regularly sloping lines on irregular surfaces. We recommend, as the best 
work on this subject for the practical gardener, Jones's Principles and Prac- 
tice of Levelling, 1840, 8vo. 4*. 

878. The laying out of walks, roads, lawns, and the formation of pieces 
of artificial v/ater, fountains, rockwork, and various other works that fall 
more or less under the superintendence of the gardener, are given at length 
in the volume referred to. 



CHAPTER V. 
OPERATIONS OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 

879. The general management of a garden, whether it includes the 
pleasure-ground, and all the scenes which come under the gardener's depart- 
ment in an extensive country residence, or merely a few rods of ground 
for growing culinary crops and flowers, requires such constant attention 
throughout the year, that gardeners have wisely invented calendars to remind 
them of tlieir duty, monthly and even weekly. An abbreviated calendar of 
this kind will be found at the end of our volume, and we shall here coniine 
ourselves to giving some hints on general management. 

880. On undertaking the charge of a garden, the first point to determine 
is, the number of hands required for its cultivation, and how many of these 
men are to be professional gardeners, as journeymen or apprentices, and how 
many common country labourers or women. It is scarcely possible to keep 
a garden in the highest order, however small it may be, without a profes- 
sional gardener in constant attendance ; or without a garden-labourer, 
directed by the amateur ; who in this case may be supposed to perform 
all the more delicate operations of propagating, pruning, training, &c., 
himself. Where only one professional gardener is kept, he will frequently 
require a labourer to assist in operations that cannot well be done by a single 
person, or that require to be done quickly ; or of one or more women, to 
assist in weeding, gathering crops, or keeping down insects. Though as a 
general and permanent practice we do not advocate the employment of 
women in out-door work, yet in the present state of things in this country 
there are generally to be found women glad to accept the remuneration for 
working in a garden, and the healthiness of the employment in good weather 
is a recommendation to it. 

881. The hooks to be kepi by a gardener in a small place need not be more, as 
far as the business of the garden is concerned, than an inventory -book of the 



OPERATIONS OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 



413 



tools, &c. ; a cash-book, in which to enter wliat he pays and receives ; and 
a memorandum-book, to enter the dates and other particulars of orders 
given to tradesmen, &c., of sowing main crops, of fruit-ripening, and such 
other particulars as his master may require, or as he may think useful. 
Such books should be furnished by the master, and consequently be delivered 
to him when they are filled up. In some gardens a cropping-book is kept, 
in which on one page is registered the date, and other particulars of putting 
in the crops ; the page opposite being kept blank, to enter the dates when 
they begin to be gathered, and how long they last. In all large gardens a 
produce-book is kept, in which every article sent to the kitchen every day 
in the year is recorded. There are various modes of keeping books of this 
kind, but one of the simplest and best appears to us to be the following : — A 
list, or kitchen-hill^ is printed of all the culinary articles which the garden is 
supposed to produce in the course of the year ; and a similar list, or dessert- 
hill^ of all the dessert articles. On these lists,every morning, the gardener 
marks such articles as are in season, or as he can supply, and sends the 
kitchen-bill to the cook or steward, and the dessert-bill to the housekeeper, 
who put their marks to every article which is wanted for that day. The 
bills are carried back to the gardener, who puts them into the hands of his 
foreman ; who sends the articles to the kitchen in the course of the forenoon 
with the bills, which are signed by persons receiving the articles, and 
returned to the gardener; who preserves them, and has them bound up 
in a volume at the end of the year. This book forms an excellent record 
of garden-produce for future reference. See a form of kitchen-bill and also 
of dessert-bill, in G. Jf., for 1841, p. 9. 

882. The ordering of seeds and plants is one of the most important 
duties of the head-gardener ; the difficulty being to determine the exact 
quantity of seed required, which is of some importance when the garden is 
at a considerable distance from the seedsman. Abercrombie's Seed Estimate 
is a useful memorial for this purpose, and a year's experience in any garden 
will enable the gardener to give his future orders with sufficient exactness. 
Some seeds in most gardens are saved by the gardener, particularly flower- 
seeds ; and many kinds of plants are now propagated by him which, were 
they to be procured from nurserymen, would increase the expenses of even 
a small garden to such an amount as to put such gardens out of the reach of 
thousands who now enjoy them. Gardeners also exchange many articles 
with one another, by which means their gardens are much enriched at little 
or no expense to their master ; and thus the richer any garden is in plants 
or seeds, the more likely are these riches to be increased, from there being 
a greater number of articles to exchange. Hence also the great advantage 
of employing a good professional gardener, who in many situations saves far 
more than the amount of his wages, by propagation and exchanges. 

883. The management of men and the distrihution of work are the 
great points to which a head-gardener ought to direct his daily attention. 
The work of every day ought to be foreseen the day before, subject, how- 
ever, to changes in the weather, against which other work should be pro- 
vided. A general idea of the labours and operations of the coming week 
should be formed the week before, and communicated to the foreman, who 
ought to receive his directions every evening for what is to be done the 
following day. For this, and all other matters of general management, 
gardeners' calendars are of the gi-eatest use as remembrancers ; but the gar- 

E E 



414 



OPERATIONS OF GENEKAL MANAGEMENT. 



dener's principal dependence must be on his own knowledge and experience. 
Unless he think and act for himself, as if no calendar had been in existence, 
he will never succeed ; and if this may be said of a professional gardener, it 
applies still more forcibly to the amateur. 

884. The wages of a gm'dener. — Something may here be expected to be 
said on this subject, and we shall observe: — 1. That there cannot be a 
greater mistake than to suppose that the products and enjoyments of a 
garden, however small, can be obtained without the services of a really good 
professional gardener; and 2. that all the difference between a garden- 
labourer, who perhaps can barely read and write, and who can neither 
spell nor pronounce botanic names, is not above £20 or aESO a-year. No 
man would think of giving a garden-labourer, to whom he committed the 
management of his garden, less than a guinea a- week with his lodging, and 
some other perquisites, such as spare vegetables, fuel, &c. Now, for £70 
or c£80 a-year, a scientific professional gardener may be engaged ; one who 
can understand and reason upon all that is written in this volume, as well 
as carry all the practices described into operation, and who m consequence 
will elicit more enjoyment from a quarter of an acre than a man who has 
no scientific knowledge will do from any extent of ground, and means with- 
out limits. We by no means set down £70 or £80 as adequate wages for 
such a person ; we know many gardeners who receive £l00, and some J6l50 
and £200 a-year, with a house, coals, candles, and various other perquisites. 
We merely state that such is the salary at which a scientific gardener may be 
engaged at the present time. It is a common notion that it requires a much 
less skilful gardener to manage a small place than a large one ; but this only 
holds true where the variety of products required are small in proportion to 
the extent of the ground on which they are to be grown. If all the kinds 
of produce are required from a small garden that are required from a large 
one : if, for example, forcing in all its departments is to be carried on in both; 
if there are to be small crops in the cottage garden of all those crops which 
are grown in the mansion garden on a large scale ; then we affirm that a more 
skilful, experienced, and attentive gardener is required for the latter than 
for the former. More skill is necessary, because more is required with less 
means; more experience is requisite, because it is only by experience, joined 
to skill and knowledge, that success can be rendered tolerably certain ; and 
more attention is required to watch the progress of favourable or un- 
favourable circumstances, because, on a small scale, these circumstances are 
more immediate in their operations, and their results, if unfavourable, are 
more severely felt. But let us not be supposed to undervalue the 
garden-labourer. Wherever an amateur is his own head-gardener, there 
the garden-labourer is his fittest assistant, and far better adapted for his 
purpose than a professional gardener, whose superior knowledge and skill 
might discourage him in his operations. The wages of a professional 
gardener, it must be allowed, are but small, compared with the amount of 
knowledge and the steady attention which the exercise of his profession 
requires ; but wages in this, as in every other case, depends on demand 
and supply, and it would serve little purpose here to discuss the subject of 
increasing the one or diminishing the other. This much it may be useful to 
observe, that gardening, when studied scientifically, is a profession which 
tends to elevate the mind, and confer intellectual enjoyments of a much 
more exalted character than mere money-making can ever do. This, we 



OPERATIONS OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 



415 



think, is proved by the excellent moral character of almost all professional 
gardeners, and hy the high degree of intelligence and scientific knowledge 
which many of them acquire. There are few persons, we beliere, who have 
a more extensive personal knowledge of British master-gardeners than we 
have, and we also know a good many on the Continent ; and we must say 
that, as a body, we have the very highest respect for them. They are 
almost all great readers ; and in consequence of this, the intellectual and 
moral powers of many of them have been developed in a manner that com- 
mands our utmost veneration. There is scarcely a science or an art which 
some master-gardener of our acquaintance has not of his own accord taken 
up and studied from books, so as to obtain a respectable degree of knowledge 
of it. We know a number who have taught themselves several languages, 
and one of the best Hebrew scholars in Scotland, as we are informed by a 
clergyman (a good judge), is a gardener, who taught himself that language 
without the assistance of a master. We know gardeners that excel in almost 
every department of mathematics and geometry. Some are scientific mete- 
orologists, naturalists in all the departments, and a number are good drafts- 
men. Many Scotch gardeners dip into metaphysics, and we have long 
known one whose library contains all the best English works on the subject, 
including those of Reid, Kames, Stuart, Monboddo, Drummond, and many 
others, besides translations. The development of so much talent among 
gardeners is no doubt owing to the nature of the profession, which excites 
thought ; to the isolation of their dwellings and the necessity of their 
staying at home in the evenings to look after hothouse fires, and very 
much also to the kind indulgence of their masters, who, with very few excep- 
tions, allow them the use of whatever books they want from their own 
libraries. Most employers also make presents of books to their gardeners ; 

and some, of which Lord is the most magnificent example that we 

know, have established in their gardens, libraries, with mathematical instru- 
ments, globes, and maps. Another more recent yet grand cause of the 
development of the minds of gardeners is the practice, which has become 
general among them within the last twenty years, of writing for the press. 
The Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, and the Memoirs 
of the Caledonian Society, first called forth this talent, which, as the gar- 
dening books in existence previously to the first edition of our Encyclopcedia 
of Gardening will show, had been confined to very few persons. The 
grand stimulus to writing, however, was given by the Gardeners Magazine, 
a work most liberally supported by the contributions of gardeners ; and how 
generally this has called forth the talent of writing among both masters and 
journeymen will appear by the abundance of communications which continue 
not only to be supplied to that periodical, and several others which appear 
monthly, but to two weekly gardening newspapers. Amateurs also have 
very generally become writers on horticultural subjects; and from the 
dififerent views which many of them take from those held by practical men, 
the discussions they often elicit prove highly instructive to all parties. "\Fhat 
we greatly admire in all this intellectual progress is, that gardeners still 
i maintain their modesty of deportment and that high moral character, which 
command the respect of their employers and of all who know them. 



C E 2 



416 



PART III. 

THE CULTURE OF THE KITCHEN AND FRUIT GARDEN. 



CHAPTER I. 

LAYING OUT AND PLANTING THE KITCHEN AND FRUIT-GARDEN. 

Sect. I. Laying out the Kitchen-Garden. 

885. The situation and general arrangement of the kitchen-garden have 
already been treated of in the Suburban Architect and Landscape Gardener^ 
but previously to entering on its culture and management, we shall here 
recapitulate the main features. The situation relative to the other parts of 
a residence, should be as near the house as is consistent with other details. 
In general the kitchen, stable-offices and kitchen-garden should be on one 
side of the mansion or dwelling, and so placed as to admit of intercommuni- 
cation without bringing the operations or operators into the view of the 
family or their visitors. As the stable-offices are generally near the kitchen- 
offices, so the kitchen-garden may be near the stables ; and in such a situa- 
tion it will generally be found that the kitchen- garden is less seen from the 
windows of the mansion, than if it were placed at a much greater distance. 
A very little reflection will convince any one that this must necessarily be 
the case. Relatively to surface^ one which is level, open, and airy, is the 
best ; because it is least liable to be affi3eted by high winds. The next best 
surface is one gently sloping to the south, or south-east ; and the worst is 
one sloping to the north-east. The surface of a hill is to be avoided on 
account of its exposure to high winds ; and equally so one in a valley on 
account of the cold air which descends from the adjoining heights and settles 
there. The extent is regulated by the wants of the family, and may vary 
from a quarter of an acre to several acres ; every thing depending on the 
quantity and quality of the produce required. The best soil is a loam, rather 
sandy than clayey, on a subsoil moderately retentive. The form of the 
garden should be rectangular, as better adapted than any other for the opera- 
tions to be carried on within. The area is enclosed by walls, in general 
forming a parallelogram with its longest side in the direction of east and 
west, in consequence of which the greater length of walling has a surface 
exposed to the south. When the situation is such as to require artificial 
shelter, plantations are formed exterior to the garden for this purpose, 
but they should never, if practicable, be nearer the walls than 100 
feet or 150 feet ; for though science has not yet satisfactorily assigned 
the reason, yet it is certain that nothing is more injurious to culinary veget- 
ables and fruits, than the exclusion of a free current of air in every direction. 
The sole object of shelter ought to be to break the force of high winds. 
Water should never be wanting in a garden, and as we have already observed 
(823) it sliould always be exposed in a basin for some time before being 
used. The garden walls should if possible be of brick; or if they are formed 
of stone, or of mud or compressed earth, which in some parts of the country 



LAYING OUT THE KITCHEN GAKDEN. 



417 



make excellent walls, retaining much heat and lasting a long time, they 
ought to be covered with a wooden trellis on which to train the trees. It 
has been recommended by Hitt and others to build the walls on piers, for 
the sake of allowing the roots of the trees to extend themselves on both sides 
of the wall. As however the branches of the trees are constrained so ought 
to be the roots, in order that the one may be proportionate to the other. 
Besides, as there are generally trees on both sides of every garden wall, it 
does not appear that, under ordinary circumstances at least, anythmg would 
be gained by this mode of building walls, excepting the saving of a small 
proportion of materials. Where walls are not built of brick, stone or earth, 
they may be formed of boards, which when properly seasoned and after- 
wards saturated with boiling tar, will endure many years, and produce as 
much heat in the summer season as brick or stone. They are indeed colder 
in winter and spring, but that circumstance is often an advantage by retard- 
ing the blossoming of the trees, and lessening the risk of their being injured 
by spring frosts. If a cavity were formed by the boarding, and filled with 
pounded clinkers, or charcoal, or coke, much heat would be absorbed from 
the sun heat, and thus form a source for giving out heat at night. 
Where the walls are formed of brick they may always be built hollow, 
(472) to save material; and as very little additional expense will be 
required to form the hollows into flues (475) or channels for hot-water 
pipes, such an arrangement should not be neglected in the colder parts 
of the island. The walks in the interior of the garden are laid out in a 
direction parallel to the walls, and espalier rails are commonly formed parallel 
to the walks. Exterior to the walls, a narrow portion of ground is inclosed 
which is technically called the slip, the object of which is to admit of getting 
the full benefit of the wall on the outside as well as within. 

886. In trenching and levelling the surface of the kitchen-garden, care 
must be taken to form a complete system of underground drainage ; not only 
by having drains formed of tiles to carry off" subterraneous water, but by 
having the surface of the subsoil parallel to the exposed surface, both being 
inclined towards the situation of the drains ; so that the water in sinking 
down from the surface may not rest in hollows (526). The best situation 
for these drains will generally be under the walks. The depth of the soil 
of a garden should seldom be less than two feet, this depth being penetrated 
by the roots of even the smallest kinds of culinary vegetables when growing 
vigorously. The depth of the soil, however, ought to bear some relation to 
its quality, and to the climate. A loamy or clayey soil in a humid climate 
Reed not be trenched to the same depth as if it were in a warm and dry 
climate ; because the use of the soil to plants being to retain moisture, a 
small body not liable to lose by evaporation, may be as effective as a larger 
one so constituted as to lose a great deal. The borders for fruit-trees form 
an important part of the kitchen-garden, and should always be prepared with 
a due regard to the soil, the climate, and the kinds of trees to be planted. 
The bottom should generally be prepared so as to prevent the roots from 
penetrating into the subsoil : though as this naturally limits the supply of 
water to the roots in dry seasons, and consequently gives occasion for 
artificial waterings, a better mode than making the borders ver^? shallow, is 
never to dig them, and to spread the manure always on the surface. By 
this means the roots will not be forced downwards, as they necessarily must 
be when the surface is loosened and exposed to the drying influence of the 



418 



LAYING OUT THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



sun and winds, or the exhaustion of crops of vegetables. The subsoil of the 
borders, however, ought in every case to be drained. In 'planting fruit-trees 
in the kitchen garden^ we would on no account whatever introduce standards, 
or any description of fruit-tree, in those partsof the open garden which are to be 
cropped with herbaceous vegetables; because such trees injure the surrounding 
crops by their shade, and never produce much fruit, or fruit of good quality, 
in consequence of their roots being forced down into the subsoil by the neces- 
sary stirring of the soil among the herbaceous crops. We have enlarged on this 
subject elsewhere, (^Sub. Gard. 1st ed. p. 202,) and we therefore only add 
that we recommend no fruit-trees to be planted in the kitchen-garden ex- 
cepting against the walls, against espalier rails, in rows along the walks, or in 
compartments by themselves. It may be objected to what we recommend, that 
it is contrary to the practice of market-gardeners, who in general grow fruit- 
trees among their culinary crops ; but to this we reply, that the fruit of such 
trees, and the flavour of the crops which grow under them, must necessarily 
be far inferior to that of fruit grown on trees which draw their nourishment 
from the surface of the soil, and of vegetables which enjoy the full benefit of 
the sun and air. Market-gardeners know this, though their customers may 
not. A forcing department, a frame ground and a reserve ground, are 
accompaniments to every complete kitchen-garden, and even the smallest 
has at least a reserve and frame ground. The two latter accompaniments 
are generally placed exterior to the walls of the garden, in that part of the 
slip which is nearest the stables, and the forcing department is sometimes 
placed there also ; though more generally it consists of glass structures placed 
against the north wall of the garden. The best outer fence for a garden is a 
sunk wall, the ditch in which it is built serving as a main drain, into which 
all the drains in the interior may discharge themselves. The wall of this 
fence may be carried up three feet or four feet above the surface of the ground, 
to render it more formidable as a fence, without at the same time producing 
too much shelter and shade in the slip. In many places it is customary to 
surround tlie slip with a shrubbery bounded by a hedge, which has a very 
good effect for a few years while the trees are young, but when they grow 
large they produce an injurious degree of shelter and shade. The main 
entrance to a kitchen-garden should always be so placed as to look towards 
the main feature v/ithin, this feature necessarily being the south side of the 
north wall, not only because that wall supports the hot-houses when there 
are any within the garden, but because on it are grown the finest fruits. As 
an example of a kitchen-garden arranged agreeably to the foregoing obser- 
vations, but combining also a flower-garden, as being frequently required in 
a suburban villa, we refer to fig. 830. It contains one acre within the walls, 
and half an acre in the slips ; and the following references will explain the 
details. 



1. Flower-garden. 

2. Conservatory. 
8. Green-house. 

4. Forcing-house for flowers. 

5. Back- shed. 

6. Area for setting out green-house 

plants in summer. 

7. Culin^rydepartments with espaliers. 



8. Espalier-borders. 

9. Pond, surrounded with a stone 

margin. 

10. Forcing department. 

11. Water- basin. 

12. Ranges of pits for melons, cu- 

cumbers, &c. 

13. Pine-stovc. 



LAYING OUT THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



419 




Fig. 330. Plan oj a kitchen garden containing one acre within the walls, and half an acre in 
the- surrounding slips. 



420 DISTRIBUTION OF FRUIT-TllEES IN A KITCHEN GARDEN. 



14. Peach-house. 

15. Vinery. 

16. Pits. 

17. Back-shed. 

18. Department for compost, mixing 

dung, &c. 

19. Mushroom-sheds, tool-house, 

wintering vegetables, &c. 

20. Slips, bounded by a sunk wall 

Supposing the flower-gardens and 
references may stand as under : — 

1. Fruit-garden. 

2, 8, 4, 5. To be omitted, if not 

desirable. 
6, 7, 8. Culinary departments with 

espaliers. 
9. Pond. 

10. Forcing department. 

11. Water-basin. 

12. Ranges of pits, for melons, cu- 

cumbers, &c. 

13. Pine-stove. 

14. Peach-house. 

15. Vinery. 



fence, surmounted by an open 
iron railing. 

21. Gardener's house. 

22. Fruit and onion room, with 

lodging-room for under-gar- 
dener, and seed-room over. 

23. Yard to gardener s house. 

24. For pot-herbs. 

hothouses are tc be omitted, then the 

16. Pits. 

17. Back-shed. 

18. Department for compost, mixing 

dung, &c. 

19. Mushroom-sheds, tool-house, 

wintering vegetables^ &c. 

20. Slips, as before. 

21. Gardeners house. 

22. Fruit and onion room, with 
lodging-room for under-gar- 
dener, and seed-room over. 

23. Yard to gardener's house. 

24. For pot-herbs. 



The following plan, fig. 331, contains an acre within the walls, and ia 
without a gardener's house, or slips at the sides, the situation being sup- 
posed to render it necessary to conceal the walls by a plantation of evergreen 
shrubs made close to them. To prevent the roots of these shrubs from 
penetrating to the borders inside of the walls, their foundations must be at 
least three feet deep in the most impervious subsoil, and deeper still on soil 
that they will readily penetrate. The following are references : — 



a, a, Fruit-garden, the border next 
the outer fence for pot-herbs. 

5, &, Culinary departments with espa- 
liers. 

c, c. Forcing department. 

d, Department for compost, mixing 



dung, &c. 
e, Ranges of pits for 
cucumbers. 



melons and 



/, Pine-stove. 

Peach-house. 
h, Vinery. 

i. Pits. 
A;, Back- shed. 

/, Sheds for mushrooms, or for other 
purposes, 
m, m, Water-basins. 



Sect. II. The distribution of Fruit-trees in a kitchen-garden. 
887. The more delicate fruit-trees are always placed against walls, and 
those which are less so are planted in the open garden as standards, dwarfs, 
or espaliers. South of London the trees planted against walls are chiefly the 
grape, fig, peach, nectarine, and apricot. Sometimes there are planted against 
walls of a south aspect, one or two choice plums, a few cherries to come 
into early bearing ; and on the north side of an east and west wall, some 
Morello cherries and sometimes currants, to come in late ; the frait being 



DISTRIBUTION OF FRUIT-TREES IN A KITCHEN-GARDEN. 421 

covered with netting, to preserve it from birds and so retain it on the trees 
till Christmas. North of London, pears, and apples of the finer kinds, are 

trained against walls; and 
north of York, even the 
mulberry, which in Scot- 
land never ripens fruit as 
a standard. Nuts, such 
as the walnut, sweet ches- 
nut, and filbert, are almost 
\ always grown as stan- 
dards; but the crops of 
the two former are very 
precarious north of York, 
and but rarely ripened in 
Scotland. The only sug- 
gestions that can be given 
for selecting the trees 
which require a wall in 
any given situation are, to 
observe what has been 
done in gardens in the 
same locality or in similar 
localities. The lists given 
consist of varieties which 
have all been proved to be 
of first-rate excellence, and 
are, with few exceptions, 
the same as those, for the 
selection of which, we had 
the assistance of Mr. 
Thompson, by permission 
of the Horticultural So- 
ciety. In choosing from 
these lists for a garden in 
the north of Scotland, the 
grapes and the figs will be 
rejected altogether for the 
open walls, because they 
would not ripen there ; 
while for a garden in the 
south of England the ap- 
ples and pears would be 
^ rejected, because there the 
/ fruits would ripen suffi- 
ciently well in the open 
garden, as espaliers,dwarfs, 
or standards. We shall 
here give only the names 
of the kinds selected ; other 

Fig. 331. Flair of a kitchen-garden, containing one acre within particulars will be found 
the walls, and three quarters of an acre in the slips, at the in OUr fruit catalogue. - 
two ends. 




Lo 



30 



100 



422 



WALL FRUIT-TREES. 



SUBSECT, I. I 

888. Select List of Fruit-trees adaj 
marked * deserving the preference :- 

Apples. 

*Golden Pippin, S., S.E., or S.W. 
*Ribston Pippin, E. or W. 
^Nonpareil, S., S.E., or S.W. 
*Herefordshire Pearmain, E. or W., 

or S.E. 
Court of Wick, E. or W. 
Reinette du Canada, E.orW., or S.E., 

or S.W. 
Newtown Pippin, S.E. or S.W. 

* Cornish Gillyflower, S.E. or S.W. 
*Court-pendu Plat, S.E. or S.W., or 

E. or W. 
*Golden Hai-vey, S.E. or S.W. or E. 
or W. 

Scarlet Nonpareil, E. or W. 
Hughes's Golden Pippin, E. or W. 

* Pearson's Plate, E. or W. 

Pears. 

* Jargonelle, S.E. or W. 

* Marie Louise, E., W. 
Gansel's Bergamot, E., W. 
Duchesse d'Angouleme, E., W. 
*Beurre Diel, E,, W. 
*Hacon's Incomparable, E. or W. 
'^Glout Morceau, S.E. or W. 
*Passe Colmar, S.E. or S.^^^ 
Nelis d'Hiver, S.E. or W. 
Beurre d'Aremberg, S.E. or W. 
Colmar, S.E. or W. 

*Easter Beurre', S.E. or W. 
*BeurrMe Ranz,S.E. or W. 

Cherries, 
*May Duke, S., E., W. 
*Royal Duke, S., E., W. 
^Knight's Early Black, S., E., W. 
*Elton, S. E. W. 

* Florence, E. or W. 

*Early Purple Guigne, S., E., W. 
Black Tartarian, S., E., W. 
Late Duke, E., W., N. 
*Morello, E., W., N. 

Plums. 
*Royale Hative, S.E.W. 



l^all Fruit-trees. 

ted for walls of different aspects, those 

Drap d'Or, E. or W. 
*Green Gage, S., E., W. 
^Coe's Golden Drop, S., E., W. 

* Washington, S., E., W. 
*Purple Gage, S., E., W. 
Ickworth Imperatrice, E. or W. 
Kirke's Plum, E. or W. 

Drap d'Or, S., E., W. 

Apricots. 
*Large Early, S., E., W. 
*Moorpark, S., E., W. 
*Royal, S., E., W. 
*Turkey, S., E., W. 
Breda, E. or W. 

Peaches. 
Early Anne, S. 
*Grosse Mignonne, S. 
Royal George, S. 
*Noblesse, S. 
*Malta, S. 
*Bellegarde, S. 
*Barrington, S. 
*Late Admirable, S. 

Nectarines. 

*Elruge, S. 
^Violet Hative, S. 
White, S. 

Pitmaston Orange, S. 
Due de Tello, S. 

Figs. 

*Blue or black Ischia, S.E., S., or 
S.W. 

* White or brown Ischia, S., S.E., or 

S.W. 

Black Genoa, S.E., S., or S.W. 
White Genoa, S.E., S., or S.W. 
*Brown Turkey, S.E., S., or S.W. 
*Brunswick, S.E., S., or S.W. 
*Pregussata, S.E., S. or S.W. 

Ch^apes. 
*The Early Black, S. 
*White Muscadine, S. 
Grove End Sweet Water, S. 
Pitmaston White Cluster, S, 



WALL FRUIT-TREES. 



423 



Esperioiie, S. ably well on the open wall in the 

Black Hamburgh, S. climate of London in fine seasons. 

Grizzly Frontignan, S. 

The Mulbeny is sometimes planted 
The last two grapes ripen remark- ; against a west wall. 

889. Of all these different kinds of fruits, with the exception of the fig and 
the grape, both short-stemmed and long-stemmed trees are to be procured in 
the nurseries. The former, that is, the dwarfs, are for filling up the lower 
parts of the wall, and ultimately also the upper part ; and the latter, the 
standards or riders, are for filling up the upper part till the dwarfs are so far 
advanced as to take their place, when the riders are taken up and thrown 
away. Riders therefore should always be of early-bearing sorts. The plants 
may be procured either one year grafted, or one, two, or three years trained, 
the latter trees being double or treble the price of the former, but filling the 
wall much sooner. As riders are but of temporary duration, it is customary 
to procure them three or more years trained, that they may bear fruit imme- 
diately. When the walls are under twelve feet high it is scarcely necessary 
to plant riders ; for if three years trained trees are planted, the wall will be 
covered to the top in seven years. 

890. The distance from each other at which the trees should be planted de- 
pends on the species of tree, the climate, the height of the wall, and to a certain 
extent also on the width of the border. The following distances are calcu- 
lated for the dwarfs on a wall twelve feet high, with a border twelve feet 
wide, in the climate of London : — Peaches, nectarines, and figs, fifteen feet 
to twenty feet ; apricots, fifteen feet for the early sorts, and eighteen feet to 
twenty-four feet for the late strong-growing sorts, as apricots and plums do 
not bear pruning so well as other wall-trees ; cherries and plums, fifteen feet to 
twenty feet, or the stronger-growing plums, such as the Washington, twenty- 
four feet ; apples on dwarfing stocks, fifteen feet — if on free stocks, from 
twenty-five feet to thirty feet ; mulberrieS;, from fifteen feet to twenty feet. 
Vines may be planted among the other trees at thirty feet or forty feet dis- 
tance, and a single stem from each plant trained up to the coping of the wall, 
and then horizontally close under it, where if pruned in the spurring-in 
manner (797) it will bear abundantly, and produce more saccharine fruit 
than if it had been treated like a fruit-tree. If however the situation is 
favourable for vines, they may be planted from ten feet to fifteen feet apart, 
and trained either in the perpendicular manner (808), or horizontally with 
upright laterals, or in the fan manner ; or several plants may be introduced 
together, and trained in Mr. Hoare's manner, or in the Thomery system, to 
be afterwards described. One rider, peach, cherry, or plum, may be intro- 
duced between every dwaif, if the latter should be maiden plants ; but if 
they are dwarfs three or four years trained, riders are unnecessary excepting 
on walls above twelve feet high. 

891. For low walls the distances above given may be increased one-fourth, 
when the height of the wall is only nine feet, and one-half when it is six 
feet. The mode of training for walls under nine feet should generally be 
the half-fan manner, shown in fig. 318 in p. 375. The intervals between 
the trees may be filled up for three or four years with gooseberries or cur- 
rants ; each plant trained to a single upright stem, and spurred in. By thus 
having only one shoot from a plant, the top of the wall will be reached by 



424 



FRUIT-TREES FOR ESPALIERS AND DWARFS. 



that shoot in three or, at most, four years ; and as the permanent trees encroach 
on the temporary ones on each side, the latter can be taken out one at a 
time, so as never to leave an unseemly blank on the wall. 

892. Training^ in the case of walls twelve feet high and upwards, should 
be the fan manner for the peach, nectarine, early apricots, and figs ; the 
half-fan for the stronger apricots, plums, cherries, the more delicate pears, 
and the mulberry ; and the horizontal manner for the apple and the greater 
number of pears. 

893. Planting. — The plants should be placed on hillocks higher or lower 
according to the depth which the ground has been moved in preparing the 
border, in order that in two or three years, when the ground shall have 
finally settled, the collar or part of the stem whence the first roots proceed 
shall be between two inches and four inches above the general surface of the 
ground. The distance of the collar from the wall, when newly planted, 
should be for the more delicate-growing trees, such as the peach, from six 
inches to nine inches ; and for the more vigorous-growing kinds, such as the 
apple, pear, and cherry, from nine inches to a foot. We say nothing as to the 
season of planting, or the mode of performing the operation, these and every 
part of culture generally applicable to ligneous plants, having been treated of 
in detail in those parts of the work with which the reader is supposed to be 
already familiar. 

SuBSECT. II. — Fruit-trees for espaliers and dwarfs. 

894. Espaliers are commonly planted in lines parallel to the main walks in 
kitchen -gardens ; and next to the boundary -wall, and the correctly-edged 
and highly-kept gravel-walks, there is nothing which so much characterises 
the garden of a private gentleman, and distinguishes it from that of the 
market-gardener. No person, we think, who has a cultivated feeling for 
regularity and harmony of forms and lines, can think a walled kitchen- 
garden complete without espalier-railings bordering the walks. Lines of 
dwarf fruit-trees, or of fruit-shrubs, such as the gooseberry and currant, are 
so far good ; but they are far from having the effect of espalier- railings. 
Their forms bear no relation to that of the walls, whereas the espaliers are 
counterparts of them, and keep up the harmony of form. There is com- 
monly an espalier-rail on both sides of all the walks, excepting the sur- 
rounding one next the wall-border. On that border espalier-trees are not 
generally planted, though there are some exceptions. The espalier-rail is 
generally placed at three feet or four feet distant from the walk, and on the 
iimer side of the rail there is commonly a foot- path, two feet wide, at two or 
three feet distance ; so that these trees have a space eight feet wide, which may 
be considered as exclusively devoted to their roots. If the main walks are 
of flag-stone, supported on piers, or if they are formed of a thin layer of 
gravel on good soil, then we may add half the width of the walk, in addition 
to that already mentioned. If the six feet of border is not dug and cropped, 
but only slightly manured on the surface, and once a year gently stirred 
with the three-pronged fork, the trees will bear abundantly ; but if the 
ground is dug and cropped, or if flowers are grown on it, the crop, from 
the roots being forced to descend to the subsoil, and to produce more wood 
than they can properly ripen, and the trees being thus forced to take a 
habit of luxuriance rather than of fruitfulness, the fruit produced will be 
few and without flavour. 



FRUIT-TREES FOR ESPALIERS AND DWARFS. 



425 



895. //' dwarfs or standards trained in the conical manner are substituted 
for espaliers, the stems of the trees should be five feet or six feet from the 
walk, and the path in the inside should be at an equal distance from them. 
This will give a border of ten feet or twelve feet in width, besides the width 
of the path ; and if the ground is not dug and the trees carefully trained, an 
immense quantity of fruit will be produced. If the trees are standards, 
trained in the spurring-in manner, the line of trees need not be farther than 
three feet from the walk, and the footpath in the inner side may also be at 
three feet distance, which will give a border six feet in width. As the 
spurred-in trees will grow twelve feet high, and if on dwarfing-stocks, and 
the border not dug, will bear abundantly, we know no mode in which so 
much fruit can be produced on so limited a surface of ground, excepting 
always the espalier mode, by which the trees do not occupy above a foot in 
width. In order to prevent the roots of espaliers, dwarfs, cones, and all 
other border-trees from extending among the culinary vegetables, they may 
be cut off every three or four years about a foot from the inner path, and 
the soil being there enriched, abundant nutriment will be supplied to keep 
the trees in a bearing state. 

Espalier-rails are variously constructed. The simplest mode is to 
drive in stakes, which may be of young larch trees, or of any other young 
wood disbarked and steeped in Burnett's composition, at two feet apart, with 
temporary stakes of a slight description between ; the latter being for the 
purpose of training forward the grow- 
ing shoot of each horizontal branch 
from one permanent stake to another, 1 
during the growing season. Thus in | 
fig. 832, Nos. 1, 2, 8, and 4, represent 
permanent stakes, and a, &, tern- Fig. 332. Prcgressive Espaiier-raii. 
porary ones. These latter may be removed from between Nos. 1 and 2 when 
they are no longer of any use there, and placed between Nos. 2 and 8 till the 
growing shoots obtain a bearing on the stake No. 8, when they may be 
removed to the space between Nos. 8 and 4, and so on. 

Another mode is to drive in stakes of the proper height, and eight inches or 
nine inches apart, beginning at the centre of each tree, and extending them on 
each side as the tree advances in growth. In the first stage of training, the stakes 
require to stand as close together as twelve inches or fourteen inches, and to be 
arranged in regular order to the full height of five feet, with a rail slightly 
fastened on the top of them for neatness' sake, as well as to steady them. 
If stakes of small ash, Spanish chesnut, or the like, from coppices or thin- 
nings of young plantations, be used, they will last for three or four years, 
provided they are from one and a half to two inches in diameter at a foot 
from, the bottom. They need not be extended further, in the first instance, 
than the distance to be considered probable the trees may reach in three 
years' growth : at that period, or the following season, they will all re([uire 
to be removed, and the new ones may be placed on each side, to the extent 
that the trees may be thought to require while these stakes last, finishing 
the top, as before, with a rail. As the trees extend their horizontal branches 
and acquire substance, the two stakes on each side of the one that supports 
the centre leader of the tree can be spared, and removed to any of the 
extremities where wanted. And as the tree extends further and acquires 
more substance, every other stake will be found sufficient ; and the centre 




426 



FRUIT-TREES FOR ESPALIERS AND DWARFS. 



Stake can be spared also, after the leader has reached its destined height and 
is of a sufficient substance to support itself erect. When such a form of 
training is completed, and the branches of sufficient magnitude, about six, 
eight, or twelve stakes will be sufficient for the support of the horizontal 
branches, even when they have the burden of a full crop of fruit. At any 
other time, about six stakes to each tree will be all that are necessary. 

897. A wooden espalier-rail, of great neatness and durability, is formed 
of stakes of young larch-trees, or spruce firs, charred at the lower ends, driven 
two feet into the ground so as to stand five feet high, and connected by a rail at 
top, forming a cap to the uprights. The larch-trees should be girdled (777) 
a year before being cut, and it has been found that they will last longer if 
not deprived of their bark. There are many handsome espalier-rails cf 
this kind in Scotland ; for example, at Yester, in East-Lothian. When 
the Scotch pine is used for stakes the bark should be removed, as it does not 
adhere like that of the larch and the spruce fir. 

898. Espalier-raUs of cast-iron consist of a top and bottom horizontal 
rail, into which upright rails are fixed at from six inches to nine inches 
apart, with standards at every ten feet or twelve feet, which are let into 
blocks of stone, firmly fixed in the soil, as shown in fig. 333. Wrought 
wooden espalier-rails are also formed in the same manner as cast-iron 
rails, and the standards let into iron sockets, which are fixed in stone 
posts. 



u 



Fig. 333. Cast-iron Espalier-rail. 



899. Espalier-rails of wrought-iron may be formed of hoop and wire 
iron, either single or double, as shown in figs. 67 to 69 in p. 231 and 232, of 
the Sub. Arch, and Landscape Gardener ; or of strained iron- wire, as shown 
in fig. 334> This forms by far the handsomest, cheapest, and if occasionally 
painted, will doubtless also form one of the most durable of espalier rails. It 
was first erected in the kitchen garden at Carclew, and a full account of the 
manner of putting it up will be found in the Gardeners Magazine for 1839. 
The total cost at Carclew was from Is, 6d. to 2s. per linear yard. Strained 
wire may be put up in this manner, either for espaliers or pleasure-ground 
fences, not only in straight lines, but in curves of every description. This 
is effected by means of underground braces, or underground perpendicular 



FKUIT-TRKKS FOR ESPALIERS AND DWARFS. 



427 




posts, and these posts may be either of stone or of cast-iron, and they may 
be built into masses of masonry where the soil is soft, or has been moved, 
several feet in depth. No brace need ever ap- 
pear above ground, as at 6, &, in fig. 834 ; nor "^^ 
should the posts ever appear to rise out of the < 
naked soil, as do a, a, «, in the figure, but always 
out of a block of stone. Where the soil is 
on turf, this block, which may be six inches 
square, need not rise more than an inch above 
the surface ; but where the ground is to be dug 
as in a kitchen garden, the upper surface of the 
block may be nine Laches, or a foot square, and 
may rise two inches, or three inches above the 
surface of the soU. 

The reasons for a stone base are as follow : 
— All materials which have been prepared for 
the purposes of construction are considered as 
thus rendered subject to the laws of architec- 
ture ; and the first law is, that every superstruc- 
ture must have an architectural base, on which 
it is placed. Thus, speaking with reference to 
design, every perpendicular line must rest upon 
a horizontal one ; and speaking with reference 
to materials, this horizontal line must be of the 
same, or of a kind analogous to that of the per- 
pendicular ; of a kind which must at all events 
be equally, if not more firm and durable than 
it is. Live wood, that is, growing trees, may 
rise out of soil, but never architectural wood, 
that is, squared posts, which ought always to 
rise out of stone. If this be true of wood, of 
course it must be much more so of iron, which, 
though harder than either wood or stone, yet 
is not nearly so durable as the latter mate- 
rial, which consequently forms a proper base 
for it to rest on. 

Espalier-rails and pleasure-ground fences of 
this kind are put up in the best and most 
economical manner by Porter and Co., of 
Thames-street, London; and by Cottam and 
Hallen, of Winsley-street, Oxford-street. 

900. Dwarfs may be allowed to take their 
natural shape, but they harmonise much better 
with the regularity and symmetry of a walled 
garden when they are trained in regular shapes, 
which may be formed of wooden rods, stakes 
with the bark on, or iron-wire. Trees spurred 

in, or trained in the conical manner, require | ^ 

no framework as guides. It is scarcely neces- 
sary to add that all dwarfs, and all standards to be trained in the conical 
manner or spurred in, should be grafted on dwarfing stocks. 




428 



FRUIT-TREES FOR ESPALIERS AND DWARFS. 



dwarfs, or standards trained, conically or 
,s being preferable, as the whole are nearly 



Louise Bonne (of Jersey). 
Napoleon. 
Glout Morceau. 
Nelis d'Hiver. 
Hacon's Incomparable. 
Chaumontel. 
Passe Colmar 
Knight's Monarch. 
Ne plus Meuris. 
Beurre Diel. 
Easter Beurre. 
Beurre Ranee. 

Cherries. 
*May Duke. 
*Morello. 
*Kentish. 
Royal Duke. 
*Elton. 

Knight's early Black. 
Bigarreau. 
Late Duke. 
Florence. 

Plums, 
Royale Hative. 

* Green 
Orleans. 
*Fotheringhara. 

* White Magnum Bonum. 
*Blue Perdrigon. 
Purple Gage. 
Washington. 
Ickworth Imperatrice. 
Coe's Golden Drop. 
Kirke's. 



901. Select list for espaliers, 
spurred in ; none are marked * i 
of equal merit : — 

Dessert Apples. 
Oslin. 

King of the Pippins. 
Wormsley Pippin. 
Golden Reinette. 
Hughes' Golden Pippin. 
Court of Wick. 
Ribston Pippin. 
Adams's Pearmain. 
Pearson's Plate. 
Golden Harvey. 
Court Pendu Plat. 
Reinette du Canada. 
Braddick's Nonpareil. 
Old Nonpareil. 
Scarlet Nonpareil. 
Boston Russet. 
Downton Nonpareil. 

Kitchen Apples. 
Dumelow's Seedling. 
Royal Russet. 
Alfriston. 

Brabant Bellefleur. 
Kentish Codlin. 

Pears. 
Jargonelle. 
Citron des Carmes. 
Dunmore. 
Hessel. 

Beurre de Capiaumont. 
Flemish Beauty. 
Duchesse d'Angouleme. 
Marie Louise. 
Beurre Bosc. 

Other fruit-trees, the mulberry, quince, medlar, service, and filbert, are 
sometimes introduced as espalier trees or dwarf standards, especially where 
there is no orchard, and perhaps some varieties of walnut and sweet chestnut 
might be so introduced. 

902. The plants may be procured either one year grafted or some years 
trained. All those to be planted on espaliers should be trained in the 
liorizontal manner ; and in planting, the greatest care must be taken to place 
the plants on hills, so that when the groimd has finally settled, their collars 
may be an inch or two above the surface. The distance at which they 
are placed from the espalier- rail may be from six inches to niriC inches, and 
the distance from plant to plant may be as follows :— 



FRUIT-SHRUBS. 



429 



To be trained as espaliers,— apples on crab stocks, twenty to thirty feet • 
cherries, fifteen to twenty feet; pears on free stocks, twenty-fiye to thirty 
feet-on dwarfing stocks, twenty to twenty-five feet ; plums, twenty to 
twenty-five feet ; mulberries, twenty to thirty feet, with gooseberries or 
currants as temporary plants between ; quinces, medlars, and services, fifteen 
to twenty feet ; and walnuts and sweet chestnuts, where they are tried on 
espaliers, thirty to forty feet. ^ 

To be tramed as dw;rfs,-apples and pears, ten to fifteen feet : cherries 
and plums, ten to twelve feet. 

903. Standard fruit-trees y^e would on no account admit in the open 
garden, for reasons already given. If we made any exception, it would be 
m favour of a mulberry ; but in that case we would surround it with a circle 
ot turf, which, while it would save the dropping fruit from being injured 
would prevent the ground from being dry. If in any case it were absolutely' 
required to have standard fruit-trees in a walled garden, we would place 
them in a compartment by themselves, and never dig or crop the ground 
under them. This would be to plant an orchard within a walled garden 
to which we see little objection except that it would require a greater 
extent ot walhng than if the orchard were exterior to the walls. 

SuBSECT. lU.^FruU-Shrubs. 

904. Gooseberries and currants are frequently planted as espaliers or dwarfs 
along the margins of walks; but to train these fruits on espaliers is to pro- 
duce them at an unnecessary expense, unless the saving of room is a material 
object ; and as dwarfs they are in general too low to make an effective sepa- 
ration of the walk and its border from the mterior of the compartment. They 
are therefore, in our opmion, much better cultivated in plantations by them- 
selves. The distance may be ten feet between the rows, and six feet 
between the plants in the row. Gooseberries and currants require an opea 
airy situation, and a cool moist loamy soil. 

Raspberries prefer a situation somewhat shaded, as in a west or east 
border ; or for a late crop in a north border. 

The Cranberry, where it is grown as a fruit-shrub, requires a peat soU 
kept somewhat moist, and with the bilberry and some other wild fruits may 
be conveniently placed in the slip. 

905. Select list of &,i:t.shmbs, those marked * being preferable, especially 
for small gardens :-— ^ tr j 



Gooseberries, Red and Small Sorts. 
*Red Champagne. 
*Raspberry. 
*Ilough Red. 
Red Turkey. 
Small dark rough Red. 
* Scotch best jam. 
Miss Bold's. 

Large Sorts. 
*Boardman's British Crown. 
Melling's Crown Bob. 
*Keens's Seedling. 



Hartshom^s Lancashire Lad. 
Red Rose. 
*Leigh's Rifleman. 

* Farrow's Roaring Lion. 
*Red Warrington. 

Gooseberries, White, Small Sortfi. 

* White Crystal. 

* White Champagne. 
*Early White. 
White Damson. 

* White Honey. 
*Woodward's White smith. 



430 



SELECTION OF FRUIT-TREES 



Large Sorts 

* Dixon's Golden Yel low. 
Prophet's Regulator. 
Prophet's Rockwood. 

* Wellington's Glory. 

* Taylor's Bright Venus. 
*Cleworth's White Lion. 
'"Saunders's Cheshire LasS. 
Stringer's Maid of the Mill. 
Cook's White Eagle. 

Gooseberries, Green, Small Sorts. 
*Early Green Hairy. 

* Hepburn Green Prolific. 
*Glenton Green, or York Seedling. 
'^Pitmaston Green Gage. 

Green Walnut. 

Latye Sorts. 
Lovart's Elisha. 
Hopley's Lord Crewe. 
Parkinson's Laurel, 

* Collier's Jolly Angler. 
Briggs's Independent. 
*Massey's Heart of Oak. 

* Edwards's Jolly Tar. 
Large Smooth Green. 



Gooseberries, Yellow, Small Sorts. 
Sulphur. 

*Yellow Champagne. 
*Early Sulphur. 
^Rumbullion. 

* Hepburn Yellow Astor. 

Currants, Red. 
Red Dutch. 
^Knight's Large Red. 
*Knight's Early Red. 

* Knight's Sweet Red. 

Currants, White, 
*White Dutch. 

* Champagne, which is pale red or 

flesh-coloured. 

Currants, Black. 

^Naples. 
Grape. 

Raspberries. 
Early Prolific. 
■*Red Antwerp. 

* Yellow Antwerp. 

* Twice-bearing. 
*Barnet. 
Cornish. 



906. Plants of gooseberries and currants may be procured from the 
nurseries, of one, two, or three years' growth ; care should be taken not 
to plant them too deep ; if against espaliers, they are trained in the perpen- 
dicular manner (808) ; but if in compartments, or along walks, as dwarfs, 
they are best left to take their natural shapes ; thinning out the branches so 
as to give free access of light and air to the interior of the bush. Raspberries 
being suflfruticose plants, the wood formed in one year dying down the next, 
can only be procured of one year's growth, and they require little pruning 
except that of shortening the shoots. Their management, and that of the 
gooseberry and currant, will be found in our Fruit Catalogue. 

SuBSECT. IV. — Selection of Fruit-trees adapted for an Orchard. 

907. Few kitchen-gardens can produce a sufficient supply of apples, pears, 
and nuts within the walls, and therefore it commonly happens that a planta- 
tion or 07'chard is formed either in the slip, or in some spot adjoining the 
kitchen-garden. This plantation should always be separated from the 
culinary departments by some appropriate line of demarcation. This may 
frequently be a dwarf wall, on which, if the aspect is suitable, young fruit- 
trees may be trained for the purpose of removal, to fill up occasional blanks in 
the principal walls. In the plan, fig. 830, in p. 419, the semichcular plot 
at the south end of the garden might be separated from the walled garden by 
a dwarf wall, at the same distance from the main wall as the side fences are 
distant from the main side walls, and the space so walled-ofF would form a 
very convenient area for the orchard ; provided it were suitable in all 



ADAPTED FOR AN ORCHARD. 



431 



other respects. Sometimes the trees are distributed in groups over a lawn 
or paddock, so as to constitute the main part of the woody scenery of a 
small villa. They are also occasionally mixed in with ornamental trees and 
shrubs ; a most incongruous assemblage in our opinion, and one which can 
never form an efficient substitute for an orchard. In whatever situation 
standard fruit-trees are planted, the subsoil should be rendered dry, and the 
surface soil put into good heart by manure. A loamy soil on a dry firm 
clayey or loamy, or rocky, subsoil, is preferable to a sandy soil on gravel, 
more especially for apples ; but pears and cherries will grow on a drier and 
lighter soil, provided it be of some depth. Wherever the common hawthorn 
grows luxuriantly with a clear healthy bark, there orchard fruit- trees will 
thrive. 

908. The plants may be dwarfs, if the plantation is to be exclusively 
devoted to fruit-trees, and the ground neither cropped nor laid down in grass ; 
but standards are preferable, as admitting more light and air. A very 
convenient and economical mode is to plant rows of standards and dwarfs 
alternately : the dwarfs, being on dwarfing-stocks, come first into bearing, 
and may be removed as the branches of the standards extend themselves. 
Gooseberries, currants, and raspberries may be planted in the intervals, 
and retained there for two or three years ; but they ought to be removed as 
soon as they are in the slightest degree shaded by the trees. As this is very 
generally neglected, we should prefer having no fruit-shrubs at all, but 
leaving the surface naked to be occupied entirely by the roots of the dwarfs 
and standards. All the plants ought to be set on little hills, more especially 
if the subsoil is such as to be readily penetrated by the roots, or if the ground 
has been previously trenched ; the great object being to preserve the roots 
near the surface. The distances at which the trees may be planted are : — 
For standards, apples, and pears, from thirty feet to forty feet in a medium 
soil ; or in a thin soil and exposed situation, from twenty-five feet to 
thirty feet ; and in a rich soil, from forty feet to fifty feet. Cherries and 
plums, from twenty-five feet to thirty-five feet, according to soil and situ- 
ation. For dwarfs on free stocks, one -half the above distances will suffice ; 
and where dwarfs on dwarfing-stocks are to be planted among standards, 
three dwarfs may be planted for every standard : that is, there may be a row of 
dwarfs between every tw^o rows of standards, and a dwarf alternating with 
every standard in the row. The standards, if they have been two or three 
years grafted, will probably require to be supported by stakes, to which the 
stems a short distance below the head ought to be carefully tied with hay- 
bands. Sheathing the stems of standard trees, especially when they have 
been late planted or have not abundance of roots, should not be neglected, 
for reasons already given. The sheathing, which may be of moss, fern, 
or straw, tied on with matting, or simply of straw or hay ropes wound 
round, may be left on till it drops oflf of itself. Mulching (831) is also 
of great use in late planting. 

909. Select list of standard fruit-trees, adapted for an orchard or plantation 
, subsidiary to a kitchen-garden ; those marked with t being preferable : — 

Apples, tOslin. 
+Early red Margaret. Duchess of Oldenburgh. 

tirish Peach. White Astrachan. 

tSummer Golden Pippin. | tKerry Pippin. 

F F 2 



SELECTION 



OP FRUIT-TREES 



Dutch Codlin. 
Kilkenny Codlin. 
tManks Codlin. 
tKeswick Codlin. 
Alexander. 
tHawthornden. 
HoUandbury. 
tWormsley Pippins. 
fKing of the Pippins, 
t Blenheim Pippin. 
tGolden Reinette. 
tFearn's Pippin, 
t Hughes Golden Pippin. 
tClaygate Pearmain. 
Hicks's fancy Gravenstein. 
tCourt of Wick, 
t Pearson's Plate. 
tBeachamwell. 
t Dutch Mignonue. 
Scarlet Pearmain. 
tRibston Pippin. 
Golden Pippin. 
tMargil. 

tSyke House Russet. 
Sam Young. 
Barcelona Pearmain. 
fMaclean's Favourite. 
tPennington's Seedling. 
tAdams's Pearmain. 
tHubbard's Pearmain. 
tHerefordshire Pearmain. 
tGolden Harvey. 
Coe's Golden Drop. 
tCourt Pendu Plat. 
tBoston Russet. 
Lamb Abbey Pearmain. 
t Reinette du Canada. 
tLondon Pippin. 
Newtown Pippin. 
tBraddick's Nonpareil. 
tDownton Nonpareil. 
tOld Nonpareil, 
t Scarlet Nonpareil. 
tCornish Gilliflower. 
tDumelow's Seedling. 
tRoyal Russet. 
tAlfreston. 

tBedfordshire Foundling. 
tBrabant Bellefleur. 
Sturmer Pippin. 
fRhode Island Greening. 



Hambledon Deux Ans. 
Gloria Mundi. 

Pears. 
tCitron des Carmes. 
tAmbrosia. 
t Dunmore. 
tAlthorp Crassane. 
tSummer St. Germain, 
t Flemish Beauty. 
tMarie Louise. 
tDuchesse d'Angouleme. 
Doyenne Blanc. 
Doyenne Gris. 
tBeurre de Capiaumont. 
Fondante d'Automne. 
f Autumn Colmar. 
tBeurre Diel. 
tBon Chretien Fondante. 
Louise Bonne (of Jersey). 
tBeurre Bosc. 
tHacon's Incomparable. 
tThompson's. 
tNapoleon. 
t Winter Nelis. 
tGlout Morceau. 
t Passe Colmar. 
t Knight's Monarch. 
Ne Plus Meuris. 
tEaster Beurre. 
tBeurre de Ranz. 

Obs. — A greater quantity of the last 
six varieties should be planted than 
of any of the other sorts. In fact, be- 
ing the latest keeping sorts, the sup- 
ply will chiefly depend on them for 
the half of the season ; and conse- 
quently a propoi-tionate number of 
trees of these varieties should be 
planted. Formerly many gardens 
had not a single winter or spring pear, 
though they possessed a superabun- 
dance of autumn ones. In future 
this will certainly be provided against ; 
more especially if the proper means 
be resorted to for preserving the fruit 
during winter and spring : that is, 
packing them in earthenware vessels, 
or large new garden pots, and placing 
them in a cool, dry cellar^ ^ 



ADAPTED FOR AN ORCHARD. 



433 



Cherries. 



Dessert Plums* 
t Purple Gage 
t Washington. 
fCoe's Golden Drop. 
1 1 ck worth Imperatrice. 
White Imperatrice. 
tKirke's. 

fGoe's fine late Red. 
fDrap d'Or. 
-j-Diapree Rouge, 
-j- Nectarine. 
Virgin. 



tMay Duke. 

tRoyal Duke. 

tKnight's early Black. 

tElton. 

tDownton. 

f Bigarreau. 

tBlack Eagle. 

Early Purple Guigne. 

tLate Duke. 

tKentish. 

tMorello. 

Biittner s October Morello. 



Kitchen Plums. 
Shropshire Damson. 
Orleans, 
t Early Orleans. 
Mirabelle. 



Plums. 
tRoyal Hative. 
tGreen Gage. 



910. Training. — All the trees may be allowed to take their natural shapes, 
taking care, by pruning them for some years after they are planted, to give 
their main branches an upright direction, diverging from the main stem at 
an angle not greater than 45°, that they may be the better able to support 
a load of fruit. With many kinds, however, such is the divergent or pen- 
dulous character of the branches that this direction cannot be given to them, 
in which case the object should be, to increase the number of main branches 
so as to lessen the load to each. This is particularly necessary in the case 
of apples and pears. 

911. Culture of the soil. — Where fruit is the main object, the soil ought 
never either to be cropped with vegetables or laid down in grass, because in 
both cases the trees are deprived of nourishment. In the case of grass, air 
is excluded ; and in orchards where culinary vegetables are grown, the roots 
are prevented from coming up to the surface, and being forced into the sub- 
soil, feed there on a more watery nutriment, which produces shoots of 
spongy wood without blossom-buds, and in many cases infested with canker. 
Where the surface is kept in grass, there is less danger from canker and 
spongy shoots, provided the trees have been planted on hills ; but in this 
case, from want of nourishment, the fruit will be smaller and less succulent. 
If, however, the soil is naturally good, and occasionally manured on the 
surface, more and better flavoured fruit will be produced in such an orchard 
than in one cropped with culinary vegetables. As no orchard can be pas- 
tured unless each separate tree is inclosed, which, where the ground is 
properly covered with trees, would probably cost more than the pasture 
was worth, it will in general be found better, where grass must be intro- 
duced, to mow it and supply manure, till the stems of the trees are so large 
as to be able to protect themselves. It is almost unnecessary to observe, 
that as soon as the branches of the trees approach within two feet or three 
feet of each other, the branches of the temporary trees should be shortened 
in (759), and soon after removed by degrees, so as at ail times to leave a clear 
space of five feet or six feet round the head of every tree. 



434 



CROPPING. 



CHAPTER II. 

CROPPING AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF A KITCHEN-GARDEN. 

912. The fruit-trees and fruit-shrubs being planted, the former against 
the walls and espalier-rails, and the latter in plantations by themselves in 
the compartmehts, the remaining part of the garden is devoted to herbaceous 
vegetables. The number of these required to be grown in every kitchen- 
garden is considerable, and, as we have seen (177 and 535), the soil ought to 
be managed and the crops sown or planted according to some preconceived 
system. With respect to the soil, this consists in changing the surface in the 
manner explained (586), in stirring and manuring it, weeding, watering, 
&c., on the principles detailed in 832, 813, and 821 ; and we shall now 
explain the system of cropping and rotations. 

Sect. I. Cropping. 

913. The herbaceous vegetables grown in Mtchen-gardens are of two 
kinds : perennials which remain several years in the ground, such as aspa- 
ragus, seakale, rhubarb, horse-radish, artichokes, and perennial sweet herbs, 
and strawberries. The first of these crops remains on the same piece of 
ground seldom less than ten or twelve years, and the others are renewed 
generally about half that period or oftener. The other and by far the more 
numerous crops are annuals or biennials, and many of them only remain on 
the ground during a part of the year. The proportion of the perennials 
being fixed on, little more trouble is required with them ; but the annuals, 
being numerous and of short duration, the proportionate quantities that 
require to be sown or planted to supply the demands of the kitchen, and yet 
to be in due proportion to the extent of the ground to be cropped, and the 
kinds of crops which ought to succeed each other, require the constant 
exercise of the gardener's judgment. The first point is to determine the 
proportion of different crops, and the next is their succession : though 
the proportions will depend to a certain extent on the peculiar taste or 
wants of the family, and whether they reside on the spot or at a distance — 
whether they have a farm for growing the winter supply of potatoes, &c., 
yet some rules or hints may be devised which are generally applicable. 

914. General proportions of crops. — The greatest breadth of surface in 
almost every garden requires to be sov/n with peas ; but as this crop only 
lasts at an average about six months, a second crop may be planted on the 
same ground in the same year. The cabbage tribe, including cauliflower, 
broccoli, savoys, Brussels sprouts and borecoles, occupy the next greatest 
space in most gardens, and they very generally succeed the crops of peas. 
Turnips are perhaps the next most extensive crop, unless indeed the main 
summer crops of potatoes are grown in the kitchen-garden, which is not 
desirable where they can be grown on the farm ; the potato being a crop 
that, for some reason or other which we do not pretend to explain, is seldom 
found so mealy and high-flavoured when grown in a garden as when grown 
in a field. There are next several crops, each of which have nearly an 
equal claim for space, viz. — carrots, onions, beans, kidney-beans, celery, and 
winter spinach. Jerusalem artichokes and red-beet crops may come next in 
the order of space required ; and then leeks, garlic and shallots, salsafy 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 



435 



and scorzonera. Lettuce, endive, radish, cress, mustard, chervil, parsley, 
and other summer salading, garnishings or herbs, may in general be grown 
among other crops, or in the front margin of wall-borders. 

915. In determining the extent of each crop, the nature of the produce 
must be taken as a guide. It would be of little use to have a less quantity 
of any crop than would not at a single gathering produce a dish sufficient for 
a family of several persons. This for such articles as asparagus and peas 
requires considerable breadth of ground ; but this breadth once planted and 
in bearing, will afford several or perhaps many gatherings during the time 
it is in season. On the other hand, where a succession of crops of turnips or 
carrots is w^anted, if only two or three square yards were sown each time, 
that space would afford one or two dishes. For such articles as salsafy and 
scorzonera, which in most English families may perhaps not be asked for 
above two or three times in a season, a very small surface will be sufficient. 
When a gardener enters on a new place, before he determines on the extent 
of particular crops, he ought to consult the cook or housekeeper as to the 
style of cookery, the ordinary amount of company, and the seasons when 
extraordinary supplies are wanted, with the periods when vegetables and 
fruits require to be sent to a distance, with other particulars bearing upon the 
kind of crops to be grown. Having formed general ideas on the extent of 
each crop, he will next be able to determine on a system of succession, or, as 
it is called, rotation. 

916. The quantity of seed for crops, proportioned as above described for a 
garden of an acre and a quarter, may be as follows : — Peas, thirty quarts : 
white cabbage of different kinds, six oz. ; savoys, one and a half oz, ; Brussels 
sprouts, two oz. ; cauliflowers, three oz. ; broccoli, seven oz. ; borecoles, 
two oz. ; red cabbage, one oz. ; kohl rabi, one oz. ; turnips, white, eight oz. ; 
yellow, two oz. ; early potatoes, one bushel ; carrots, seven oz. ; onions, 
eight oz. ; beans, broad, six qts., narrow, three qts. ; kidney beans, three 
qts. ; scarlet runners, two qts. ; celery, three oz, ; Flanders spmach, one qt. ; 
summer spinach, two qts.; Jerusalem artichoke, one peck; red beet, 
four oz. ; parsneps, four oz. ; leeks, two oz. ; garlic, half lb. ; shallots, 
three lbs. ; salsify, half oz. ; scorzonera, half oz. ; lettuce, Cos, five oz., 
cabbage, three oz. ; endive, two oz. ; radish, three pts. ; cress, one pt. ; 
mustard, one qt. ; parsley, two oz. 

Sect. II. Rotation of Crops. 

91 7. Crops m horticulture are made to follow each other according to two 
distinct plans or systems, which may be termed successional cropping and 
simultaneous cropping ; the former is generally followed in private gardens, 
and the latter in market gardens. 

918. Successional cropping is that in which the ground is wholly occupied 
with one crop at one time, to be succeeded by another crop, also wholly of 
one kind. For example, onions to be followed by winter turnips, or potatoes 
to be followed by borecole. Simultaneous cropping is that in which several 
crops are all coming forward on the gi'ound at the same time. For 
example, onions, lettuce, and radishes, sown broadcast ; or peas, potatoes, 
broccoli, and spinach, sown or planted in rows. 

919. The object to be attained by a system of cropping is that of procuring 
the greatest quantity and the best quality of the desired kind of produce, at 
the least possible expense of labour, time, and manure ; and in order that 



436 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 



this object may be effectually obtained, there arc certain principles which 
ought to be adopted as guides. The chief of these is to be derived from a 
knowledge of what specific benefit or injury every culinary plant does to the 
soil, with reference to any other culinary plant. It ought to be known 
whe4lier particular plants injure the soil by exhausting it of particular 
principles ; or whether, as has been lately conjectured by De CandoUe, and 
as some think proved, the soil is rendered unfit for the growth of the same 
or any allied species, by excretions from the roots of plants ; while the same 
excretions acting in the way of manure, add to the fitness of the soil for the 
production of other species. The prevailing opinion, as every one knows, 
has long been, that plants exhaust the soil, generally, of vegetable food ; 
particularly of that kind of food which is peculiar to the species growing on 
it for the time being. For example, both potatoes and onions exhaust the 
soil generally ; while the potato deprives it of something that is necessary 
to insure the reproduction of good crops of potatoes ; and the onion of some- 
thing which is necessary for the reproduction of large crops of onions. 
According to the theory of De Candolle, both crops exhaust the soil generally, 
and both render it unfit for the particular kind of crop : but this injury, 
according to his hypothesis, is not eflfected by depriving the soil of the 
particular kind of nutriment necessary for the particular kind of species ; 
but by excreting into it substances peculiar to the species with which 
it has been cropped, which substances render it unfit for having these 
crops repeated. Both these theories, or rather perhaps hypotheses, are 
attended with some difi&culty in the case of plants which remain a 
gi-eat many years on the same soil; as, for example, perennial-rooted 
herbaceous plants and trees. The difficulty, however, is got over in both 
systems : by the first, or old, theory, the annual dropping and decay of the 
foliage are said to supply at once general nourishment and particular nourish- 
ment ; and by the second, or new, theory, the same dropping of the leaves, 
by the general nourishment which it supplies, is said to neutralize the parti- 
cular excretions. A wood of the pine or fir tribe standing so thick that 
their roots will form a net-work under the surface, will not poison each 
other ; but remove these trees, and place a new plantation on the same soil, 
and they will not thrive ; owing, as we think, to the principles most condu- 
cive to the growth of coniferous trees being exhausted, as is explained 
chemically by Liebig. The practical inference from either theory is much 
the same — that is, a change of crops; which is also in confonnity with 
the experience and observation of those who believe in the old theory. 
The rules adopted by the best gardeners are as follow : — 

1. Crops of plants belonging to the same natural order or tribe, or to the 
natural order and tribe most nearl}'- allied to them, should not follow each 
other. Thus, turnips should not follow any of the cabbage tribe, sea-kale, 
or horseradish ; nor peas, beans. 

2. Plants which draw their nourishment chiefly from the surface of the 
soil should not follow each other, but should alternate with those which 
draw their nourishment in great part from the subsoil. Hence, carrots and 
beets should not follow each other ; nor onions and potatoes. 

o. Plants wliich draw a great deal of nourishment from the soil should 
succeed, or be succeeded by, plants which draw less nourishment. Hence a 
crop grown for its fruit, such as the pea ; or for its roots or bulbs, such as 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 



437 



the potato or the onion ; should be followed by such as are grown solely for 
their leaves, such as the common borecole, the celery, the lettuce, &c. 

4. Plants which remain for several years on the soil, such as strawberries, 
rhubarb, asparagus, &c., should not be succeeded by other plants which 
remain a long time on the soil, but by crops of short duration ; and the soil 
should be continued under such crops for as long a period as it remained 
under a permanent crop. Hence, in judiciously cropped gardens, the straw- 
berry compartment is changed every three or four years, till it has gone the 
circuit of all the compartments; and asparagus beds, sea-kale, &c. are 
renewed on the same principles. 

5. Plants, the produce of which is collected during summer, should be 
succeeded by those of which the produce is chiefly gathered in winter or 
spring. The object of this rule is, to prevent two exhausting crops from fol- 
lowing each other in succession. 

6. Plants in gardens are sometimes allowed to ripen their seeds ; in which 
case two seed-bearing crops should not follow each other in succession. 

These rules, and others of a like kind, apply generally to both systems of 
the successional crops ; and tliey are independent altogether of other rules or 
principles which may be drawn from the nature of the plants themselves ; 
such as some requiring an extraordinary proportion of air, lighty shade, 
moisture, &c. : or from the nature of the changes intended to be made 
on them by cultivation, such as blanching, succulency, magnitude, &c. We 
shall now notice the two systems separately. 

920. Successional cropping. — The plants calculated for this mode of crop- 
ping are such as require, during almost every period of their growth, the 
fullest exposure to the light and air, and remain a considerable time in 
the soil : these are, the turnip, the onion, the potato, the carrot, &c. If 
any of these crops are raised and brought forward under the shade of 
others, they will be materially injured both in quality and quantity ; 
though at the same time, while they are merely germinating, shade will not 
injure them. Hence successional cropping may be carried on in breadths of 
20 or 30 feet, between rows of tall-growing articles, without injury ; which 
approximates this manner of cropping to the simultaneous mode, which, 
wherever the soil is rich, is by far the most profitable. 

921. The simultaneous mode- of cropping is founded on the prmciples that 
most plants, when germinating, and for some time afterwards, thrive best in 
the shade ; and that tall-growing plants, which require to receive the light 
on each side, should be sown or planted at some distance from each other. 
Hence, tall-growing peas are sown in rows 1 0 or 12 feet apai-t ; and between 
them are planted rows of the cabbage tribe ; and again, between these are 
sown rows of spinach, lettuce, or radishes, &c. Hence, also, beans are planted 
in the same rows with cabbages (an old practice in the cottage gardens of 
Scotland), and so on. The great object, in this kind of cropping, is to have 
crops on the ground in different stages of growth ; so that, the moment the 
soil and the surface are released from one crop, another may be in an advanced 
state, and ready, as it were, to supply its place. For this purpose, when- 
ever one crop is removed, its place ought to be instantly supplied by plants 
adapted for producing another crop of the proper nature to succeed it. For 
example, where rows of tall marrow-fat peas have rows of broccoli between 
them, then the moment the peas are removed, a trench for celery may 
be formed where each row of peas stood ; and between the rows of broccoli 



43B 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 



in the places where lettuces were produced early in the season, may be sown 
drills of winter spinach. 

922. Of these two modes of cropping, the first is the one best calculated for 
poor soils, or for gardens where the supply of manure is limited ; the second 
cannot be prosecuted with success, except in soils which are light and 
extremely rich. It may be proper to observe here, that a system of croppmg 
can be carried to a much higher degree of perfection in a commercial garden, 
on a large scale, than in a private one ; because in the former whenever one 
crop is in perfection, it is removed and sent to market at once ; whereas, in 
a private garden, it is removed by dribblets. Hence in small gardens, Avhere 
labour and manure are of less consequence than economismg the extent of 
surface, it will often be found desirable to have a small reserve garden, with 
several frames, pots, and other requisites. As soon as one plant, or a few 
plants of any crop in a condition for gathering, are removed, the soil should 
be stirred, and a plant or plants (which should have been some days before 
potted in preparation) should be turned out of the pot, its fibres being care- 
fully spread out, and water supplied, so as to make it commence growing 
immediately. The use of potting is to prevent the plant from experiencing 
the slightest check in its removal ; and in autumn, as is well known, the loss 
of a single day, by the flagging of a plant, is of the utmost consequence. — 
(G. M., vol. xii. p. 481.) 

923. Successional and simultaneous cropping combined. — The following is 
from an excellent article on cropping, published in the Gardeners' Chronicle, 
The writer divides kitchen- garden crops into — 1. Perennial or stationary 
crops — 2. Rotation crops, which include all the principal annual crops, and 
— 3. Secondary crops, such as salads, spinach, &c., which are usually 
sown in vacancies between rotation crops. 

924. Order of rotation. — 1st year, peas and beans, succeeded by broccoli, 
savoys, winter greens, coUards, spring cabbage ; 2nd year, carrots, parsneps, 
beet, scorzonera, and salsafy ; 8rd year, onions, cauliflowers, turnips, suc- 
ceeded by spinach, spring onions, and other secondary crops ; 4th year, 
savoys, broccoli, winter greens, red cabbage, leeks ; 5th year, potatoes ; 
6th year, turnips, cabbage, broccoli ; 7th year, celery ; 8th, French beans, 
&c. — (^Gard. Chron., 1841, p. 180, with additions.^ 

925. Secondary crops are those of the shortest duration, such as lettuce, 
radishes, small salads, annual herbs, and very early peas and beans (sown 
in November), very early cauliflowers, very early turnips, and early pota- 
toes, all of which will require a warm south border. — (^Ibid.) 

926. Times of sawing and planting. — Peas and beans should be sown 
from February to J une ; the first crop of peas will be clear for early 
broccoli in the end of June, and for the other seasons until September for 
later broccoli, savoys, borecole, Brussels sprouts,^, coUards or coleworts, and 
spring cabbage ; this crop should have a slight coat of manure. Broccoli 
ground will be cleared of early sorts by winter, and should be ridged up all 
winter for a crop of carrots, which should be sown as early as possible ; the 
later broccoli, cole wort, sprouts, &c., will make way by April or the begin- 
ning of May for beet, parsneps, scorzonera, and salsafy. 1st year, carrots, 
beet, and parsneps, will be clear in the beginning of November, when the 
ground must be again ridged up for winter, and have a good coat of dung, 
ready for cauliflowers, onions, garlic, and shallots ; 2nd year, the two latter 
being planted in November, and also the principal crops of turnips sown 



PLANTING, SOWING, AND CULTIVATING. 



439 



in the end of March and April. Cauliflowers, onions, and turnips, will be 
clear from July to September ; the cauliflowers and shallots, &c., in July; 
— for autumn, spinach and endive ; the onions for winter spinach, and the 
turnips for spring onions, winter lettuce, and other secondary crops. 
Spinach, endive, and spring onions will be clear by the end of May for 
savoys, winter greens, red cabbage, cauliflowers, and leeks, all of which 
require a moderate coat of manure. Savoys, winter greens, red cabbage, 
&c., will be ready for early potatoes in April and May. Potatoes will 
make way in July and August for turnips, spring cabbage, late broccoli, and 
such crops, if wanted. Turnips, cabbage, broccoli, may be cleared in May 
for celery, and cardoon trenches — if all the ground is wanted ; but if not, 
the cabbage may be allowed to remain for sprouts during all the summer. 
The intermediate spaces between the trenches may be planted with lettuce, 
or any other secondary crops ; dung must be given for celery, of course. 
Celery and similar crops will in part make way in autumn, when the ground 
should be ridged up for winter, and the remainder as soon as the entire crop 
is clear ; the ground wUl then be ready for French beans, scarlet runners, 
cauliflowers, cucumbers, and tomatoes, in the end of April or beginning of 
May. French beans will be clear by November, when the ground should 
be again ridged up all winter to be ready for peas and beans, as at first 
begun. This will make eight or ten years between the return of the prin- 
cipal crops to the same place j and by judicious management of the secondary 
crops (925) among the rotation crops, every space of ground between one 
crop and the other may be occupied to advantage during the intervals of 
cropping. — {Gard. Chron. for 1841, p. 180.) 

Sect. III. Planting, Sowing, Cultivating, and Managing. 

927. In general all crops should be planted or sown in rows from south 
to north, in order, as already observed (723), that the sun may shine on 
every part of the soU between the rows, and equally on every side of the 
plants in the row. Beds, also, such as those of asparagus, should be made 
in the same direction and for the same reasons. When asparagus, sea-kale, 
and rhubarb are to be forced in the open garden by hot dung, the alleys or 
paths between the beds should be of double the usual width, and all the 
beds intended to be subjected to a course of forcing should be placed toge- 
ther. The secondary perennial crops, such as mint, thyme, sage, savory, 
perennial marjoram, rue, &c., should always be planted together, and in an 
open airy situation, and not, as is frequently the case, in the shade. 

928. Managemmt of the fruit-tree borders. — The wall-borders, the 
borders in which the espaliers are planted, and the ground among planta- 
tions of fruit-shrubs or fruit-trees, should on no account be cropped or even 
deeply dug, for reasons which we need not repeat. The soil may be loosened 
on the surface in spring with a three-pronged fork, and in autumn a top- 
dressing of putrescent manure may be given and slightly turned in with the 
spade, or left on the surface till the spring-stirring. If the borders are 
narrow, and the trees, after having filled it with their roots, appear to 
require additional nourishment, a trench may be cut along the front of the 
wall-border next the walk, three feet or four feet in width, and of such 
a depth as to cut through all the roots, not, however, deeper than eighteen 
inches. A part of the soil taken out of the trench may be removed alto- 
gether, and a . rich compost of rotten dung and leaf-mould mixed with the 



440 



PLANTING, SOWING, AND CULTIVATING. 



remainder and filled in; or if mixed with good maiden loam, so much 
the better. This is in imitation of a plan, long followed with success, 
by the Lancashire growers of prize gooseberries ; all the difference being 
that they use an excessively rich compost (see Gooseberry^ in our Fruit 
Catalogue), which we do not think would be so suitable for peaches, 
apricots, &c., as for that fruit and the vine. Where the tree trained 
on espaliers appeared to require a similar treatment, we would take 
up a narrow trench between the espalier and the walk, or on the other side 
of the espalier just beyond the footpath ; and where dwarfs or standards 
seemed to require additional nourishment, we would dig a circular trench 
round them, at three feet or four feet from the stem ; and in all these cases 
fill it up with rich compost. It might be advisable to do this work by 
degrees rather than all at once, by taking out every third yard, in the case 
of wall and espalier borders, and the third part of a circle in the case of 
dwarfs and standards. The second yard might be taken out in two years, 
the third in two years more, and at the end of the sixth year the operation 
might be recommenced, because the rich soil would very soon be filled with 
fibrous roots. In this operation, as in every other of the kind, the gardener 
or the amateur must exercise his own judgment, bearing in mind that the 
object is not to produce luxuriant branches, but blossom-buds. 

929. Management of the culinary crops. — All culture must necessarily 
consist in the application of general practices, or in the performance of such 
operations as are required by particular species or for particular objects. 
The former are given in the different subsections on the operations of 
culture (p. 289 to p. 411), and the latter will be found when treating of 
the culture of each particular culinary plant in our catalogue of Culinarv 
Vegetables. 

930. Gathering^ storing, and keeping of fruit, — " The principles on which a 
fruit-room ought to be constructed are, darkness, a low and steady tempera- 
ture, dryness to a certain point; for apples are found to keep best, as regards 
appearance, in a rather damp atmosphere, but for flavour a moderately dry 
air is preferable, and exclusion of the external air. If the light of the sun 
strikes upon a plant, the latter immediately parts with its moisture by per- 
spiration, in proportion to the force exercised on it by the sun, and inde- 
pendently of temperature. The greatest amount of perspiration takes place 
beneath the direct rays of the sun, and the smallest in those places to which 
daylight reaches with most difficulty. Now, the surface of a fruit perspires 
like that of a leaf, although not to the same amount. When a leaf perspires 
while growing on a tree, it is immediately supplied with more water from 
the stem, and thus is enabled to bear the loss produced by light striking on 
its surface ; but when a leaf is plucked it withers, because there is no longer 
a source of supply for it. So it is with a fruit : while growing on the tree, 
it is perpetually supplied by the stem with water enough to replace that 
which is all day long flying off from its surface ; but as soon as it is gathered, 
that source of supply is removed, and then, if the light strikes it ever so 
feebly, it loses weight, without being able to replace its loss. It is thus that 
fruit becomes shrivelled and withered prematurely. Light should therefore 
have no access to a good fruit -room." 

" Temperature should be uniform. If it is high, the juices of the fruit will 
have a tendency to decompose, and thus decay will be accelerated ; if, on the 
contrary, it is below 32°, decomposition of another kind is produced, in con- 



PLANTING, SOWING, AND CULTIVATING. 



441 



sequence of the cliemical action of freezing. In any case, fluctuations of 
temperature are productive of decay. A steady temperature of from 40° to 
45", with a diy atmosphere, will be found the best for most kinds of fruit. 
Some pears of the late kinds are better for being kept in a temperature as 
high as 60°, for this ripens them, renders them melting, and improves their 
quality yery essentially. We do not, however, conceive that the general 
construction of the fruit-room ought to be altered on their account ; we 
would rather make some special aiTangement for such cases." (Gard. Chron. 
vol. i. p. 611.) 

The air should be kept moderately dry, but ventilation should not be 
used except for the purpose of removing offensive smells, arising from the 
putrefaction of the fruit. Ventilation by continual currents of air carries off 
from fruit the moisture which it contains, and thus acts in the same way as 
light, in producing shrivellmg, and destroying that plump appearance which 
gives its beauty to fruit. Another reason against ventilation is, that an equable 
temperature is scarcely to be maintained when the air is constantly changed. 
The sweating of fruit throws so much moisture into the air that ventilation 
is necessary to remove it ; but the sweating ought always to be carried on in 
a place provided on purpose. 

Great care should be taken in gathering, handling, and storing the fruit, 
placing each kind by itself, and keeping wall fruit apart from standard fruit. 
Gather in baskets, and place them on the shelves side by side with their 
eyes downwards. When gathering and stowing are completed, shut the room 
as close at possible, and only open it when the fruit is wanted. (^Ibid. p. 61.) 
The best mode of packing fruit which is to be sent to a distance, has been 
already given, (860,) and the ordinary modes, as they have nothing peculiar 
in them, need not be described. 

931. Management of the fruit-7'oom. — The general principles of gather- 
ing and keeping fruit have been already laid down (856). No fruit ought 
to be allowed to drop from the tree, nor should it be beaten down or shaken 
off. Except in wet or late seasons, it ought not to be gathered till it is 
quite ripe, which in stone fruits and berries is known by its softness and 
fragrance, in kernel fruit by the brown colour of the seeds, and in nuts by 
the opening of the husks. It ought in every case to be gathered by hand ; 
and in addition to ladders of different kinds there is the orchardist's crookj fig. 
335, the use of which is to take hold of one branch with the hook, and draw it 

r;:::^s^^^^ /-^ towards the 

vQg^ — — p' )) ^ operator ; and 

/ then, by put- 

ting the sliding 

Fig. 335, Orchardist s crook. a . ° ° 

piece, a, over 

another branch, that branch is held in thatposition by the obliquenessof the line 
of pressure, which prevents the sliding piece from moving : thus leaving the 
operator free to use both hands in gathering the fruit. The fruit ought to 
be put into baskets, placing each kind in a basket by itself, and laying it in 
so gently as to run no risk of bruising it ; and not only keeping each kind 
of fruit by itself, but keeping wall fruit apart from standard fruit, because 
the former will be soonest fit for the table. The fruit laid on shelves should 
be placed with their eyes downwards, and so as not to touch each other ; 
but baking apples and pears may either be spread on a cool floor, or laid in 
heaps and covered with a blanket to produce a gentle fermentation, by 



442 



THE FORCING DEPARTMENT. 



which the fruit is deprived of a portion of its moisture, and is thought by 
many gardeners to keep better, while others disapprove of it as giving the 
fruit a bad taste. In whatever manner fruit is placed in the fruit-room or 
fruit- cellar, the doors and windows of the apartments should be kept closely 
shut, so as to keep the atmosphere of as uniform a temperature and moisture 
as possible. It should, as we have already observed (930), never be lower 
than 40°, nor higher than 45°, if possible in close mild weather to keep it so 
low, with the dew point indicating a very slight degree of dryness occasion- 
ally. There are, however, exceptions, such as in the case of ripening off, or 
keeping such kinds in that temperature which experience proves to be most 
conducive for producing fine consistence and flavour. This requires one or 
more separate compartments having a command of heat, wherein the tem- 
perature may be graduated as circumstances may require. The external 
air ought only to be admitted when that within is rendered offensive 
by the decomposition of the fruit. If at any time the temperature should 
fall below 32°, still no artificial heat ought to be applied, but thawing 
allowed to take place in the dark, when the weather changes as gradually 
as freezing had done. Table apples and pears which are expected to keep 
for some months, are kept on shelves singly, or in shallow drawers, or packed 
in boxes, jars, or pots, with dried fern or kiln-dried straw. New garden 
pots are found to answer remarkably well for keeping fruit, any damp being 
readily absorbed by the dry, porous, unglazed materials of which they are 
usually composed. Fruits which are thus packed do not require to be 
examined till the time when they are expected to be fit for the table, 
which should always be marked, along with the name, on the label attached 
to the jar or box ; but fruits exposed to the air on the open shelves require 
to be examined almost every day, in order to remove those which exhibit 
symptoms of decay. Walnuts, sweet chesnuts, and filberts, may be kept in 
boxes or casks, placed in the fruit-cellar on account of its low but uniform 
temperature. Summer fruit, such as peaches, nectarines, plums, are seldom 
kept more than a day or two in the fruit-room, but they are sometimes 
kept in the ice-house for a week or more, but with some loss of flavour. 



CHAPTER III. 
THE FORCING DEPARTMENT. 

The principles of constructing plant-houses, together with those of culture 
in artificial climates, having been already given (480 to 522), we proceed to 
show their application to the pinery, vinery, peach-house, fig-house, cherry- 
house, cucumber and melon pits and frames, and the forcing in frames and 
pits of such culinary vegetables as it is desired to have produced out of 
season. We have already seen (488 to 508) that artificial heat may be applied 
in plant structures by dung or other fermenting substances, by hot w^ater, by 
steam, or by smoke-flues ; or by two or more of these modes of heating 
combined. Fermenting substances are almost always the safest, and hot 
water generally the best ; but, as we have observed (492), the same result 
may be obtained by smoke-flues, and is still obtained in many parts of 
the country, though not without extra care on the part of the gardener. 



CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE. 



443 



With respect to the form of house where low plants, such as pines, 
melons, cucumbers, strawberries, or kidney-beans, are to be grown or forced, 
low structures, such as pits or frames, are generally found most eligible ; 
but where trees, such as the pine, peach, fig, &c. are to be growTi, houses of 
the ordinary height of garden-walls are preferred, at least for general crops. 
The reasons are obvious in both cases. 

Sect. I. Culture of the Pine-apple, and Management of the Pinery, 
We shall first give the natural data on which the culture of this plant is 
founded, and next the routine practice of one of the most successful growers 
of the present day. The botanical and horticultural history of the pine- 
apple, and an account of the principal varieties cultivated in Britain, will be 
found in our Fruit Catalogue. 

SuBSECT. I. Natural data on which the culture of the Pine-apple is founded. 
The pine-apple is an evergreen monocotyledonous plant, a native of 
countries tropical or bordering on the tropics, and found in low situations on 
or near the sea-shore, or on wide rivers. It grows almost always on sandy soil, 
dry on the surface, but moist at the depth of a foot or two beneath. It is 
indigenous, or cultivated, in various similar situations, as in South America, 
at Rio Janeiro ; in the West Indies, at Grenada ; and in Africa, at Sierra- 
Leone. As an evergreen monocotyledonous plant, it is without buds, and 
consequently not intended by natui-e to be long, if at all, in a state of 
repose ; as a native of the sea-shore, it is not calculated for enduring a great 
difference of temperature between summer and winter ; and as a native of 
the sea-shore within the tropics, it is calculated for growing in a high tem- 
perature throughout the year. The temperature of various places at or 
near the equator, as given by Humboldt, exhibits an average of about 8S" 
for the warmest month, and 72° for the coldest ; thus giving a difference 
between the summer and winter heat adapted for the pine-apple of only 
11". But in the small island of Grenada, in the West Indies, v/here the 
pine-apple luxm-iates, the temperature in the shade never exceeds 85° and 
never falls below 80° ; thus giving a difference of only 5°. It is clear, 
therefore, that there ought to be very little difference between the summer 
and winter temperature of the pine-apple. With respect to soil, in the 
neighbourhood of Rio Janeiro, it consists chiefly of a calcareous sand, always 
dry on the surface, but always moist beneath, in consequence, we suppose, 
of the vicinity of the sea or the river, and the attraction of cohesion between 
the particles of sand ; but this water can never be altogether stagnated, owing 
to the rise and fall of the tides. The temperature of the soil in Grenada during 
sum.mer, and at one foot beneath the surface, we are assured on good 
authority ( Gard. Mag., vol. vi., p. 438, ) is 85°. With respect to the water of the 
atmosphere in the countries where the pine-apple thrives, there is generally 
a dry season and a rainy season — the latter much shorter than the former. 
In the dry season there are heavy nightly dews ; and the rainy season, 
which is like the spring of temperate climates, produces such an exuberance 
of growth as to throw the plants into fruit. In the neighbourhood of Rio, 
there are heavy rains at intervals from October to April : the suckers from 
the roots are taken off in April or May, which is about the end of their 
summer, and planted m the fields fi-om one foot and a half to two feet from 
each other. The strongest of them produces fruit in the following year, 
which weighs between 3 lbs. and 4 lbs. each : and those which do not fruit 



444 



CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE. 



the second year, produce fruit the third year, often weighing from 10 lbs. to 
12 lbs. each.— (G. M., iii. 443.) 

932. The conclusions to he drawn from these dota^ and which are at the 
same time confirmed by the experience of the successful and unsuccessful 
growers in England, are, — that the temperature of the pine-stove ought 
never to be more than a few degrees lower than 80° in summer, or a few 
degrees lower than 70° in winter. As our days are much shorter in winter 
than they are between the tropics, a lower temperature ought to be allowed 
for that season, because growth in the absence of light would be of no service 
to the plant from its immaturity. In winter, therefore, 70° may be adopted 
as the standard heat of the atmosphere, and in summer the temperature 
may vary between 80° and 90°, or in the fruiting-house from 90° to 95°. 
With respect to the temperature of the soil, as the soil in all countries, at 
a short distance under the surface, is found to average 2" or 3° higher than 
the atmosphere, oiling to earth having a greater capacity for heat than air, 
and parting with it more slowly, if we allow a bottom-heat of between 75° 
and 80° in winter, and between 85° and 90° in summer, we shall probably 
be in accordance with what takes place in nature. 

933. With respect to soil^ it is almost unnecessary to say that plants in 
a wild state are not always found in a soil that is best adapted for bringing 
them to a high degree of perfection, but rather in one that is best adapted 
for their propagation, in consequence of the surface of the soil being fre- 
quently moved, or renewed, or rendered moist. Experience has proved 
that the pine-apple will thrive in any free loamy soil, well enriched with 
mild manure, or in sandy soil so enriched, or in peat-soil ; the latter being 
that in which it is generally grown, and that to a high degree of perfection, 
in the neighbourhood of Paris. 

934. With respect to water^ it is clear that, if a proper heat is kept up, 
that element of growth may be liberally supplied both at the root and by 
watering over the head in the evenings. The great art is to keep the plants 
continually in a state of vigorous growth till the fruit is cut, when nature 
intended that the parent stock should die ; and therefore if it die leaving 
a crown or a sucker, these should be treated as new plants, and urged on to 
the production of fruit, till they die in their turn ; and so on for ever. The 
plants may be planted in beds of soil or in pots. The latter is the most 
convenient mode, and that best adapted for artificial culture, because more 
completely under the control of the cultivator. From what has been stated, 
the grand cause of the want of success in the culture of the pine-apple with 
many persons will be sufficiently obvious. The temperature during winter 
is kept too low, by which means the vital energies of the plants are so far 
injured that they are never fully recovered. There are various other causes 
of failure, but this, we are convinced, is the principal one, because many 
gardeners apply the doctrine of rest to the pine-apple in the same way as 
they do to other plants. 

SuBSECT. II. — Culture of the Pine-Apple in British Gardens. 

The most abundant crops of pines raised in the shortest time, and in the 
most economical manner, that we have seen in the neighbourhood of London, 
have been, at Oakhill, near East Barnet ; and the following account of the 
practice there was furnished to us on purpose for this work by Mr. Forsyth, 



CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE. 



445 



now of Alton Towers, but at the time this account was dmvm up, journey- 
man gardener under IVIr. Dowding at Oakhill. 

935. Construction of the pit. — Our nursing and growing departments are 
pits, 7 feet deep at back, 6 feet wide, and sloping at an inclination of 1 foot 
in three, heated by fermentation, having no fire-heat apparatus. Our prin- 
cipal fruiting pits (fig 336) are each 40 feet long, heated by one fire, and 




. . /2 6 0 , S -. . fO. 

•J.TLL-UJ ! 1 : ! : ' : ■ '■ jt. 

Fig. 336. Section of the pipe pit at Oakhill. 

a, a, Flues | occasionally filled with fer- 

5, Bark-bed. ' menting matter. 

c. Rubble brickwork raised of asuf- ' /,/, Coping stones to the walls, 
ficient height to support the flue, g, Gutter to receive the water from 

d. Steam pipe for occasional use. i the sashes. 

e. Arches, supporting the pathway, \ Ground line. 

supplied with steam, conducted along the front wall, a little above the flue, 
through an iron pipe of one inch bore from a portable boiler. The sashes, 
composed of a wooden frame with copper sash bars, and glazed with crown 
glass, are supported on cast-iron rafters. Shutters, composed of reeds fixed 
in a wooden frame to fit on each light, which are used in cold nights, give our 
pits the appearance of thatched cottages. As fermenting ingredients we use 
for linings, tan, dung, and leaves ; and for beds in the pits, tan only. As 
fuel, we use coke from the gas works with a little coal and brushwood in 
kindlmg, and wet coal ashes in moderating the fires. This is far preferable 
to coals, being a cheaper and cleanlier fuel, and making more efi&cient and 
easier-managed fires. 

936. Kinds grown. — Our stock consists of nearly equal numbers of green 
and black pines ; we generally have about 1200 plants, and we fr^it about 
500 annually. The sorts we cultivate are, Queens, Providences, Jamaicas 
for the principal stock, and Antiguas, Envilles, Brown and Striped Sugar- 
loaves, Globes, and Antigua Queens ; but of these latter sorts, w^e have only 
a few specimens. 

937. In watering and sprinkling we use pure water, pumped into a leaden 
cistern, and exposed at least one day to the sun in summer ; and from tanks, 
&c., m a tepid state, from the forcing-houses, in winter. 

GG 



446 



CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE. 



938. Worms. — We destroy worms in tlie pots by watering with lime- 
water, in the proportions of one bucketful of lime to twenty of water ; and in 
the tan around the edges of the bed, by stirring powdered lime into the 
infested tan. Insects have been eradicated from young pine plants here by 
immersing them thirty-six hours in water medicated with soft soap, in the 
proportion of four ounces to a gallon. — See 295. in p. 96. 

989. Heat, air, and moisture. — We are extremely careful at all times to 
supply any want of heat, air, or moisture, and control their extremes ; as 
also to remove all obstacles that might hinder the full action of light, espe- 
cially in winter : to effect which we are obliged, sometimes more than once 
during winter, to take off the lights, and clear awa}'- a green glutinous sub- 
stance that collects inside about the laps of the glass ; using a scrubbing- 
brush and a piece of coarse flannel, with plenty of water, for the purpose. 

940. We never tie up the leaves of pines in moving the plants, being per- 
suaded that the leaves of any well-grown pine plant cannot be tied up with- 
out injuring them : neither can the height of a plant be so well determined, 
nor the side that has been inclining towards the sun so well reversed in 
plunging, when the leaves are tied up, as when they stand in their natural 
position. 

941. Jamaica Pines are esteemed here as being the best for maturing 
perfect fruits in the winter months. The plants of this species are of lazy 
growth, impatient of disrooting and shifting, and not easily started into fruit 
before they attain a good size. Their fruits, also, are heavy in proportion to 
their bulk ; and unlike many others, they will swell their pips flat at all 
seasons. During the time that our pine plants are without roots, whether 
crowns, suckers, gills, or stools fresh potted, or plants disrooted, we prefei* 
keeping them in a close, moist, atmosphere, at a temperature not under 65° 
by night, nor over 90° by day, shading them from the scorching rays of the 
sun, with a bottom-heat (at least till the roots have reached the sides of the 
pots) of 100°. Late suckers have been successfully wintered here, struck 
in a layer of half-spent bark, on a bed of good tan, in a pit near the glass. 
The greatest defect in this system is, that the plants are apt to get down too 
far from the glass, unless the frame or pit be moveable, and made to sink 
and follow them. Good Jamaica suckers generally mature their fruit here 
in two years, Providences about two months less, and Queens in from sixteen 
to eighteen calendar months. 

942. In starting pine plants into fruit Yue simply increase the temperature, 
keeping up a moderate supply of moisture ; the starving, parching, and 
scorching system of starting pines, formerly practised, being now, by all 
good cultivators, generally discarded ; for examples are not wanting of large 
pine plants which had been thus starved, &c., whilst the fruits were ready to 
emerge from their sockets, showing crowns, on straw-like foot-stalks, without 
a pip at all. 

943. Air. — In winter we often admit fresh air into our pine-stoves for 
other purposes than counteracting heat : as to prevent drawing and blanch- 
ing, by allowing the condensed steam to escape, and to dry the plants. 

944. Propagation. — The fruits having been cut (say off Providence 
plants), and no suckers appearing, we shake them out of the pots, pick off 
a few of their lower leaves, and shorten the rest ; then cut off two inches 
or three inches of the stump to vv^hich the old roots are attached, and pot 
the stools in 32- sized pots, and treat them as suckers, when they will pro- 



CULTURE OF THE PINE- APPLE. 



447 



duce two or three races of suckers ; and by this method we generally 
mcrease our stock of the shy-breeding black sorts. By cockscomb-like 
crowns (that is, several crowns grown together), also, w^e increase the 
Providence tribe rapidly. From gills (suckers on the foot-stalk of 
the fruit), potted in thumbs or 60-sized pots, after a length of time, we 
obtain good plants. Suckers, crowns, or gills, being got, are laid in some 
convenient space in the stove to dry, for a few days; after which we 
pare off the ragged part of the stumps of suckers, and pick off as many of the 
lower leaves of both crowns and suckers as seem necessary, in order to fasten 
the plant in the pot, and then pot them in pots proportioned to their sizes ; 
if above a foot long, in 82-sized, and so of the rest to a gill of an inch long 
in a thumb-pot. The soil used for this purpose is generally pure loam, 
with about one -eighth of silver-sand. Being potted, they are wintered as 
detailed of our practice for Queens (949), and in the month of March 
every rooted succession pine-plant not in a fruiting-pot is turned out of 
its pot, and has its roots examined and shortened according to its age and 
sort, and the end it is expected to serve. Young plants of green pines w^e 
disroot freely; older ones now about to be shifted into fruiting-pots, expected 
to mature fruit late in autumn if the roots are lively, are potted now, pre- 
serving their balls entire ; Providences, Envilles, &c., we disroot moderately, 
carefully cutting off any dead or sickly roots, and, by means of a pointed 
stick, removing all sodden and wasted soil. In shifting Jamaicas, we are 
careful to preserve every living fibre of root, yet we displace from their 
balls all drainage and worthless soil before repotting them. 

945. Bottom-heat, — Being potted, they are plunged about two-thu'ds m 
a bottom-heat of not less than 95°j, and the temperature of their atmosphere 
gradually increased (say March 22, 65° at sunrise ; and April 11, 70" at 
sunrise ; the maximum, June, 90°). As to the time of shifting again, 
that the state of the plants must determine : say June 1, and again, the 
middle of August ; a uniform bottom-heat of not less than 90° being kept 
up throughout — maximum of atmospheric temperature 100°, minimum 70°. 
In the evenings of bright sunny days, we sprinkle the internal surface 
lightly with a fine rose to resemble a heavy dew. 

946. As the season declines the temperature is lowered, and the standard 
for winter is fixed at 60°, say November 1 ; the fruiting-pits are filled with 
the best of the plants in fruiting-pots that were potted in August, the bark- 
bed having been previously filled with tan (if not all new, new being far 
preferable, at least all good), warm and well trodden, and the pots plunged 
about two inches, with tan laid up between them, to be levelled around the 
pots as the heat declines without disturbing the plants. When they are 
wanted to start into fruit, expected to be matured by June 1, we begin by 
increasing the minimum temperature, say on Dec. 10, to 65° ; on 17th, to 
70° ; and on 31st, to 75°, which temperature is maintained till the fruits 
appear emerging from their sockets, with a rise of 4° by day with artificial 
heat, or with sun-heat 10°. The fruits being in sight (say Jan. 10), we 
reduce the night-heat to 72° till they have done flowering (say March 5), 
keeping the atmosphere moist, and supplying them with plenty of water at 
their roots, and reducing the temperature (fire-heat being injurious to fruit 
swelUng) to 70° minimum, maximum 110°, by close and moist heat. We 
raise the bottom-heat if possible to 110°, moistening the dry surtace of the 
bed, and filling in more fresh tan between the pots, to facilitate which the pots 

G G 2 



448 



CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE. 



are plunged in rows across the bed. During the time that the fruits are 
swellings sprinkling is particularly attended to ; as the fruits begin to change 
colour, plenty of air is admitted, and all sprinkling is dispensed with. Under 
this mode of culture are obtained splendid specimens of fruit at all seasons, 
which, though inferior in size to the twelve or fifteen pound specimens grown 
elsewhere, may rank as a generally fine crop with that of the first culti- 
vators of the day, taking the age of the plants into consideration. The 
fruits of 100 plants contained in a pit here, weighed, when cut, each from 
5 lbs. to 7 lbs.— (G. M., vol. xi. p. 258.) 

947. Culture of the Queen pine so as to have the fruit ripe in February 
and March. — At this season Queen pines are worth two~tliirds more in the 
market than they are in July and August. 

Pit. — Fig. 337 is a section of the pit, and figs. 338 to 842 are sections of 
the pots in which the culture about to be described was carried on. 




Walls of bark-bed. 
A, Rubblework. 

«, i, 2, Brick walls, coped with stone. 
Ar, Stone bracket supporting a plank 

for walking on. 
/, Gutter to receive the water from 

the sashes, 
m. Ground level. 



Fig. 337. Section 0/ a pit for fruiting Queen Pines at OakJiill. 

a. The bark-bed. 
6, Pit for linings. 

c, Fire-flue along the front 

and both ends. 

d, Open brickwork. 

e, Open cavity. 
/, Tile cover of open cavity, 

with plug-holes. 

948. Sizes of the pots in which the plants are grown. — The sections (figs. 338 
3^ to 342) represent the different kinds of 
(^—' — = 7) pots employed. Fig. 338 is a No. 48, 5^ 
^ If inches v/ide at top, 2^ inches wide at bot- 
\\ // tom, and 4i- inches deep. Fig. 339 is a 

\^-—_:Jl ^4 inches wide at top, 3^ inches 

FioTm wide at bottom, and 5^ mches deep. Fig. 
A No. 48 pot. 340 is a No. 24, 8^ inches wide at top, 
5 inches wide at bottom, and 6f inches deep. Fig. 341 ^ ^^^'"•* 

is a No. 16, 9^ inches wide at top, 5|- wide at bottom, and 8 inches deep. 




CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE. 



449 





Fig. 342 is a No. 12, 11^ inches wide at top, 61 inches wide at bottom, 

—J and 10-1 inches deep. 

I r Though it seldom hap- 

! // pens that a Queen pine ^ ! 

/f plant can go through all \\ j 
I // these sizes if well grown, 

I // yet it is considered ne- 

— I ■// cessary to give the di- 

Fig. 340. A No. 24 poL mensions of the complete 
set of pots used at Oak Hill, as they are often 
referred to both in this and in the precedins: 

^ ° Fig. 341. A No. 16 pot. 

949. Culture of queen pines for early fruit. — The suckers being from 
twelve inches to twenty inches in length, and proportionately strong, were 

taken off the stools in the beginning of 
August ; and having lain exposed, in the pine- 
stove, in that state about a week, were 
dressed and potted in No. 32-sized pots, in 
poor light soil, and plunged two-thirds the 
depth of their pots in a bark bed, in which a 
thermometer inserted that depth stood at 80". 
Till the roots had reached the sides of the 
pots we did not water the soil, but syringed 
the plants overhead at shutting up in the 
Fig. 342. ^ iVo. i2po«. evenings of warm days, about twice a 

week. As the plants increased, they were watered at their roots, as 
they appeared to be in want of that element. The temperature of the 
house by day was not allowed to exceed 80°, and till about the middle 
of September would generally be found about 65° a little before sun- 
rise ; using no artificial heat (besides the bark-bed) as long as the natural 
temperature of the atmosphere exceeded 55°, at which temperature (viz. 55°) 
we kept the house by night during the winter months, till the third week 
in March, when we shook the plants out, and shortened their roots about 
one-half, and repotted them in the same-sized pots prepared as follows : — The 
pots, if not new ( new ones being preferable), being well cleaned, an oyster- 
shell about the size of a penny is placed over the hole, around which broken 
bones (such materials being best), or potsherds broken to about the size of 
kidney-beans, and sifted to exclude the dusty particles, are laid about half 
an inch deep ; over which is placed a layer, about a quarter of an inch deep, 
of the thready part of half-decayed loamy turf ; and the remaining space is 
filled up with the following compost : turfy loam chopped to the size of 
walnuts, bruising it as little as possible, six: parts ; night soU, one part ; leaf 
mould, one part ; and silver sand, one part. The plants being potted in this com- 
post, were plunged in a bark bed, in a dung-heated pit, two-thirds of the depth 
of their pots (at which depth a thermometer inserted stood at 90°), shading 
them from the more powerful rays of the sun, and keepmg them as close as 
possible, yet not allowing the temperature to exceed 90°, the minimum by 
night being generally from 65° to 70°. In the course of about fourteen 
days, we exposed the plants to the full sun ; from which time they required 
to be plentifully supplied with water, and the greatest attention to be paid 
to the watch-sticks (sticks stuck in the bark, to be occasionally taken out 



450 



CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE. 



and felt, to ascertain the heat), lest the roots, on reaching the sides of the 
pots, should be burned. At this stage we gave air at 80", and allowed the 
temperature to rise to 95°. As the season advanced, we sprinkled the plants 
overhead more frequently : in April, about once a week ; in IMay, about 
once in four days ; and in the hottest weather, every other evening. In 
June, we turned them out of the pots, leaving their balls entire. We then 
potted the largest of them in No. 12-sized pots, leaving the surface of the 
soil 1^ inch below the top of the pot ; the balls of the rest we partially 
reduced, and potted in No. 24-sized pots. The bark bed was then forked 
over, and made good by sifting out the rotten bark from the top and sides, 
and adding fresh at the bottom. After the bed had been well trodden and 
levelled, we replunged the plants in it about two-thirds the depth of their 
potSj keeping them close and shading them, &c., as before. The tempera- 
ture at sunrise was now about 75° ; the maximum by day was 100°, giving 
air, as before, at 80°. The second w^eek in August, we shifted the plants in 
No. 24-sized pots into No. 1 2's, top-soiling at the same time those already in 
12's. The pots of the latter size at this time were full of roots ; and their 
lower leaves confining 3'oung roots in their sockets, we displaced them, and 
replunged the pot about three inches deep in a heat which at that depth was 
100°, plunging and treating the plants newly potted as we did those potted 
in June. The plants being now finally stationed in the finishing pit above 
described (fig. 337), on a bark bed 4^ feet deep, with dung and fire-heat at 
command, showed fruit generally on the 1st of September. The maximum 
by day, with plenty of air, w^as now 110°, and at sunrise about 80°. About 
Sept. 20th, several of the plants were in flower. As the season declined, 
we lowered the temperature, our standard for the winter being 60° at sun- 
rise, and the maximum by day 90°. In cloudy damp weather, we fired by 
day to 63° or 70°, for the purpose of giving air to carry ofi" the damp. When 
a dry sunny day occurred, we generally seized the opportunity to sprinkle 
the plants overhead with, clean water, in a tepid state, in the early part of 
the day, for the purpose of dislodging the mouldiness that settled on the 
fruit from the closeness and humidity of the atmosphere. As the fruit began 
to colour, towai'ds February, more fire-heat and more air -were given. The 
maximum by day, with sun-heat and a flue seldom cold, was now 100°, and 
at sunrise 60°. Under tliis mode of treatment three specimens were grown, 
which were exhibited at the gardens of the London Horticultural Society on 
May 10, 1834, along with three dishes of grapes, for which their gold medal 
was awarded to Mr. Dowding. (^Idem, p. 24.) 

950. Growing the pine-apple in beds of soil. — This has not been much 
done in Britain ; but in Munich, in 1828, it had been practised for five years 
in the ro^^al kitchen-gardens there. It is attended with far less trouble than 
any other mode of pine culture, and has this immense advantage, — that as 
there are suckers on the stems in all stages of growth, fruit is produced 
at all seasons of the year. At Munich, the court-gardener, Mr. Lang, 
informs us (G. M. v. 480) that he had practised the mode of growing pine- 
apples in beds of soil in. low pits for five years, and had cut ripe fruit from 
the plants every month in the year during the whole of that period. The 
only objection that can be brought against this mode is, that the fruit is not 
very large ; but we can afiirm, from having seen the fi'uit thus produced at 
Munich, and also in the royal forcing-ground at Versailles, that it is of a 
very fitting size for a small family. By the aid of hot water, peat soil. 



CULTURE OF THE PINE-APPLE. 



451 



abundant suiface-manuring, and earthing up, a greater weight of fi-uit 
might perhaps be grown in a limited space and time by this mode than by 
any other. The source of bottom heat might be a tank of water or of liquid 
manure, of the same length and breadth as the interior of the pit, and over 
this the soil might be supported on a flooring of pierced tiles, so as to admit 
of the roots passing through them into the liquid manure. Or, it might 
be a bed of stones or coarse gravel, heated by steam, a mode which has been 
successfully employed in various parts of the country. (See G. M. vi. p. 50.) 
Whichever mode of heating be adopted, all the minor details will readily 
occur to those who have perused the preceding chapters of this work. 

C51. Fruiting suckers on the stools, and retaining the suckers on the stools 
for some months or weeks after the fruit has been cut, are practices occasion- 
ally resorted to for the sake of gaining time, and of employing the vigour 
remaining in the old stock. Sometimes the suckers are earthed up, and 
retained on the stock till they produce their fruit ; and sometimes they are 
taken off and potted, and being supplied with abundant heat and moisture, 
soon show fruit afterwards. Mr. Marsland, of Stockport^ has been very 
successful in his treatment of the pine in this manner, and the following 
extract will give a good idea of his practice : — " In November, 1819, as soon 
as the fruit had been cut from the pine-plants, which were then two years 
old, all the leaves were stripped off the old stocks, nothing being left but a 
single sucker on each, and that the strongest on the plant. They were then 
placed in a house where the heat was about 60*^, and they remained till 
March, 1820. At this period the suckers were broken off from the old 
stocks, and planted in pots from eight to twelve inches in diameter, varying 
according to the size of the sucker. It may be proper, however, to observe 
that the length of time which the young sucker is allowed to remain attached 
to the mother plant depends, in some degree, upon the kind of pine : the tardy 
fruiters, such as the black Antigua and others, require to be left longer than 
the queen and those which fruit readily. After the suckers had been planted, 
they were removed from the house, where they had remained while on the 
old stock, to one in which the temperature was raised to 75°. Immediately 
upon their striking root, the largest of the suckers showed fruit, w^hich 
swelled well, and ripened between August and November, being on the 
average ten months from the tune the fruit was cut from the old plant, and 
seven months from the time the sucker was planted. The fruit so produced, 
though, as may be expected, not of the largest description, I have invariably 
found to be richer and higher flavoured than that grown on older plants. 
The suckers of inferior strength will not show fruit in the same season, but 
in the following they will yield good fruit, and strong suckers for a succeed- 
ing year's supply. Those suckers are to be preferred which are produced on 
plants that have ripened their fruit in November; for those taken from 
plants whose fruit is cut in August, or earlier, are apt to show fruit in Janu- 
ary or February, while yet remaining on the mother-plant. But whenever 
this happens, the sucker should be broken off immediately upon being per- 
ceived, and planted in a pit so as to form a root of its own to maintain its 
fruit/' (Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. S92.) 

952, To grow the pine-apple to an extraordinary size. — Begin with a 
healthy vigorous sucker or crown, and supply it with abundant nutriment, 
heat, and light, in so far as the two latter elements are imder control, shifting 
it frequently from the smallest-sized pot to the largest, and gradually 



452 



CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE. 



increasing the temperature from 70° to 90° or 95°, with atmospheric moisture 
in proportion. In this way queen pines have been grown to the weight of 
five or six pounds, and New Providence pines from twelve pounds to fifteen 
pounds. 

953. Insects. — Where a proper temperature and atmospheric moisture 
are kept up, the pine will be little troubled with insects ; but in consequence 
of careless treatment they are sometimes infested with a species of coccus, 
which is got rid of by immersing the plants, when being shifted, in a mix- 
ture of soft soap, sulphur, and tobacco water. The proportions do not seem 
of much consequence, for they are very dififerent with different gardeners. 
Mr. Dall takes 4 lbs. of soft soap, 2 lbs. flower of sulphur, 1 lb. of leaf 
tobacco, and 2 oz. of nux vomica, and boils them in eight gallons of rain 
water. After shaking the plants out of the pots and trimming their roots, 
he washes them well with this mixture, and also the sides and ends of the 
interior of the pit, and all the inner part of the house, excepting the roof. Mr. 
Glendinning takes — sulphur, 2 lbs. ; soft soap^, 2 lbs. ; tobacco, 1|- lbs. ; nux 
vomica, 2 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz., dissolved in a wine-glassful of spirit of tur- 
pentine ; and boils the whole in eight gallons of water for an hour. When 
the mixtiire has fallen to 120°, he immerses each plant in it separately, 
keeping the liquid as near as possible to that degree of heat. {Practical hints 
on the culture of the pine-apple, p. 51). Plants subjected to the mixture 
either of Mr. Dall or Mr. Glendinning have an unsightl}'- appearance for 
some months afterwards ; but when they commence growing, the new part 
of their foliage assumes the usual healthy, vigorous hue. ^\^here there is 
room in the pine pit for laying down a quantity of fermenting horse-dung, 
the steam produced is perhaps the best destroyer of every description of insect 
and it does no injury to pines. This was Baldwin's remedy. 

TI. — Culture oft?^ grape-vine under glass and on walls, 
SuBSECT. l.^Natural data on which the culture of the grape-vine is founded. 

954. The grape-vine is a deciduous ligneous climber, indigenous or culti- 
vated in a considerable portion of the temperate parts of the northern hemi- 
sphere. It is found wild in Greece, Turkey in Asia, and Persia, the Morea, 
and near the Black and Caspian Seas, and in many other places ; but the 
countries in which it is found in the highest degree of perfection are Armenia 
and Syria. In Armenia and Syria, judging from their latitudes, the mean 
temperature of the coldest winter month in the region of vine culture is 
probably between 45° and 50°, and the mean temperature of the warmest 
summer month between 75° and 80°. It is certain, however, that the vine 
will bear a much lower ^vinter temperature than 45° ; for on the hills in 
Germany, where several kinds are cultivated vdth success, and the vines are 
every winter buried under the snow, the temperature for two or three 
months cannot be much above 82°. It is also found in our forcing-houses 
that the vine will bear a summer temperature of between 70° and 80°. It 
may, we think, be assumed that the vine is not calculated to sustain unin- 

V jured a winter temperature much below 40° ; and this is confirmatory of the 
excellence of the practice of British gardeners, in wintering the shoots of 
vines grown under glass under some kind of protecting cover : such as 
between outer and inner front sashes, or tied loosely up in mats or in thatch, 
so as to keep them quite dry without excluding the aii*. 

955. With respect to atmospheric- moisture^ it can only, as far as we know, 



CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE. 



453 



be stated on general principles, that when the vine is in a growing state the 
air must be keep moist, more particularly in the evenings and during night. 
This may always be effected by syringing the plants before shutting up the 
house in the afternoons, and when the sun goes off a south wall, and by 
watering the soil. When the fruit is ripening, the air should be drier ; not 
only because growth being completed, less moisture is wanted, but because 
excess of moisture, either in the soil or in the atmosphere, is known to be 
injurious to the flavour of all fruits. 

956. The, soil in all countries where the vine is cultivated successfully is 
dry, and experience has proved that it admits of being enriched to an 
almost unlimited extent. The, temperature of the soil may be determined 
from general principles to be a degree or two higher than that of the atmo- 
sphere ; "therefore the most favourable climate for the vine lat. 85% which 
passes through Syria, will have a mean terrestrial temperature of 67^. In 
spring, when vegetation begins in the vine, it may be estimated at not lower 
than 60°. By the time the blossom expands it will have reached 70°, or 
nearly so ; and 80° will certainly be within the limits of its summer tem- 
perature." — {Penny Cyc, art. Grape-Vine.^ "The mean temperature of 
the earth in the climate of London is about 51°, from which that of spring-- 
water differs little throughout the year. In winter, when early forcing of 
the vine is commenced, the border in which the roots are extended will 
sometimes be below 40°, and if we even say 45°, whilst the vine has its 
branches and blossoms in a temperature of 7 5°, still we have a disparity of 
30° ! These conditions are not by any means transient, for the earth retains 
its state of winter cold till late in the spring. In summer, from the greater 
length of the days at this season than in more southern latitudes, the earth 
acquires a tolerably high and nearer corresponding temperature ; but before 
this occurs the crop of grapes has received checks which more favourable 
circumstances cannot remedy. To this disparity of temperature between 
the root and the top of the vine may be certainly ascribed the had setting^ 
spotting, and shrivelling of grapes." — Ibid. A writer in the Gardeners 
Magazine.) vol. xiii. p. 16, has forcibly illustrated the importance of a cor- 
responding atmospheric and terrestrial temperature, and he concludes by 
recommending all exterior vine-borders to be securely thatched, so as to 
exclude all rain and melting snow during winter and spring, and not to 
remove the covering till the temperature of the natural rain which falls on 
the border is 60". The thatching, he says, if put on in time in autumn, 
will preserve a temperature in the soil through the winter of between 45" 
and 50°, and the rain falling on the soil at a temperature of 60° will part 
with 10° of its heat, and, after moistening the soil, pass off by the drainage. 
Repeated showers at an increased temperature, aided by the effect of the 
sun, will gradually raise the temperature of the border from 45° or 50° to 
75° or 80°, according to the warmth or coldness of the summer. The process, 
he says, may be greatly accelerated by stirring the surface, or inverting it by 
digging where it has been, well heated by the sun's rays, so as to turn up a fresh 
portion to their influence. A considerable degree of heat might thus be as it 
were " worked in," and the remainder of heat required would be effected by 
the percolation of showers and the direct influence of the sun. The effect of 
melting snows and early spring rains, at probably 40°, in cooling the soil, 
shows the necessity of choosing a porous and naturally thorough-drained 
soil for vineyards in countries having cold winters ; because as it is iniprac- 



454 PROPAGATING, PRUNING, AND TRAINING THE VINE. 

ticable to prevent the snow from melting or tlie spring rains from falling 
and cooling the soil, the only mode of counteracting the evil is so to arrange 
that the water shall be carried rapidly off by the subsoil. Every shower 
which succeeds will be at a somewhat higher temperature, at least till mid- 
summer, and as it filtrates through the soil will leave in it a portion of its 
heat, till showers falling at 70°, or upwards, will leave the soil at that 
temperature. 

957. Form of house. — It is almost unnecessary to observe that the vine 
may be cultivated in any form of structure with a glass roof, from a cucum- 
ber-frame to a house ; the most common form and dimensions of which 
in use in British gardens are as follow : — Length, thirty feet ; width, 
fourteen feet ; height at back, nine feet, at front, two feet. The end and 

^ front walls to be on arches, and the whole to be heated by one fire. The 
furnace to have a door one foot square, and the sides of the fuel-chamber 
to be of Welsh lumps ; and the rise from the bars of the furnace to the 
bottom of the flue to be eighteen inches. The flue to run two feet from 
the front- wall, and to return within two and a half inches of the back- wall, 
with a chimney in the back-v*/^all over the furnace. The flue to be eighteen 
inches deep, with the covers and bottoms of one-foot tiles. Doors at each 
end of the house, or at the fire- end, if but one door. Rafters fixed ; the 
sashes moveable in two lengths, lapping in the middle ; the top lights to be 
one inch wider than the lower ones, and the lower ones to run up and down 
in a groove formed in the rafter under the top light, so that the top and 
bottom lights may run free of each other. A trellis of wire to be fixed to 
the rafters fifteen inches from the glass, and the vines to be planted between 
the front-wall and the flue. If hot water is employed instead of smoke 
flues, then the pipes may be placed in exactly the same situation as the 
flues ; they may be four inches in diameter, and there may be two upper pipes 
and two lower ones ; one of the upper pipes and one of the lower ones may 
form a distinct circulation from the other two, so that when only a small 
degree of fire heat is required, the circulation may be stopped in half 
the extent of piping. For early forcing, the house, if still to be managed 
with one fire, may be somewhat narrower and the roof steeper. In houses 
of this kind the vines are wintered, not by withdrawing them, but by the 
removal of the sashes. — (G. M.^ xvii. 310.) 

SuBSECT. II. Propagating, Pruning, and Training the Vine. 

958. The vine is commonly propagated by eyes or cuttings (606) and some- 
times by layers, and a year may generally be gained by procuring rooted 
plants from the nurseries. To make sure of having the sorts true to their 
names, however, many gardeners raise their own plants. On the Continent 
the vine is generally propagated by cuttings of from a foot to two feet in 
length, taken off^ with a piece of the preceding year's wood attached ; and 
this used also to be the custom in this country, till about the time of 
Speachley. 

959. In pruning the vine never cut close to the eye, because the wood 
being spongy, dies back more or less, and consequently injures the bud ; but 
cut in the middle of the internode, which leaves a suflicient space for the 
wood to die back before it reaches the bud. The cut ought to slope away 
from the eye, in order that in case of bleeding the eye may not be injured. 
The summer pruning of the vine consists almost entirely m stopping the 



PROPAGATING, PRUNING, AND TRAINING THE VINE. 



455 



laterals, pinching off the tendrils, and when the fniit is beginning to ripen 
cutting off portions of the leaves, or sometimes entire leaves, to admit the 
sun's rays to the fruit. In taking off leaves, the French very seldom remove 
the petioles, but only the disk, or a portion of it. 

960. Training, — There are three modes in common use for pruning and 
training the vine : — The long, or renewal system, by which the largest fruit 
is obtained ; the short, or spurring-in system, by which the greatest number 
of bunches may be grown in a limited space ; and the fan system, by which 
the plant is made to ramify and spread out its branches, so as to have the 
general appearance of a common fruit-tree. There are several other modes 
of training the vine, because, as we have seen (793), the vine may be 
trained in every form adapted for common fruit-trees ; but we shall only 
notice the Thomery system, chiefly used in France, though in a less perfect 
form it is adopted on the walls of cottages in some parts of England. The 
vine differs from all other fruit-trees in this, that pruning cannot be dis- 
pensed with even for a single year; this arises from the much greater 
quantity of wood produced than is necessary for a crop of fruit. A peach- 
tree, or any other tree, if totally neglected, may continue to bear annually 
high-flavoured fruit on the outsides of its branches, because there they 
would be exposed to a sufficiency of light and air; but the bunches of 
grapes on a vine which had been left for a few years to itself, would be so 
shrouded in leaves and shoots as to be small and without flavour. 

961. The essential points to be borne in mind when pruning and training 
the vine, whatever mode be adopted, are to shorten the wood to such an 
extent as that no more leaves shall be produced than can be fully exposed 
to the light ; to stop all shoots produced in summer that are not likely to 
be required in the winter pruning, at two or three joints, or at the first large 
healthy leaf from the stem where they originate ; and to stop all shoots 
bearing bunches at one joint, or at most two, beyond the bunch. As shoots 
which are stopped generally push a second time from the terminal bud, the 
secondary shoots thus produced should be stopped at one joint ; and if at 
that joint they push also, then a third stopping must take place at one joint, 
and so on as long as the last terminal bud continues to break. Bearing 
these points in mind, nothing can be more simple than the pruning and 
training of the vine. 

962. The long, or the 7'enewal system of pruning, is by many gardeners, and 
also by Clement Hoare, the author of the best Treatise on the vine which has 
ever been published, considered as decidedly, preferable to all the other modes. 
It recommends itself, he says, "by its simplicity ; by the old wood of the vine 
being annually got rid of ; by the small number of wounds inflicted in the 
pruning ; by the clear and handsome appearance of the vine ; and by the 
great ease with which it is managed, in consequence of its occupying but a 
small portion of the surface of the wall." — {Practical Treatise, S^c, p. 95.) 
Supposing a cutting planted where it is finally to remain, in autumn or in 
early spring, then in the autumn following it may be cut down to three 
good eyes, as in fig. 843. 

The second year rub off all the buds but the terminal one, the shoot 
produced by which is to be cut down to three good eyes, as in fig. 344. 

The third year allow only the two uppermost buds to push ; and in 
autumn head down the strongest one to six feet or eight feet, for bearing fruit 
the following year, and the weakest to three good eyes, as in fig. 845. If 



456 



PROPAGATING, PRUNING, AND TRAINING THE VINE. 




the wall or trellis is low, the system need not be carried farther ; the long 
shoot will produce the fruit-bearing shoots of next year, after which it will 
/I, be cut out, and its place taken by the shoot pro- 
y,(L duced from the short shoot ; which, having pro- 
duced its fruit, will be cut away in its tuni, to 
Fig. 343. Renewal make room for the young shoot that will have 
pruning, first yeaT.yy^Q-Yi. produccd ou the othor sidc ; and thus the 
operation might be carried on for a number of years. Fig.344. Renew- 

The fourth year. Supposing the wall or the trellis to be of <^^vruning, se- 
the usual height, then the fourth year bunches will be shown 
at every joint of the long shoot, but it will weaken the vine too much to 
allow more than two or three to come to maturity. Two shoots will be pro- 
duced from those cut down, and probably 
a third from the base of the stock. These, <t [1 
in autumn, when the leaves have dropped, ylj 
should be cut down, as in fig. 846. The 
house or the wall we may now suppose 
filled from top to bottom ; the fruit in 
the lower part of the wall or house being 
produced by the young wood a, ft, and that 
in the upper part from the young wood 
c, d, in fig. 346. 

The fifth year, the crop being produced 
on a, &, and c, a shoot will have been 
produced from &, which will reach the 
top of the wall and take the place at the 
winter pruning of the long shoot, 6, c, d, 
while the shoot from e will take the place 
of a, b, as shown in fig, 847. Next year ^ 
the shoot from e becomes the main shoot, 
and the shoot from /, the secondary shoot 
— the middle one being cut out ; and thus the alternation 
of shoots may go on for a great number of years. 

963. The spurring-in metliod of pruning consists in re- 
taining only one shoot the entire height of the wall or trellis, 
and shortening the laterals at every winter s pruning to two 
or three eyes ; or when the vines are very strong, cutting 
the laterals entirely off^, leaving, the young fruit-bearing 
shoots to be produced from the adventitious buds at their 
base. In general every alternate bud is cut out, so as to 
have only half the number of laterals as the shoot has 
produced buds ; and sometimes two buds are cut out for 
one that is left, when the vine is of a sort that has a large 
leaf or a large bunch ; the object being to prevent the shoot 
from being too much crowded by laterals, 

964. The fan-system of vine-training is effected by short- 
ening the shoots as they advance in growth during summer, so as to cause 
them to divaricate and produce the appearance of a common fan-trained 
fruit-tree. It is sometimes used in vineries where one plant fills the whole 
house, and requires no farther description. 

965. The Thomery system of training is chiefly calculated for the open 




Fig. 345. Renewal 
pruning, third year. 




Fig. 345. Renewal 
pruning, fourth year. 



CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS. 



457 



wall. The vines are planted at a short distance from the wall, and only- 
two branches are allowed to proceed from each main stem. The length of 
these branches is greater or less, according to the 
strength of the soil. At Thomery, where the soil is 
poor, the ordinary length of a main branch is about 
four feet ; but on the royal grape-wall at Fontainebleau, 
the branches are from five feet to six feet in length, 
the soil being richer and more liberally supplied with 
manure. Fig. 848 represents a portion of a mud- 
wall, eight feet high, covered with a trellis, on which 
vines are trained, according to the Thomery system. 
The fruit is produced on the short lateral shoots, which 
are shortened in at the winter pruning to two or three 
buds ; and each shoot produced by a bud is allowed to 
mature two bunches of fruit. Nothing can be more 
perfect than this system of pruning and training, as it 
appears at Thomery ; since it makes certain of cover- 
ing every part of the wall with wood equally strong, 
and equally supplied with nutriment from the roots, 
because every plant has an equal extent of branches, 
eight feet, supplied from one stock or root. An im- 
perfect imitation of this mode of training may be seen 
on the cottages of some villages in Hampshire, particu- 
larly in Broughton and Stockbridge. — (See Scott^ in 
Gard. Mag. for 1842.) — On asking the opinion of an 
eminently scientific English gardener of the Thomery 
mode of pruning and training the vine, his answer was : 
" It v»dll not do in this climate and soil. When fol- 
lowed strictly, the two arms, each four feet in length, 
do not give sufficient extent ; for the eyes may all break 
prematurely. In my opinion, the best mode of train- 
ing vines on a wall, is to lay in all the shoots at an 
angle of 45"^, or even with a greater slope, if the 




Fig. 347. Renewal pruning, 
fifth year. 



soil is very rich, or the variety of grape which is grown 
is of very vigorous growth." 



SuBSECT. III. — Culture of the Grape-Vine under Glass. 
The grapes grown at Oakhill having been long equally celebrated VTith the 
pine-apples grown there, we shall adopt Mr. Forsyth's account of the mode of 
proceeding, first giving a general treatise, and next a diary of a course of 
culture. 

966. Vine-border. — Loamy turf that has been pared quite thin, and 
stacked in narrow tiers, for one year at least, three parts, and one part of 
the following mixture : — an}'- dry, well aerated animal manure, that can 
most conveniently be got, such as horse- droppings, or those of cattle, deer, or 
sheep, without litter, laid in alternate layers with old plaster or old building 
lime mortar (the older the better) ; no matter if there be a few brickbats in 
it. Let the whole be well pounded and mixed with the dung, which ought 
to be in a proper state, as to moisture, to ferment a little ; after which let it 



458 



CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS. 



be frequently turned, always keeping it rather dry ; it may then be wheeled 
into the bed or border. The loam when put into the bed or border should 
be in pieces about the size of bricks and half-bricks, brought from the stacks 




Fig. 348. Vines trained according to the Thomery system. 



or tiers where they were originally piled, mixed with the manure, and laid 
once for all in the place where they are finally to remain, without any turn- 
ing, chopping, or pounding whatever, which only injures the loam, and ren- 
ders it too compact, and too much akin to puddle, for vine-roots to prosper 
in. About 16 feet wide, and from 2 feet 6 inches to 4 feet deep, may be 
considered a moderate width and depth for a vine-border, on a substratum of 
draining, at least one foot deep. 

967. Planting, — On the top of this the vines reared in the manner here- 
after stated may be planted. If out of doors, plant the vines 3 feet from the 
front of the house, just covering the root -ball of each about 2 inches, over 
which place a hand-glass. This will keep off rain and concentrate heat. 
Then lay the cane about 2 inches under ground, till it enters the aperture 
or arch into the house, and over this place another hand-glass ; or, instead of 
hand-glasses, a layer of hot dung or leaves, 1 foot thick and 6 feet wide, may 
be laid along it. It is presumed that the border has been made in autumn, 
in which case this planting is to be done in February, especial care being 
taken that the border does not get either too wet or too dry. In the former 
case thatch it, and in the latter mulch it with fermented dung from old 
linings or the like, and water it with clean water. 

968. To raise the plants^ get some eyes from plants which you have seen and 
proved, cut them at half-an-inch above and below the eye, (606), and insert 
them singly in pots (of the size 60) about half-an-inch under the soil, about 
Christmas. Keep them growing in a moist heat, (say 60^ Fahr.,) and shift 



CULTURE OF TITE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS. 



459 



them regularly as they require it, training their stems against the wall or 
trellis in the hothouse. With good culture, in twelve months, they will 
have stems as thick as the little finger, with 4 feet of well-ripened cane, and 
plenty of vigorous roots. 

9G9. When planted in the vinery, let them be grown in a like heat till 
autumn, when the house may be uncovered to ripen the wood ; but care 
must be taken to prevent their freezing. In winter cut back till you find 
the wood of a firm texture and good size. Under good culture from 6 feet 
to 9 feet of firm short-jointed wood may be got. It is always better to leave 
the canes rather short than otherwise. The leader may be stopped 5 feet or 
6 feet beyond where it is expected to be cut to in the winter pruning. When 
you commence growing in the spring, which should not be too early (say 
Feb. loth,) let the temperature be low, (say 50° Fahr.,) and the atmosphere 
moist, that the vines may break at all the eyes. The canes, for this purpose, 
ought to be laid quite level ; and, as soon as the shoots have been protruded 
from the eyes, the canes may be fixed to the trellis, and the temperature in- 
creased ; but by no means allow them to bear fruit yet (unless, perhaps, a 
cluster on each vine to prove the sorts). If it is intended to force for early 
fruit the third year, to save repetition, reference may be had to the " Diary 
of Forcmg," hereafter given (971.) To have grapes in their proper season, 
begin to excite the vines in the middle of March, by keeping the temperature 
about 50° or 55° Fahr. ; if it will keep at this without fire heat, so much the 
better. When the vines are coming into flower, 60° Fahr, would do them 
good ; and after that is over, and the fruit thinned, they will do very well at 
55° Fahr. as a minimum, and at 85° Fahr. as a maximum, of sun heat. The 
fruit should be borne on lateral shoots or spurs, which should he stopped at 
one joint beyond the fruit ; and spurs in the winter pruning should be cut 
back to one eye. The following may be considered as a summary of 
culture for three years : — 

Jan. 1, 1836. Vine eyes potted. 
Nov. 1, 1886. Vine border finished. 



Feb. 14, 1837. Vines planted. 
Jan. 1, 1838. Canes winter- pruned, 
or cut back. 



Feb. 14, 1838. Vines excited. 
Sept. 1, 1838. Vines uncovered. 
Jan. 1, 1839. Canes pruned. 
March 16,1839. Vines excited. 
July, 1839. The fruit ripe. 

970. The sorts preferred at Oakhill, are — Muscat of Alexandria, Dutch 
Sweetwater, White Frontignan, White Muscadine, Black Hamburgh, Black 
Prince, Black Frontignan for vineries, and Black Esperione and ^Vhite Mus- 
cadine for walls, 

971. A diary of the course of culture applied to the grape vines at OaMiiU. 
— ^The vinery is 34 feet long, 16 feet wide, with 2 feet of mason- work, and 
2 feet of upright glass in front, and the roof is at an inclination of 27°. The 
whole interior is heated by a surface of hot- water piping, equal to 312 square 
feet. A tan pit, erected on piers of brickwork, occupies the centre floor of 
the house, except only a space of 3 feet 4 inches all round, which is taken 
up by the pathway and hot-water apparatus. At the back wall of the house 
the soil is prepared to the depth of 6 feet ; and at the further extremity of 
the border (J6 feet wide) there are 8^ feet of soil, comprised of equal parts 
of the following earths :~Turfy loam, (the top spit of a very old undisturbed 
piece of pasture occupied as a rickyard,) two parts; rotten dung, one part ; 
lime rubbish, one part ; gritty mud, (the same as road-drift,) one part. The 



460 



CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS. 



vines are planted inside, there are twelve plants, and they are kept single- 
stemmed to the top of the house. When pruned the spurs are cut back to 
one bud. The sorts cultivated are. Black Hamburgh and Dutch Sweet- 
water. 



Maxim, 
by day. 



80 



60 



60 



65 
67 



70 
72 
74 
76 



45 



45 



50 



55 
56 

57 

58 
59 
61 
63 



The vinery open, the wood ripe, not pruned. We 

have had two slight frosts. 
The vines pruned ; the vinery shut up ; no artificial 

heat applied. 
Vines pared ; the loose and rough bark only taken 

off. 

Tan-pit filled with new tan, (twelve loads). Soil, 

pathway, &c., kept wet. 
Vines washed with soap-suds b}'' means of a 

painter's sash-brush, the suds being in a tepid 

state. 

Vines anointed with a mixture of soft-soap, and 
black and white sulphur dissolved in warm 
soap-suds ; the mixture applied to the vines at 
about 100° of heat. Vines laid down on the 
tan, and moistened with a fine syringe twice 
a day. The tan forked every other day. 

Forked the border about 3 inches deep ; laid on 
turfy loam and old lime mortar about 2 inches 
deep ; then old hotbed dung, well rotted, 2 
inches ; the roots bemg near the surface, hav- 
ing been planted as shallow as possible. 

Walls whitewashed with lime and sulphur. 

Laid leaves on vine border, 1 foot thick ; and fresh 
hot dung, 1 foot ; protected the above from 
rains, &c., by reed covers used at other times 
for pine pits. 

The floor dressed with a coat of road-drift for the 

sake of sprinkling. 
Fire heat applied, and all the steam that can be 

raised produced. 
Sprinkling of pipes and pathways performed at all 

times, for the sake of steam and moisture ; the 

heat of dung on border, 70". 
Weather favourable ; the nights often 50° or 52°, 

seldom under 40° ; we have had only four 

frosts, the most intense as low as 26°. 
Buds perceived to be swelling ; heat of dung on 

border 90°. 

Ceased to syringe vines ; the sprinkling of soil, 
pipes, and path, continued. 

Buds breaking generally ; heat of dung on bor- 
der, 96°. 

Weather wet and windy ; nights, 45° to 50". 



1834. 
Jan. 
15 
17 
19 
20 
21 

23 

25 
29 

Feb. 
1 

8 

12 
15 
19 
22 
Mar. 
8 

12 
14 

29 
April 
12 

18 



THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS. 



461 



DIARY. 

Shoots 2 inches long. 

Heat of dung on border, 65^. 

Largest spurs 1 foot long ; flower-buds as large as 
mustard-seeds (white) ; bunches, 1 inch. 

Shoots topped at one joint above fruit ; if a lateral 
is produced it is topped beyond one leaf ; if it 
break again, top it again beyond one leaf. 

In dull days when the weather is cold, and there 
is not sunshine, give a little air, keeping the 
temperature at 74". 

Dung on the border nearly cold. 

The flowers of one bunch (near the hot-pipes) ex- 
panded ; the first that have been. 

The vines in flower generally. 
Began to thin a bunch or two. 
Was thinning all day (at the top of the house.) 

The berries of all set now ; those of the Hamburgh 
as large as hazel-nuts ; those of the old St. 
Peters, the size of peas of the early frame 
kind ; for the sake of the Dutch Sweetwater, 
maintained 76° instead of 74**, the proper tem- 
perature for the Hamburgh. After shutting 
up at night the tan-pit is forked sometimes, 
and sprinkled every night. The pipes are 
sprinkled at least eight times in twenty-four 
hours. 

Began to give air always when the temperature is 

4° above that of the night heat. 
Dung, leaves, &c., cleared off the border, to admit 

sun-heat, &c. ; the border forked over. 
Finished shouldering the Hamburgh, and thinning 

the Sweetwater and St. Peter's (neither of the 

two latter wants shouldering much). All 

spurs tied to wires ; laterals cut clean out ; 

bunches supported. 
Sweetwaters discovered to be changing colour for 

ripening. 

First berry of the Hamburgh beginning to change 
colour ; moisture withdrawn ; plenty of air 
admitted ; border watered with dung water 
(dry weather). 

About half of the berries of the Hamburgh red- 

H H 



462 



CULTURE OP THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS. 



1834. 

April 



22 



Maxim, 
bj- day. 



24 
May 



16 



80 
June 
7 



Minim, 
at night. 



70 



80 



20 



dened ; about one-third of those of the Sweet- 
water perfectly ripe; the berries generally, 
each 3i inches round. 

All watering of the soil for the vine roots, and 
sprinkling of the house to prevent dust, &c., 
performed when plenty of air is given, that 
shanking (shrivelling) may not be induced in 
the berries ; the border watered with drain- 
water ; fruit swelling rapidly. 

Cut fruit of Sweetwater. 

Three days past have been cloudy and rainy. To 
colour the fruit of the Hamburgh we used 
firing to 77° by day, (with front air, if rainy,) 
and 72** by night, allowing ingress to a little 
air all night, the laps of glass being puttied. 

The fruit of the Hamburgh in high perfection, 
many of the berries each 3j inches, and in 
some few, 4 inches round. 

The fruit of the St. Peter's changing colour; and 
berries in a bunch a little brown. 

Grapes exhibited at the gardens of the London 
Horticultural Society, for which the large gold 
medal was awarded. 

A little air left all night when thermometer stands 
above 50" out of doors ; otherwise shut from 
ten till four. 

The soil well watered to prevent the leaves decay- 
ing, and, consequently, unnatural hardening of 
the wood, which ought to be ripened in a de- 
liberate manner, aided by the shade and sur- 
face of the leaves, according to the order of 
nature. 

The leaves are now of amazing size, green and vi- 
gorous, measuring, independently of the foot- 
stalks, 18^ inches by 15 inches ; and this not in 
a solitary instance. 

Soil inside the house, and border outside, wa- 
tered. 

Grapes again exhibited at the gardens of the Lon- 
don Horticultural Society, along with six pines. 
Both were accounted the best productions ex- 
hibited, and prizes were awarded as such. 

Ceased to make fires. With a supply of air left as 
above, the temperature stands usually above 
65". 

The fruit of the Hamburgh fine; that of the 



CULTURE OF THE GRAPE-VINE UNDER GLASS. 



463 



DIARY. 

St. Peter's ripe ; the leaves still green and vigo- 
rous. All possible air admitted by day, when 
fine. Protected from rain for the sake of the 
fruit only. Shut up close from dusk till 
dawn. 

Fruit all cut. Left open with lights on. 
Lights off. 

The lights being off, no culture of any kind is 
given, except occasional waterings in very dry 
weather, to prevent a sudden and unnatural 
termination of the processes wtiich actuate 
growth. 



972. Growing two or three crops of grapes in one house. — The grape is so de- 
sirable a fruit, and one so well adapted for the dessert at every season of the 
year, that wherever there is only one vinery, various plans have been 
adopted, and that with perfect success, to produce two, or even three, crops 
of grapes in it in one year ; and there can be no doubt that four crops might 
be grown. It is not uncommon in pine stoves to have two vines for each 
rafter planted outside the house, and when one, after having produced its 
fruit, is withdrawn, to introduce the other. If two crops can be so grown 
there is no reason why three should not, provided the border be extensive 
enough to admit of keeping the roots of each vine apart ; which may be 
done by vertical underground partitions. The front sashes must of course 
be made to take out entirely at pleasure or if there are no front sashes, 
then the lower sashes of the roof must be made to take out or lift up, so as 
to admit of withdrawing, and reintroducing the vines without injuring them. 
We shall state the practice at Hungerton Hall, in Lincolnshire, and at another 
place in Essex. 

973. Growing three crops of grapes in one house together with pines. — The pine 
pit is built on arches, so that there is a free current of air under it from back 
to front, which, however, can be stopped at pleasure. A movable partition 
of boards, or in part of sashes not in use, is placed on the back wall of the 
pit, so as in eflfect to shut it in completely up to the roof. In the space 
between the back wall of the pit and the back wall of the house, that is, in 
the back path, the vines for the first crop are planted, and trained imme- 
diately under the glass. The back wall is flued ; the lower flue being con- 
tiguous to the roots of the vines, which places the period of commencing 
their growth completely in the power of the cultivator. Here the more 
delicate and perfumed grapes, such as the Purple and White Constantia, and 
the Grizzly Frontignan, ripen their fruit in April ; and when it is all cut in 
May, the vertical partition is put up, and remains so till December, when it 
is taken down, and forcing in this back part commences. The second or inter- 
mediate crop is obtained from plants planted in the front path and trained up 
the rafters. They produce their fruit, which is chiefly the Hamburgh, 
Sweetwater, and Muscat, in June and July ; and when it is all gathered in 
August the vines are taken out, and others planted in the front border intro- 
duced in their place. This crop ripens in September and October, and the 

H H 2 



1H34. 
June 



Maxim, 
by day. 



Minim, 
at night. 



July 
1 
10 



464 



GROWING THE GRAPE ON OPEN WALLS, 



vines are taken out in December, when those growing in the back path are 
begun to be forced by taking down the temporary partition. It is necessary 
to observe that the front flue is not, as is usual, between the path and the 
front wall of the house, but between the path and the front wall of the pit, 
and that there is a double partition of glass in front, between which the vines 
are wintered. Various minor details it is uimecessary to enter into. 

974. Another mode of growing three crops of grapes in one house. — This was 
practised for ten years at a place in Essex, a part of which time it was under 
the care of a journeyman, who sent us the following account of it. The 
house was 45 feet long and 18 feet wide, a pit occupied the centre in which 
pines were fruited. The flue entered the back of the house at one end, and 
was carried round the front of the pit, and under the back pathway into the 
chimney at the same end the flue entered. Vines were planted in the front 
pathway next the pit, one under each rafter. These produced the first 
crop of grapes. The}'- were begun to be forced in the beginning of February, 
and they were ripe by the middle or latter end of J une. Those for the 
second crop were planted outside the house in the front. They were intro- 
duced into the house in the latter end of March, or the beginning of April, 
and trained under the roof over the front flue and pathway, as well as up 
some of the rafters : these ripened their fruit in August. The vine pro- 
ducing the last crop was planted at the front corner of one end outside. It 
was carried with a single stem up the end rafter to the back wall, where it 
was trained just under the coping to the full length of the house. Laterals 
from the main stem were left so as to come in under each rafter to which they 
were trained. This vine was taken in about the beginning of September, by 
entirely removing the end of the house for the purpose, the end being replaced 
as soon as the vine was properly fixed. About this time the vines which 
had produced the first crop of grapes were taken across the flue and wintered 
outside the house till the February following. Grapes have been cut from the 
vine against the back wall, up to the 8th of February, and they were then 
in excellent condition. Our correspondent has known it ripen off upwards of 
300 bunches, with the berries well swelled and coloured and never shrivelled. 
The kind was the Black Hamburgh Valentines. — {G. M. 1841, p. 74.) 

975. Keeping Grapes. — Ripe Grapes may be retained on the branches for 
several months, provided the air of the house be kept dry and cool. To 
absorb moisture from the air without heating it, the floor of the house is 
sometimes covered with dry sand, coal ashes, decayed granite or trap stone. 
Grapes may also be preserved for an indefinite period by cutting off the 
bunches with a joint or two of wood below the bunch, and applying hot 
sealing-wax so as completely to shut out air from the wound. The bunches 
are then suspended in a cool, airy room, and will keep from October till 
May. Care must be taken that they are neither exposed to heat nor damp, 
nor to a current of very dry air. — (G. M. 1841, p. 646.) 

SuBSECT. IV. Growing the Grape on openWalls.and onCottages. 
South of London this might be practised to a great extent, and the grapes 
brought to a high degree of perfection, as has been proved by Mr. Clement 
Hoare, whose excellent Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape 
Vine on open Walls, we most strongly recommend to all who intend to culti- 
vate this fruit in the open air. In the southern counties of England, where 
vines are grown on cottages, Mr. Hoare is of opinion that five times the 



AND ON COTTAGES. 



465 



quantity of grapes of superior flavour might be annually produced on the 
same extent of surface ; and that for every square foot of cottage wall on 
which vines are now trained, there are now twenty that are either entirely 
vacant, or occupied in a useless manner. As a general result of his calcula- 
tions, he says, that for every pound of grapes now grown, one hundred 
pounds might be annually produced on the existing surface of walling. 
" Every moderate-sized dwelling-house having a garden and a little walling 
attached to it, may, with ease, be made to produce yearly, a quarter of a 
ton weight of grapes, leaving a sufficient portion of its surface for the pro- 
duction of other fruit." (p. 19.) The grand error which prevails in the 
culture of the vine on walls and cottages consists in the mode of pruning, 
which is far from being sufficiently severe. Nine parts out of ten of the 
current year's shoots, and all those of the preceding year, should if possible 
be cut off ; and this is so different to what is required for other fruit-trees, 
that few persons have the courage to attempt it. 

976. Fruit-hearing powers of the vine. — This Mr. Hoare has ascertained 
by experiment from the quantity of fruit which any vine can produce without 
checking its growth or injuring its vital powers. After a great many expe- 
riments, performed between 1825 and 1830, Mr. Hoare ascertained that if 
two and a half inches be deducted from the circumference of the stem of 
any vine measured just above the ground, the capability of the plant will 
be equal to the maturation of 10 lbs. of grapes for every remaining inch of 
girth. No vine is considered fit to bear until its stem measures three 
inches in girth. For every pound weight of grapes extracted from a vine 
before it has grown to that size, 10 lbs. will be lost during the next five 
years. Having calculated the weight of grapes which a stem may be allowed 
to produce, the next point is to determine what weight will be produced by 
the shoot developed by a single bud. This Mr. Hoare has ascertained to be, 
for those sorts of grapes usually cultivated on the open wall, half a pound 
weight for every good bud ; the two bottom buds on every shoot being 
rejected, as seldom producing blossom-bearing shoots. Thus, " if the stem 
of a vine measure five inches in girth, its capability is equal to the matura- 
tion of twenty-five pounds weight of grapes, and therefore the number of 
buds to remain after pruning will be fifty," (p. 38.) Nothing can be more 
definite, satisfactory, or easily understood than this system, which has now 
stood the test of nearly twenty years. It is, however, to be understood 
that, where the climate is sufficiently congenial to mature a more luxu- 
riant production of wood, the fruit-bearing power of the vine is infinitely 
greater. 

977. Aspect. — Warmth and shelter are the grand requisites. The per- 
spiration of the foliage of the vine is so great that it is carried to an injurious 
extent by the slightest wind. Mr. Hoare has found that, during the space 
of twenty-four hours, when the wind has blown briskly, the shoots exposed 
to its influence have not perceptibly grown at all, while, shortly afterwards, 
the wind having entirely sunk away, the same shoots have grown upwards of 
three inches in the same space of time, the temperature of the air in a sheltered 
situation being alike during each period," p. 41. The best aspects for vines 
on the open wall in the south of England are those which range from the 
E. to the S.E. both inclusive ; and the next best from S.E. to S. Those 
which range from S. to W. are good, provided they are sheltered ; but N. 
or \V., though they may sometimes produce tolerable grapes, yet are very 



466 



GROWING THE GRAPE ON OPEN WALLS, 



uncertain both for the ripening of the grapes and of the wood. E. by N. 
Mr. Hoare finds a very good aspect. On a wall facing this point the sun 
shines till about eleven o'clock in the morning, and Mr. Hoare has for many 
years past brought several sorts of grapes, including the Black Hamburgh, 
to great perfection in this aspect. It would thus appear that if a cottage, 
the general outline of the ground-plan of which is a square or a parallelo- 
gram, is placed so that a south and north line shall form a diagonal to it, 
vines may be planted against every part of the walls and trained over the 
Avhole of the roof. We have shown in the Supplement to the Encyclopaedia 
of Cottage Architecture (§ 2237) the immense importance of placing every 
cottage so as to have the diagonal a south and north line, without reference 
to the front or any of the sides being parallel to the adjoining road or street. 
- ' We wish it to be distinctl}'^ understood, that it forms no part of our plan 
to have either the front or the back of the cottage next to, and parallel 
with, the road ; on the contrary, we prefer, in almost every case of single 
cottages, to have next the road an angle of the building, by which the views 
across the road will be oblique, instead of being direct ; as the former, in 
every case, exhibits a longer perspective, which must consequently contain 
a greater number of objects." — (^Supp. Cott. Arch., p. 1138). The walls 
and roofs of cottages so placed, north of London, may be covered with the 
apple, pear, cherry, plum, and, in some cases, the apricot ; and those south 
of London may be covered with the grape vine. 

978. Soil. — Light, rich, sandy loam, not more than eighteen inches in 
depth, on a dry bottom of gravel, stone, or rock, forms the most desirable 
soil and subsoil for the vine. Mr. Hoare truly observes, that " one of the 
principal causes of grapes not ripening well on the open wall in this country 
is the great depth of mould in which the roots of vines are suffered to run, 
which, enticing them to penetrate in search of food below the influence of 
the sun's rays, supplies them with too great a quantity of moisture ; vegeta- 
tion is thereby carried on until late in summer, in consequence of which the 
ripening process does not commence till the declination of the sun becomes 
too rapid to afford a sufficiency of solar heat to perfect the fruit," (p. 47.) 
It is hardly possible, Mr. Hoare observes, to form the vine border of 
materials too dry or porous. Stones, brickbats broken moderately small, 
lumps of old mortar, broken pottery, oyster-shells, and other materials 
which retain air and heat, and permit heavy rains to pass quickly through, 
should be mixed up with two-thirds of light rich soil, such as the sweepings 
of roads, or the top spit of a field of good arable land. The border should 
never be cropped or digged, and only stirred occasionally with a fork to the 
depth of two inches, to admit the sun and air. Where borders cannot be 
prepared for vines, they may be planted in pits eighteen inches square, and 
eighteen inches deep, filled up with suitable soil ; and if the situation is dry, 
the roots will soon push themselves into some suitable place ; for, as Mr. 
Hoare observes, the roots of the vine possess an extraordinary power of 
adapting themselves to any situation in which they may be planted, pro- 
vided it be a dry one. 

979. Manure. — As the vine border once properly made ought never to 
be disturbed, it foUows that the manure incorporated with the soil at making 
should be of a permanent nature, decomposing from time to time to supply 
the nutriment extracted by the plants. Top-dressings and liquid manure 
may also be added when the border is made, or at any subsequent period. 



AND ON COTTAGES. 



467 



Some of the best permanent manures are bones, horns and hoofs of cattle, 
bone-dust, the entu-e carcases of anhnals, cuttings of leather, woollen rags, 
feathers, and hair. Bones Mr. Hoare considers by far the most valuable 
manure that can be deposited in a vine border, and he recommends their 
being buried in the soil whole, and as fresh as possible, and of every size 
from the smallest bone of a fowl to the largest bone of an ox, (p. 58.) 
Excess of manure deteriorates the flavour of grapes, and produces an exces- 
sive and unnatural growth of long-jointed wood, with nothing but leaf-buds. 
We may here notice a manure for the vine recommended by Mr. Hayward. 
This gentleman has tried a great variety of compounds as food for plants, 
and has found that one quart of cider, or cider-grounds, added to two gallons 
of water, brings a grape vine to a more perfect prolific state than anything 
else. This mixture must be supplied in such quantity as will saturate the 
earth, like water, to the depth of the roots, and all over the surface occu- 
pied by the roots. It must only be given once in the year in J une ; and if 
repeated the second year, its good effects will be sustained for several years 
afterwards without further supplies. The apple and pear, and the fig, are 
alike benefited by this compound. — (Gard. Chron.^ vol. i. p. 413.) 

980. Walls, — In an unsheltered situation, exposed to W. and S.W. winds, 
Mr. Hoare has never seen prime grapes produced much higher than eight 
feet from the ground ; but in sheltered situations, and in S. and S.E. aspects, 
grapes may be matured at any height from the ground. The lower part 
of the wall, however, will always enjoy an increased degree of warmth 
from the reflexion of the ground. Hence grapes growing within two 
or three feet of the bottom of a wall facing the south will, in general, 
ripen from ten days to a fortnight earlier than those growing on the 
upper part of it. It may be observed, that the higher the wall the 
warmer will its southern aspect be, and the colder its northern aspect. 
There is a disadvantage, however, in training grapes near the ground, as it 
respects their remaining on the vine after being ripe. If grapes can be kept 
perfectly dry, they will hang on the vine and improve in flavour for a long 
time after they are ripe ; but if dampness or moisture of any description 
reach them, the consequences are quickly seen in the decay of the berries. 
After the middle of October, therefore, it will be found a difficult matter 
to preserve grapes that hang within two feet of the ground, on account of 
the damp exhalations that continually arise from the soil at that period of 
the year," (p. 68.) Blackening the surface of a wall, Mr. Hoare finds 
productive of a considerable increase of heat as long as the sun shines upon 
it ; but while that surface is in the shade, it parts with the heat so rapidly as 
soon to become colder than if it had not been blackened. Hence he would 
only blacken walls with an aspect due south, because the absence of the 
sun from such walls is so much less that the wall has not time to cool, and 
the heat produced by blackening on a clear day, when the sun is in the 
meridian, is frequently from 10° to 20" more than that on a wall which has 
not been blackened, (p. 7l.) Projecting copings to vine walls preserve the 
shoots from late frosts in spring, and the blossoms from cold dews and heavy 
rains ; they also keep the grapes in good condition for some time after they 
have become ripe ; they prevent the escape of heat, and are convenient for 
fastening netting, bunting, &c. to, when it is necessary to protect the fruit 
from birds and insects. The disadvantages of copings are, that they exclude 
light, air, dew, and rain, which are very beneficial from the time the fruit 



468 



GROWING THE GRAPE ON OPEN WALLS, 



has set till it begins to ripen. The width of the projecting part of the 
coping Mr. Hoare regulates by the height of the wall and its aspect. " If 
the height be less than four feet, and the aspect south, the coping ought not 
to project at all, as the light and solar heat excluded by it will be a serious 
drawback on the healthy vegetation of the vines. But if the wall be four 
feet high, then the coping may project as many inches ; and if this width 
be increased an inch for every foot that the wall increases in height up to 
twelve feet, the principal advantages arising from the protection which a 
coping affords will be secured, in conjunction with the smallest portion of its 
disadvantages," (p. 73.) If the aspect be east or west, the coping must be 
as narrow as possible, as every inch of projection in these aspects causes a 
considerable diminution in the duration of sunshine on the face of the wall. 
At the same time a coping that projects less than four inches is calculated 
to do more harm than good, as the drip will fall on the blossoms and the 
fruit. Movable wooden copings (463 and 471) produce, Mr. Hoare 
observes, all the benefit of fixed copings, without any of their disadvantages. 
All garden walls whatever should have iron brackets built in immediately 
under the stone coping, in order to admit of temporary wooden copings 
being applied at pleasure. Temporary copings should be applied, from 
the 21st of March to the middle of May, to protect the young shoots, from 
the first expanding of the buds until the berries are well set; and again from 
the berries showing symptoms of ripening till the fruit be all cut from the 
vines. 

981. Propagation. — Mr. Hoare prefers cuttings containing two buds taken 
off in autumn, and planted in spring in the open garden, and sometimes 
where they are finally to remain. The uppermost bud of the cutting 
must have an inch of the blank wood remaining beyond it, and the lower 
end must be cut transversely, just below the bud. Bury the upper bud 
about a quarter of an inch, and press the soil quite firm to the lower one. 
Keep the soil moist by soap-suds or liquid manure. 

982. Pruning. — Mr. Hoare, as we have already seen (962), gives a 
decided preference to the long system of pruning ; his objections to the 
other modes being founded on the quantity of proper juice required annually 
to clothe the naked old wood with a new concentric layer of alburnum, 
thereby lessening the quantity of juice sent down to the roots. Naked vine 
branches are consumers, but not producers ; therefore the grand object of 
pruning should be to leave a sufficient supply of bearing-shoots on the least 
possible proportionate quantity of old wood. Tried by this test, the long 
method will be found preferable to all others. Prune as soon after the 1 st 
of October as the gathering of the fruit will admit ; and never prune in 
March, April, or May. 

983. Training. — From a main stem, one horizontal shoot to the right 
and another to the left, are maintained of a sufficient length to produce all 
the bearing wood required for the age of the vine, the height of the wall, 
&c. These shoots are laid in about a foot above the surface of the soil, 
and the vertical shoots which proceed from them are trained in a serpentine 
form, to check the too rapid ascent of the sap. " If a summer shoot, every 
time it is nailed throughout the season, be bent or pointed in a different 
direction to that in which it grew at the preceding nailing, the vigour of its 
growth will be checked, and the sap will immediately accumulate and 
expend itself in forming round, short-jointed wood, and in the development 



AND ON COTTAGES. 



469 



of the finest description of fruit-buds. This is the key to the production 
of large bunches of fruit, which are not the necessary consequence of very 
large-sized bearing shoots, but rather of sap that has been accumulated and 
highly elaborated by slowness of growth in combination with fiill exposure 
to the sun s rays," (p. 106.) In nailing, linen or cotton shreds are by some 
preferred to woollen ones, as being less retentive of moisture ; but, on the 
other hand, they produce a greater chill, in consequence of the more rapid 
evaporation which they afford ; and they should in general be from three- 
fourths of an inch to one inch and a half in breadth, according to the size 
of the shoot. 

984. Mr. Hoare s mode of training. — Figs. 849 to 353 will give an idea 
of Mr. Hoare's mode of training, with some variations. Fig. 849 shows a 

J vine of two years' growth, cut down to two eyes ; but of the 
shoots produced from these eyes, one is rubbed off when the 
Fig. 349!'**MV. other is firmly established, so that only one is matured. Jn 
Hoare's mode November this shoot is cut down to two eyes, as in fig. 850. 
%conT^mr— "^^^ shoots produced next summer are treated as before, one 
from the cut- only being left to come to maturity, and that one is cut down in 
iing. the November of the fourth year to three eyes, as in fig. 351 . 

Next year three shoots will be produced, but as soon as two are firmly 
established in J une or July, the other is cut off, and two only are allowed 
« to come to maturity. Tendrils, or any appearance „ 
]| of bunches, are pinched off as soon as they appear, Jp 

^ ' Ls;r=:- and the shoots, in the last week of August or \ 

^Ho'af^s mode ^^^^ September, are stopped. The vine 
of training, will now be four years of age, and have stood three Fig. 351 ."itfr. 
third year, years on the spot where it is finally to remain. The Hoare's mode 
girth of the stem at the surface of the ground will be three inches, Jf"*"*"^'' 

111 1 • 1 1 . n 1 ^ ^ ^''t foy^riji year. 

and the plant may be permitted to bear truit tor the first time ; 
say not more than 5lbs. weight. For this purpose, Mr. Hoare cuts down 
the two shoots to the seven lowermost buds on each ; and having trimmed 
the shoots, they are to be nailed to the wall in a horizontal position, as in 
fig. 852. This being done in Novem- 
ber, then, in the February following, 
cut out of each shoot the first, second, 
fourth, fifth, and sixth buds, leaving 
the third and seventh buds on each 
shoot, to produce shoots, as at a, &, c, 
rf, in fig, 852. In the course of the 
summer these four buds will produce 
four shoots, which may either be 
trained upright, as at a, or, as Mr. 
Hoare prefers, in a serpentine manner, 
as at 6 ; or, as a correspondent sug- 
gests (965), they may be trained in Fig. 352. 
a sloping direction, as at d. The 
object of the curvilinear training, and also of the sloping direction, is to 
equalise the breaking of the buds — the sap in vines, as every one knows, 
being otherwise apt to expend itself chiefly at the extremities of the shoots. 
If more bunches are shown than, at the rate of |lb. each, will produce 




Mr. Hoare's mode of training, 
variations, fifth year. 



with 



470 



GROWING THE GRAPE ON OPEN WALLS, 



.51bs., pinch them off as soon as they appear, or as soon as the berries are set. 
Supply the plant with liquid manure during the summer; stop the shoots in 
the first week of September, and after the fruit is gathered cut back the 

shoots at / and g in fig. 853, to within 
a foot or J 8 inches of the main stem, 
and cut the others to the lowermost 
bud, as at e and h in fig. 353. The vine 
is now prepared for being treated ac- 
cording to a regular system, which 
consists in " alternately fruiting two 
shoots, and training two at full length 
for bearing wood in the following 
^ ^^""^^ year." Mr. Hoare considers it ad- 



visable not to let the vine extend 

'L/^ itself farther on the wall, but, instead 

Fig. 353. Mr. Hoare's system of training of this, tO plant a sufficient number 
estabimed. plants to cover the w^all or house, 

with plants having two arms, as in the figures 854 and 855, and seen more in 
detail in fig. 348 ; the only difference being, that in the latter figure the bear- 
ing wood is kept quite short. Vines treated in the manner recommended by 
Mr. Hoare, with arms each 2| feet in length, may have the bearing shoots 
of any length under 8 feet or 10 feet ; and as the annual increase in the 
girth of its stem will be about ^ an inch, it may be allowed to mature an 
additional 5 lbs. of fruit annually, till the produce amounts to 60 lbs., which 
is the greatest quantity which will be produced annually from 50 square feet 
of walling. 

985. In training the vine on the walls of cottages, exactly the same system 
ought to be pursued as in training it against walls, with these differences, that 
a greater length of stem will generally be required, and that the length of 
the arms will vary exceedingly. In order, however, to equalise the pro- 
duction of fruit, and maintain a sufficient degree of vigour in the vines, the 
length of the bearing wood ought to be shortened in proportion as the length 
of the arms is increased beyond 2^ feet each from the main stem. It is of 
no great consequence, as Mr. Hoare observes, what the length of the stem 
of a vine may be before it reaches the point where the arms originate, and 
which Mr. Hoare terms the fruiting point ; and this length of stem, even if 
it should be 20 feet, or 30 feet, can easily be attained in three years by not 
cutting off more from the extremity of every year's shoot than what may not 
be thoroughly ripened. 

986. The appearance of a portion of the front of a house covered with vines 
in Mr. Hoare s manner is shown in fig. 354, in which there are seven dif- 
ferent plants, marked a to ^ in the figure. The plant a has a long stem, and 
arms rather shorter than usual for covering a portion of the wall equal to the 
height of the bed-room windows ; h covers a space equal to the height of the 
parlour windows ; c covers the space between the parlour and the bed-room 
windows : it has arms exceeding the usual length, every arm bearing shoots 
in the Thomery manner ; d has a very short stem, and long arras, with 
short bearing shoots, for covering the space between the sill of the parlour 
windows and the plinth ; e has a stem which reaches above the bed-room 
windows, with very long arms and short shoots, in the Thomery manner, 



AND ON COTTAGES. 471 



for covering the space between the bed-room windows and the roof. The 
other half of the front is shown covered with fruit trees ; h may represent an 
apple, a cherry, or a plum ; i and A", pears ; and / may be the same as h. 




a b c d e f g h i k I 

Fig. 354. The front of a plain house, covered with grape vines on the left side, and other fruit trees 

on the right side. 



Vines may be planted against houses in streets, as we see in many vil- 
lages and country towns, the roots running under the foot pavement, and 
even under the street, for no fruit tree is less particular in regard to soil, 
provided that it be on a perfectly dry bottom. Of course the bearing arms 
of vines grown in streets should be at such a height from the ground as to 
be out of the reach of mischievous persons. For a variety of other details 
we must refer to Mr. Hoare's work ; what we have selected from it, taken 
in connexion with the contents of preceding sections, will enable any gardener 
or amateur to grow grapes on open walls or on cottages to a high degree 
of perfection, wherever the climate is suitable. The only objection which 
we have ever heard made to Mr. Hoare s system is, the very limited 
extent of branches which he allows ; for it is alleged that, in moister 
situations and richer soils than that in which his practice lay, so much 
shortening would break the eyes prematurely. 

987. The walls and roof of a cottage of the most irregular architecture may 
be covered with vines or fruit trees on the same principle as we have just 
exhibited on the front of a plain house. In the perspective view, fig. 855, 
thirty-five plants are shown, with stems and arms so adjusted as to cover 
two sides of the building. To avoid confusion, only the stems and arms are 
shown, and the position of the spurs whence the bearing wood is produced. 
It will be observed that the stems rt, «, are long for the purpose of covering 



472 



GROWING THE GRAPE ON OPEN WALLS, ETC. 



the upper part of the roof ; and &, &, for covering the upper part of the 
gable : c, c, are for covering the lower part of the roof ; rf, rf, the upper part 
of the wall ; and e, e, the lower part. The other stems speak for themselves. 




Fig. 355. Two sides of a cottage, covered with vines, trained in Mr, Hoare's manner. 



988. Kinds of grapes most suitable for the open wall or for cottages. — 
Mr. Hoare recommends Black Hamburgh Black Prince, Esperione, Black 
Muscadine, Miller's Burgundy, Claret Grape, Black Frontignan, Grizzly Fron- 
tignan. White Frontignan, Wliite or Royal Muscadine [? Syn.], Malmsley 
Muscadine, White Sweetwater, Early Black July. For handsome, large, 

• and well-set bunches, no white grape equals the Royal Muscadine for walls 
or cottages ; and the Black Prince ripens better than the Black Hamburgh. 

SuBSECT. V. Insects, Diseases, ^c. 
When the vine is properly cultivated, it is little subject to insects; but 
under glass it is occasionally infested with the red spider, and with one or 
two species of coccus. The former may be destroyed by washing the flues 
or hot- water pipes with a mixture of quick -lime and sulphur, and shutting 
up the house ; and the latter, by washing the wood, after the leaves 
have dropped, and the whole of the interior of the house, with soft-soap, 
which may also be mixed with sulphur. There is little danger, however, 
from either of these insects, if the air of the house is kept sufficiently warm 
and moist. The fruit, when ripe, is liable to be attacked by birds, wasps, 
flies, &c., which may be excluded by netting or wire-gauze ; but on the 
subject of insects we refer to what has already been stated in subsect. VII., 
p. 108. Bleeding, the result of pruning at an improper season, may in 
general be left to cure itself by the expansion of the foliage. 

Sect. III. — Culture of the Peach and Nectarine under glass. 
Subsect. I. — Natural data on which the culture of the Peach is founded. 

989. The peach (Amygdalus persica L.) is indigenous in Persia, where it 
attains a high degree of perfection, and where Dr. Royle informs us, both 
the free and cling stone varieties are known. It is also found in various parts 
of Turkey in Asia, in India in different parts of the Himalayas ; and it is 



CULTURE OF THE PEACH AND NECTARINE UNDER GLASS. 473 

cultivated in China, Japan, North America, and in most parts of Europe, 
Its range in Persia and Asiatic Turkey appears to be between 30" and 40° of 
north latitude ; but very little is known of the temperature or moisture of 
the climate in these and other regions where the peach is indigenous. 
Judging from general laws, it would appear that the winters are severe, the 
springs cold or temperate, and the summers warm rather than hot ; but the 
average temperature, or the extremes of heat and cold of these seasons, in the 
countries mentioned, have not yet been ascertained. Our data for the culture 
of the peach, therefore, must chiefly be taken from the practice in countries 
where it is successfully cultivated, and in no country is it more so in the 
open air than in the neighbourhood of Paris, or under glass than in England. 
The writer of the article peach in the Penny Cyclopaedia, from facts 
which we presume have been obtained in the Horticultural Society's 
Garden, gives the following data, on which the practice of forcing the peach 
may be safely founded. 

990. Natural and experimental data. — If the mean temperature of Febru- 
ary amount to 40° and that of March to 44° or 45°, the peach-tree will be in 
full flower against a wall with a south aspect about the last week in March ; 
and the general crop will be ripe in the last week of August, or first week of 
September, provided the mean temperature of April be 49°, May 55°, June 
61°, July 64°, and that of August 63°. The period required for the matura- 
tion of the fruit from the time of flowering is, on the open wall, five months ; 
but it may be reduced to four by means of fire-heat and the protection of 
glass. It cannot, however, be advantageously diminished any further. This 
fact being borne in mind, it is easy for the gardener to know at what time to 
commence forcing his peaches in order to obtain a crop in a given month. 

From the natural climate and habit of the peach-tree, it is obvious that 
when forced it must be flowered under a comparatively low degree of tem- 
perature. It cannot therefore be well forced simultaneously with the vine ; 
for the temperature of March, which in this climate serves to bring the peach 
into flower, does not unfold the buds of the vine, this being only eff'ected a 
month or six weeks farther in the season by a mean temperature of 55°. The 
peach may be subjected at first to a temperature of 45°, but not exceeding 
55° till the flowering is over, after which it may be gradually raised to 60°, and 
not exceeding 65°, till the substance of the stone is indurated ; and after this 
crisis from 65° to 70° may be allowed. This is to be understood as referring to 
the application of fire-heat. Even in the total absence of the latter, sun-heat 
will frequently raise the temperature much higher ; but in this case a large 
portion of air should be supplied, not, however, all at once after the tempe- 
rature of the house is found too high, but gradually as the temperature 
increases. Air should be always freely admitted through the day when the 
weather is at all favourable. 

Light is so essential, that unless peaches be trained near the glass, the 
fruit wiU neither acquire due colour nor flavour. Vicissitudes of dryness and 
moisture must be avoided. The roots should be w^ell supplied with water 
before the fruit begins to ripen off*, because at a later period none can be 
applied without deteriorating the flavour. 

The management of the peach-tree can only be correctly understood by 
those who are aware of the disposition of its buds and its mode of bearing. 
The leaves on the shoots of the cun-ent season are produced either singly, in 
pairs, or in threes from the same node. In the course of the summer, or 



474 



CULTURE OF THE PEACH UNDER GLASS 



early part of autumn, a bud is formed in the axil of every individual leaf, 
and these are termed single, double, or triple eyes, or buds, according as one 
or more are produced at each node. In the following season, these buds 
develop themselves, either as flower-buds or young shoots ; and, previously to 
pruning, it is necessary to distinguish the one description from the other. 
The flower-buds are plump and roundish ; the wood- buds are more oblong 
and pointed, and one of these is generally situated between two flower-buds in 
the case of triple buds occurring at the same node. It is therefore expedient 
in pruning to shorten a shoot to these triple eyes, or in their absence to a 
leaf-bud, but never to a fruit-bud only ; for no shoot could be prolonged 
from it, nor would the fruit attain perfection, owing to the want of leaves in 
immediate connexion with its footstalk. The mode of bearing is solely on 
shoots of the preceding summer's growth. — Fenny Cyclopcedia^yol. xvii.,p.846. 

SuBSECT. II — Culture of the Peach under Glass in British Gardens. 

991. Construction of the peach-house. — The form of the peach-house 
need not differ much from that of the grape-house, but in general it is made 
narrower and not so high at the back wall. Mr. Torbron, an experienced 
forcing gardener, recommends, length 80 feet, width 12 feet, height at back 
9 feet, at front 2 feet. The front and end walls, and flues, to be on arches. 
The flue to be within 3 feet of the front and end walls, and to be returned 
interiorly, leaving between the flues a vacuity of 6 inches or a foot. A 
trellis to be fixed to the rafters 15 inches from the glass, and the trees to 
be planted between the front wall and the flue. The sashes, in two 
lengths, to lap in the middle. The top-lights to be 1 inch wider than 
the lower ones ; and the lower ones to run up and down in a groove 
formed in the rafter under the top light, so that the top and bottom lights 
may run free of each other. The doors at each end, or one at the furnace 
end. The rise from the furnace to the floor of the flue should be 18 inches. 
The situation of the chimney-top should be in the back wall over the furnace ; 
or if the coals produce a great deal of dense smoke, the chimney may be 
carried up in the front wall of the back shed. If the heating is to be 
effected by hot water, the pipes may be at exactly the same distance from 
the front and end walls as that above-mentioned for flues, in case of their 
being used. (957.^) 

992. Peaches and nectarines best adapted for forcing. — The nectarine is a 
variety of the peach, and of both there are what are called cling-stones, in 
which the flesh adheres to the nut or stone, and free-stones, in which the 
flesh parts from the stone readily. The sorts of peaches best adapted for 
forcing are — * Grosse Mignonne, * Royal George, Red Magdalen, Royal 
Charlotte, * Bellegarde, Barrington, and Late Admirable. These sorts 
ripen in the order in which they are placed ; the two latter kinds being late 
peaches, are only proper to be planted where a prolonged' succession is 
required. The Bellegarde is not so subject to the attack of mildew as 
many others are that have serrated glandless leaves. The best sorts of 
nectarines for forcing are the Elruge and the * Violet Hative. All the 
above are free-stone fruits, cling-stones not being favourites iu this country ; 
though in Italy and North America, where the summers are much warmer, 
they are preferred. 

993. Plants and mode of training. — Time is gained by procuring from the 
nurseries, or from the open walls of the same garden, trees which have been 



IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



three or four years trained, which may be removed in November. The fan 
mode of training, already described in sufficient detail (801), is unquestion- 
ably the best for forced peaches. In lofty or wide houses it may be neces- 
sary to introduce riders in order more speedily to cover the upper part of the 
trellis, and these also should be three or four years trained ; but where the 
peach has been properly treated on a garden- wall, and its roots encouraged 
to run near the surface of the border, trained trees of almost any size may 
be transferred from the open wall to the forcing-house at once, so as even to 
bear a tolerable crop of fruit the first year. Mr. Errington removed a tree 
from a wall to a trellis in a forcing-house, where it covered 480 square feet, 
and ripened eight dozen of peaches the same year in which it v/as planted. — 
(G.M. 1842, p. 123.) 

994. Planing. — The winter pruning of the peach under glass should 
take place immediately after the fall of the leaf. The young shoots on the 
lower branches should be cut back to two or three buds, that the trellis 
may be furnished from the bottom with young wood. The shoots on the 
upper or farther extended branches may be shortened back to half or one- 
third of their lengths, according to their strength, provided they have been 
well ripened, and are free from canker; but if the tree be anywise diseased, 
they should be cut so far back as to get rid of the cankered or mildewed part. 
The riders need not be pruned so much as the dwarfs ; the object being 
rather to throw them into a bearing state, than to cause them to push very 
strong shoots, which would not be fruitful. If they make moderately strong 
shoots, and if these be well ripened in autumn, a good crop may be expected 
on them next year. " Unless peach-trees be very strong," Mr. Thompson 
observes, " the shoots should be more or less shortened, according to the 
vigour of the tree. If this be not attended to, it will be impossible to prevent 
the bearing wood from becoming naked at the base. The setting and 
stoning of fruit situated at or near the extremity of a three-year-old branch, 
having, perhaps, only leaves on the part produced during the last season, 
is, indeed, very precarious." 

995. The summer pruning consists in pinching off all foreright shoots as 
they appear, and all such as are ill placed, weakly, watery, or deformed, 
leaving a leader to every shoot of last year, and retaining a plentiful supply 
of good lateral shoots in all parts of the tree. If any blank is to be filled up, 
some conveniently placed strong shoot is shortened in a very early stage of 
its growth to a few eyes, in order that it may throw out laterals. All lux- 
uriant shoots should be stopped as soon as their tendency to over-luxuriance 
is observed, in order that the sap, which would otherwise be wasted, may 
be forced into the adjoining shoots and branches. 

996. The fruit is thinned before and after the stoning season. — There 
should be a preparatory thinning soon after the fruit is set, leaving, of 
course, a sufficient number in case of imperfection that may only become 
apparent at the period of stoning ; because most plants, especially such as 
have overborne themselves, drop many fruit at that crisis. When this is 
over, the thinning should be effected with great regularity, leaving the fi-uit 
retained at proper distances ; three, four, or five, on strong shoots ; two or 
three on middling, and one or two on the weaker shoots ; and never leaving 
more than one peach at the same eye. The fruit on weakly trees should 
be thinned more in proportion. 

997. The peach border will be partly within the house, but chiefly on 



476 



CULTURE OF THE PEACH UNDER GLASS 



the outside, where it may extend ten feet or twelve feet from the front 
wall. The usual depth in medium soils and situations is from two feet to 
three and a half feet ; but eighteen inches, or two feet, is much safer, for 
reasons before given (886). The bottom should be previously thoroughly 
drained, and covered with a stratum of gravel, broken bricks, or other 
similar materials, to conduct away superfluous water. The best soil is a 
fresh loam from an old pasture, mixed with numerous fragments of free- 
stone (828). No stable-dung need be added, unless the soil should be 
considered poor. " The peach," Mr. Errington remarks, " as well as most 
other tender fruit-trees, is planted in borders far too deep as well as too 
rich." The borders should be pointed and forked up after pruning, and a 
little well-rotted dung or compost added where deemed necessary. The 
part of the borders on the outside may, in addition, be covered with dung ; 
and, after forcing is commenced, those in the inside may be occasionally 
watered with liquid manure ; but no manure whatever is required till such 
time as the trees are in a bearing state. 

998. General treatment, — From the rise of the sap, it occupies, in some 
sorts, about four months to make mature fruit ; in the later varieties, five 
months ; and, when much of winter is included in the course of forcing, the 
time is proportionally lengthened. To ripen moderately early kinds by the 
end of May, begin to force on the 21st of December. Little is gained by 
commencing sooner. Abercrombie directs to begin with a temperature of 
42° minimum, 45*^ maximum, from sun-heat ; and rise in a fortnight to 45** 
minimum, SO*' maximum, from sun-heat, giving plenty of air ; in the pro- 
gress of the second fortnight, augment the temperature from three to eight 
degrees, so as to have it at the close up to 53" minimum, 56° maximum, from 
sun-heat, admitting air in some degree daily. When the trees are in blos- 
som, let the heat be 55° minimum, 60° maximum. Continue to aim at this 
till the fruit is set and swelling. When the fruit is set, raise the minimum 
to 60°, the artificial maximum to 65°, in order to give fresh air ; when the 
sun shines, do not let the maximum, from collected heat, pass 70°, rather 
employing the opportunity to admit a free circulation of air. A constant 
stream of fresh air is to be admitted before beginning to force, and plenty of 
air during sunshine throughout the whole progress of forcing. While the 
fruit is in blossom, steaming the flues or hot-waterpipes must be substituted 
for watering overhead ; at the same time, the roots may be watered now 
and then gently, avoiding such a copious supply as might risk the dropping 
of the fruit to be set. An important point to be attended to in watering is, 
as we have seen (823), to let the water be warmed to the same temperature 
as the air of the house. When the fruit is ripening, its flavour is improved 
by direct exposure to the sun and air, by the removal of the glass, at least 
during the day. When it is quite ripe, the border should be covered with 
moss, or some soft substance, or nets suspended under the trees, to prevent 
those which drop off from being bruised ; but the best flavour is obtained 
by gathering the fruit a day before it is dead ripe, and ripening it for twenty 
or thirty hours in the fruit- room. 

999. Insects and diseases. — The red spider is the grand enemy to the 
peach-tree ; but it is also attacked by mildew, the aphis, thrips, chermes, 
and sometimes even by the coccus. Their ravages become apparent by the 
leaves curling up, and often by the ends of the shoots becoming bunched 
and clammy, which retards their shooting. In this case it is advisable to 



IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



477 



pick off the infected leaves, and cut away the distempered part of the 
shoots. Further to check the mischief, if the weather be hot and dry, give 
the trees a smart watering all over the branches. Garden-engines, such as 
Read's (440), will perform the watering much more effectually than a 
common watering-pot. It should be applied two or three times a week, 
or even once a day. The best time of the day is the afternoon, when the 
power of the sun is declining. These waterings will clear the leaves, 
branches, and fruit from any contracted foulness ; refresh and revive the 
whole considerably ; and conduce greatly to exterminate the insects. The 
green fly is the principal enemy ; and if it appears before the leaves are 
curled up, or the ends of the shoots have become clammy, the remedy 
should be applied, viz. : a slight syringing to damp the leaves, and then a 
good sprinkling with tobacco-dust. 

3 000. Peaches may he forced in pots in a peach- house, vinery, or even in 
a pine-stove ; but the plants must be well established in the pots by three 
years' culture previous to forcing (^Ihid. 1841, p. 821). It may be well to 
observe that the peach to be grown in pots, or to be transplanted when of 
two or more years' growth, must be worked on plum-stocks, on account of 
the much greater number of fibrous roots which these stocks produce than 
almonds ; the latter are generally employed as stocks to the peach in France 
and Italy, being found to answer well in these countries, where the peach is 
seldom transplanted, and where the soil and climate are much dryer and 
warmer than in Britain. 

SuBSECT. III. — The details of a routine course of forcing the Peach for two years. 

The following article, by Mr. P. Flanagan, F.H.S., gardener to Sir 
Thomas Hare, Bart., at Stow-hall, Norfolk, is one of the best that has yet 
been published on the subject of which it treats. It appeared in the fifth 
volume of the Horticultural Transactions. Mr. Flanagan first describes 
the plan he follows in planting the trees, and then details his system of 
management during the first season; after which he gives the mode of 
treatment in the second season, which last is equally applicable to all 
future years : — 

1001. " The soil which I generally use for peaches and nectarines, whether 
in houses or on open walls, is the top spit of a pasture of rich yellow loam, 
if it can be procured, without adding to it any manure whatever ; but if the 
soil be poor or sandy, it should have a little rotten dung mixed with it. If 
convenient, this mould should be laid up in ridges five or six months before 
it is wanted, and turned over twice or thrice during that time. 

1002. Border. — " When the house is ready, the borders, both inside and 
outside, should be cleared to the depth of three feet, and be well drained, as 
well as paved at bottom with slate or flat tiles, to prevent the roots of the 
trees entering the bad soil which may be at bottom. This being done, the 
new earth must be wheeled into the cavity of the border, and every layer 
of it that is put on should be well trodden down, until the whole is filled up, 
allowing a few inches above the level for settling, which will be, however, 
very trifling. 

1003. Planting. — " The best season for planting is the latter part of 
autumn or beginning of spring. And the most expeditious way of furnishing 
a house is, to plant clean well-worked maiden plants, previously grown in 

, good stiff loam, and trained against a wall three years before they are taken 

1 1 



478 



FORCING THE PEACH. 



for such purpose. At that age they will have gained such strength, and got 
so well established in the soil, that they can be removed with large balls, 
and with the greatest safety, into the places where they are to remain ; they 
will scarcely feel their removal. I generally place a compost of three parts 
loam, and one part rotten dung, immediately round the roots, in order to 
encourage the plants to strike more freely into the border. 

1004. Forcing in the first season. — " In the first season, the commence- 
ment of the forcing is in the second week in February, when the lights are 
put on the house. I begin to add a little fire-heat in the last week in the 
month, and gradually increase this as the spring advances. I obtain a 
temperature of from 53° to 65° from fire ; and I do not allow the sun-heat 
to exceed 7 5". The heat at night is kept sufficiently uniform by means of 
a moderate fire, and in the day by the admission of air. 

1005. Watering and fumigating. — " The trees during the first summer 
should have frequent bottom waterings, and be well syringed with clear 
water two or three times a week ; this will greatly promote their growth 
and keep them clear of insects. Should the green fly, or red spider, make 
their appearance, two or three strong fumigations with tobacco, and frequent 
syringing, will keep the trees clean. 

1006. Summer pnuning. — " If the trees appear to make luxuriant shoots 
in any part, when bearing wood is wanted, the shoots should be stopped at 
the third or fourth leaf ; and if they are still inclined to grow strong, they 
must be stopped a second time : this will obtain kindly wood. Two or 
three times in the spring the whole should be looked over, and the shoots 
moderately thinned out, leaving those which are most kind and well placed 
at regular distances for the next year's bearing. The first thinning of the 
young shoots should be just after the fruit is set, and when they are eight 
or ten inches long : when at that length, they must be laid in at such dis- 
tances as to admit the sun and air to ripen the wood destined to bear in the 
ensuing season. 

1007. Routine treatment during the first season. — " The principal business 
of the first season is to keep the young wood regularly laid in, to attend to 
the top and bottom waterings, and to the free admission of air at all oppor- 
tunities. If all this has been done, and the plants have been kept clean, 
they will in this season have made plenty of good bearing wood for the next 
year, and they will have nearly covered half the extent of trellis within the 
house. 

1008. Winter treatment. — " I generally take off the whole of the sloping 
lights for the winter months, and cover the borders and flues with five or 
six inches of light litter, to prevent severe frosts doing injury to either. 

1009. Forcing in the second season The glass should be put on in the 

last week in January, the house be well cleaned all over ; and the flues, as 
far as possible, should be white-washed ; and then the trees should be 
pruned. I have not laid down any rules for the winter pruning, as almost 
every gardener seems to have a method peculiar to himself of performing 
this work. — []See the article " Peach," in our Fruit Catalogue. ~\ 

1010- Applying a preventive composition. — "Previous, however, to tying the 
trees to the trellis, I have the whole of their stems, but not the bearing 
v/ood, washed with a composition, formed of one pound of soft-soap, one 
ounce of tobacco, and a little flowers of sulphur, to which is added as much 
boiling-water as will make the whole of the consistence of paint. This 



I 



FORCING THE PEACH. 479 

composition is carefully applied with a painter s soft brush whilst it is milk- 
warm. The process of cleaning should never be omitted at the pruning 
season, as it prevents the trees ever contracting the brown scale. When 
the trees are tied to the trellis, the borders must be dug ; this gives the 
house a clean and neat appearance. 

1011. Forcing in February. — " In the first week in February the house is 
shut up every night, and plenty of air given in the day ; in the beginning of 
the second week, moderate fires are made, just to keep the heat by fire from 
45" to 50", not exceeding 70° of sun heat ; in the third week, the fire heat is 
gradually increased from 50" to 55°, and not exceeding 75" sun heat. By 
this time the trees will be getting into blossom. Whilst they are in bloom 
I neither sprinkle nor steam the house, for I consider that sufficient moisture 
arises from the earth in the house at this stage of forcing. I admit plenty 
of air every day, when the wind is mild, and in a favourable quarter. 
" When the petals have all dropped, and the fruit is fairly set, 1 give the 
trees a gentle syringing on a fine morning, with clean water, and if any green 
flies appear, they have two or three sraokings with tobacco, as directed 
before ; this will totally destroy the insects. 

1012. March.' — " At this period (March) particular attention must be paid 
to the regularity of heat, which may be progressively increased a degree or 
two as the season advances, but I do not allow it to exceed the last-named 
temperature until the fruit is perfectly stoned, when I increase it from 55" to 
60° at night, and from 77° to 80° of sun heat. At the medium of these the 
temperature should continue during the remainmg part of the season. 

1013. Thinning the shoots and fruit. — " Attention must be paid to the thin- 
ning of the young shoots, as directed in the first year's management, and 
when the young fruit are about the size of damsons, they should then be 
moderately thinned for the first time, leaving a sufficiency for selecting a 
full crop by subsequent thinnings, which should be performed at two or 
more different periods. 

1014. Stoning. — " It is to be observed that a few days before, and a few days 
after, the crops begin to stone, is the most critical period in forcing, and if 
strict attention is not paid at that time to the due regulation of heat, and to 
the free admission of air at all opportunities, a great portion of the fruit will 
fall off. I have often seen three parts of the crops of peaches and nectarines 
thus lost. 

1015. Watering. — " The borders within the house must be occasionally 
watered, after the stoning, until the fruit has arrived at full size, and begins 
to change colour, then all watering should be left off, both with the syringe 
and on the borders. 

1010. Ripening. — " When this crop of fruit begins to ripen, which will be 
about the second week in July, I gradually expose the house to the open 
air on fine and dry days, by drawing down the lights as much as convenient 
in the day, and shutting them again in the evening. It is this which gives 
the fruit both flavour and colour. 

1017. Duration of the Crop. — " This crop thus produced furnishes the table 
from the second week in July until the middle of August, then a second 
house should become ripe, and continue to yield a supply until the fruit 
comes in on the open wall. The above practice is the result of many years' 
elxperience." — {Hort. Trans. ^ vol. v., p. 62.) 

I I 2 



480 



CHERRY FORCING IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



Sect. IV. — Culture of the Cherry under Glass. 
SuBSECT. I. — Natural Data for the Culture of the Cherry. 

1018. The Cherry in its wild state being indigenous to Britain, and as a 
cultivated fruit brought to as high a degree of perfection in our cHmate as in 
any other, very little requires to be said on the subject of natural data for 
culture. The cherry is cultivated in Italy and the fruit attains a large size, 
but in point of flavour it is inferior to the fruit of the same varieties grown 
in England, or in central Germany. The cherry is forced in all the northern 
countries of Europe, and as it produces fruit in the open air in three months 
from the time of blossoming, it is ripened earlier in forcing-houses than the 
fruit of any other tree. The temperature and moisture to be imitated are 
those of April, May, and June. The general practice in British Gardens is 
to begicL at 40", and throughout the first week to let the minimum be 40°, 
and the maximum 42°, giving plenty of air. By gradual advances in the 
second, third, and fourth week, raise the course to 42° mm. 45° max. In 
strong sunshine, admit air freely, rather than have the temperature above 
52°, by collecting the warm air. In the fifth and sixth week, the artificial 
minimum may be gradually elevated to 45°, but the maximum should be 
restrained to 48° from fire-heat, and to 55° from sun-heat, until the plants 
are in flower. After the blossoms are shown, and until the fruit is set, aim 
to have the heat, from the flues or water-pipes, at 48° min. 52° max. At this 
stage, maintain as free an interchange of air as the weather will permit ; and 
when the sun-heat is strong, do not let the temperature witliin exceed 60°. 
As the fruit is to be swelled and ripened, the requisite heat is 60° min. 
65" max. 

The art of forcing cherries has been carried to a high degree of perfection 
in the Royal Gardens at Kew and at Hampton Court ; and we shall, there- 
fore, give a transcript of the practice at these places, as furnished to the 
Gardener s Magazine by Mr. W. Lam'ence, who was several years journey- 
man in the gardens at Hampton Court. 

SuBSECT. II. — The practice of Cherry Forcing in British Gardens. 

^Vhen cherries are required at the earliest period at which they can be 
produced in a forcing-house, which is about the middle of March, it is desir- 
able to have a stock of plants in pots ; because the entire plant being under 
the command of the forcer, can be excited much more eff"ectually than if its 
roots were in the cold soil, and only its head exposed to the action of the 
warmth of the house. 

1019. The cherry house may be thirty feet long, fourteen feet wide, twelve 
feet high at the back, and seven feet high in front. The ends should be of 
glass, and both ends and front should be placed on brick walls two feet high 
supported by arches. The front sashes may either be hung on hinges at the 
tops, or at the sides, to open outwards ; or they may be made to slide in 
grooves. The roof sashes should be in two lengths ; the lower ones to pull 
up, and the upper ones to let down. As cherries require a great deal of air, 
and this often during wet weather, above the upper sashes there should be a 
projecting flashing of lead, to exclude the rain when the sashes are let down 
an mch or two. The heating may either be by flues or by hot water ; and 
in either case one furnace or one boiler, with the flue or pipes going round 
the house immediately within the front and ends, will be sufficient. 



CHERRY FORCING IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



481 



1020. Kinds of cherries for forcing^ potting plants^ S^c. — The May Duke 
is decidedly the best cherry for forcing. The Morello forces well, but 
requires more time to bring it to maturity ; and, though it looks well in the 
dessert, it is not so agreeable to eat. The plants for potting should have been 
three or four years worked, and should be such as are well furnished with 
blossom-buds. The soil used in potting may be loam, such as that in 
which melons are grown ; to which, if necessary, one-fifth part of thoroughly 
rotten dung may be added ; bearing in mind that too rich a soil makes the 
shoots too luxuriant, and causes them to gum. The season for potting is 
September and October, or any time before forcing ; but the trees will do 
quite well for late forcing, if they are not taken up and potted till they are 
just about to be put into the house. After potting, before setting the trees 
in the house, it is necessary to watch the operations of the sparrows, which 
are very apt to pick off the buds of cherries in the winter season, probably 
in search of the eggs or larvae of insects. If the trees potted are standards, 
they may be set on the ground, or on a low stage ; and if they are dwarfs, 
upon a higher stage, so as, in either case, to bring their heads within eighteen 
inches of the glass. They may be set so close together as that their heads 
may be within a few inches of touching each other. 

1021. Time of commencing to force. — For the first crop shut up the house 
and begin lighting fires about the middle of December. The thermometer, 
for the first fortnight, should be kept at about 60° during the day, and 50° 
during the night ; syringing the trees morning and evening with water that 
has stood some days in the house, and keeping constantly one or two of the 
sashes open a few inches at the end of the house next the fire, in order to 
moderate the temperature there. The second fortnight the heat is allowed 
to rise to 60° during the night, and to 70° during sunshine. The trees in 
pots should be watered, when they require it, at the root ; but for any that 
may be planted in the ground, the watering over-head will be sufficient. 
When the trees come into bloom, the temperature must be lowered to 50°, 
or even lower, both by night and day, except during sunshine, when the heat 
may be allowed to rise a few degrees higher. During all this time air must 
be admitted more or less, both during mild nights and by day ; but especially 
in the day-time, and during sunshine. When fine M^eather prevails at the 
time the trees are coming into bloom, a comparatively greater heat is required 
at night than during the day ; because if they are kept cool at night, the 
heat of the day is apt to expand the flowers before the stalks have grown to 
their natural length ; and, if so, although all the flowers might set, (which 
is not the case when they are short-stalked,) it would be impossible for a full 
crop to swell oflF, as there would not be space enough for the cherries to 
expand. W atering must be withheld from the tops of the trees during the 
time they are in blossom, but given as required for their roots, and the 
floor kept moist by sprinkling it morning and evening. No water should 
be poured on the flues, because a powerful steaming at this season would 
destroy the blossom. 

1022. Progress. — Trees begun to be forced in the middle of December will 
come into blossom in the middle of January, set their fruit about the end of 
the month, and stone it about the middle of February. 

1023. Insects. — After the leaves expand, it very often happens that a 
caterpillar, or some black fly, makes its appearance ; these are sometimes 
scarcely to be met with in the day-time, but on going into the house at night 



482 



CHERRY FORCING IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



the caterpillar will be found crawling on the leaves and eating them. Fumi- 
gation with tobacco, and hand-picking, are the only remedies for these insects. 
Ants sometimes make their appearance when the trees are in blossom ; and 
though they are not so injurious to the cherry as they are to the peach, yet 
still they ought to be destroyed, by pouring tobacco water into their nests. 
Till the ants' nests are destroyed, the insects may be prevented from getting 
at the blossoms, by tying pieces of paper round the stems of the trees, and 
coating them over with a mixture of tar and grease : the paper should be of 
a coarse spongy kind, so as to absorb the tar, and prevent it from running 
down the bark of the stem when the temperature of the house is high — or 
yarn may be used instead of paper. In either case, as soon as the tar becomes 
hard, the ants will walk over it, and, in that case, it must be renewed. When 
the trees are in blossom, it will facilitate the setting of the fruit if bees can 
be introduced, which may easily be done, by setting in a hive, or, what is 
preferable, by fixing a hive immediately in front of the lower part of one of 
the front sashes, and so as to touch it, and having an entrance for the bees 
at the back of the hive, as well as the usual one in front of it. Corresponding 
with this back entrance, a small hole may be cut in the bottom rail of the 
sash, and a stopper or slide fitted to it, through which the bees may be ad- 
mitted to the cherry-house at pleasure. 

1024. Thinning and stoning^ &;c. — When the fruit is fairly set, it should 
be thinned out wuth the grape scissors, removing from one-fourth to one- 
third of the cherries, according to the vigour of the tree, and the number of 
fruit it has set. When once the fruit is set it is not liable to be injured by 
cold, as in the case of peaches and grapes. On the contrary, cherry trees, in 
pots, have been turned out into the open garden, by way of experiment, after 
the fruit was set ; and the frosts, which damaged the leaves, had no effect at 
all upon the fruit, except to retard its growth. After the fruit has begun 
to stone, (which is generally about a fortnight after it is set,) the trees should 
be watered freely at the roots, but in eight or ten days, when the kernel 
begins to harden, the quantity of water ma}^ be diminished. The tempera- 
ture of the house, except in sunshine, should never exceed 60°, either by 
night or by day, from blossoming up to the time of stoning ; but in three 
weeks after setting, when the stoning will generally be found completed, and 
the pulp of the fruit beginning to assume a pale red, the temperature may be 
raised to 70° at night, and even to 70" or 80° in the day, during sunshine, 
and when abundance of air is given. After the fruit is ripe, water should 
be withheld till it is gathered. In every stage of the progress of the cherry 
in a forcing-house, the plants may be watered with liquid manure, which is 
found to strengthen their leaves and buds without injuring the flavour of the 
fruit. 

1025. Treatment of the plants in pots after they are taken out of the house. — 
Immediately after the crop is gathered the trees should be taken to a cool, 
rather shady situation, set on the ground, and the pots surrounded up to the 
rim with rotten tan, saw-dust, or any similar materials, to keep them cool, 
and in an equable degree of moisture. If, on the other hand, a second crop 
of cherries should be wanted late in autumn, the soil in the pots should be 
allowed to be quite dry for a month ; and, by afterwards watering it freely, 
and placing the trees in the house about the end of August, and treating 
them in the same manner as was done in early spring, they will ripen their 
fruit in October or November. Such trees, however, will not !)e again fit to 



CHERRY FORCING IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



483 



force for two or three years to come ; and they should, therefore, be turned 
out of the pots into the free soil, and allowed at least two years to recover 
themselves, when they may he again re-potted and forced. While in the open 
ground, all the blossoms produced should be picked off as soon as they 
appear, to prevent them from weakening the trees. In the cherry, as in 
most trees that produce their blossom on the wood of the preceding year, or 
on spurs, the blossom-buds expand first, and next the barren or wood-buds. 
The latter continue growing till the petals of the flowers drop off, when they 
receive a check, and scarcely grow at all, till the fruit is set and begins to 
swell ; after which they grow rapidly, and complete the shoots of the year, 
by the time the fruit is stoned. 

1026. To have a constant succession of cherries from the middle of March 
till J uly, as soon as the trees of one house have come into blossom, those of 
the next should have artificial heat applied, and the temperature and manage- 
ment will be in every case the same as that which has been above described. 
It may be observed here, that cherry -houses, with the trees planted in the 
ground, are much less suitable, not only for early forcing, but for main and 
late crops, than cherry-trees planted in pots. The cherry cannot, like the 
peach and the nectarine, be forced for a number of years together ; and 
hence, as a house in which the trees are planted in the ground must, every 
three or four years, have a season of rest, the house during that season, having 
the sashes taken off, is in a great measure of no use. — (^Gard. Mag. vol. xiv. 
p. 41.) 

1027. Forcing cherries by a temporary structure. — Where a portion of 
waU (especially with a southern aspect), already well furnished with May- 
dukes, perfectly established, and in a bearing state, can be spared for forcing, 
a temporary glass case may be put up against it ; the flue may be built on 
the surface of the border, without digging or sinking for a foundation ; 
neither will any upright glass or front wall be requisite ; the wooden plate 
on which the lower ends of the rafters are to rest may be supported by piles, 
sunk or driven into the soil of the border, one pile under every, or every 
alternate, rafter. The space between the plate and the surface of the soil 
should be filled by boards nailed against the piles, to exclude the external 
air, for the plate must be elevated above the level of the surface from 
eighteen to thirty inches, or whatever height may be sufficient to let the 
sashes slip down, in order to admit fresh air. This structure will suit well for 
cherries, for such structures have been erected for forcing peaches with good 
success, as well as for maturing and preserving a late crop of grapes. — 
{Torbron in Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 117.) 

1028. German practice. — In the Royal Gardens at Potsdam, cherries are 
frequently forced so as to be ripe by the end of February ; the gardener there, 
Mr. Fintlemann, being remarkably successful in this department of forcing. 
The plants are potted a year before they are forced. They are potted in 
autumn, and the roots protected from frost through the winter by being 
covered with litter. 

In the following spring the blossom buds are broken off as soon as they 
appear ; and, by the end of June, all the shoots which have pushed freely 
have their points pinched ofif^ so as to leave not more than six buds, which 
buds by that operation become blossom buds. 

Before the plants are taken in they must at least have sustained 14" Fahy. 



484 



CHERRY FORCING IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



of cold, otherwise they are found to break very irregularly. The blossoms 
are thinned out ; so much so, that where fifteen have appeared, not more than 
three have been allowed to expand. The construction of the house in which 
the forcing is commenced varies according to the season. When the trees 
are taken in, in December and January, the glass of the roof must be much 
steeper than when they are not taken in till February and March. 

Heat is communicated by flues, commencing with 46** Fahr. The trees 
are frequently sprinkled with lukewarm w^ater ; and the roots, which ought 
to have been kept quite dry for some time before the plants are taken in, 
are well soaked with warm water. Mr. Fintlemann boils one-half of the 
water, and mixes it with the other half ; and he uses water of this tempera- 
ture till within fourteen days of the trees coming into blossom. 

Wlien the buds break out into bloom, watering overhead with lukewarm 
water is left off, but the stems are kept moist by rubbing them two or three 
times a day with a wet brush. During the blooming season the temperature 
is raised from 46° to 67", every third day, 2^° more heat being added. Abun- 
dance of air is given, and shade during bright sunshine. In boisterous 
weather gauze is placed over the openings through which the air is admitted, 
the advantage of which in moderatmg the violence of the wind, Mr. Fintle- 
mann is well assured of, after eight years' experience. To cause the blossoms 
to set, the branches and spray are frequently put in motion, but care taken 
not to move the main stem, by which the fibrous roots might be injured. 

When the fruit is setting and swelling, the temperature must be kept 
between 54|-° and 65|°. 

When the fruit is stoning, the temperatui-e is lowered to 59" for two or 
three weeks, during which period the house must be shaded in bright sun- 
shine, and the plants watered overhead once or twice a day. 

When the stoning is completed and the fruit begins to swell, the tem- 
perature is again raised to 65°, and no more shade given, in order that the 
fruit may acquire a high flavour through the operation of the sun s rays ; to 
facilitate the action of which on the fruit, the superfluous leaves are removed. 
By this practice, plants begun to be forced in December commonly produce 
ripe cherries in February ; but Mr. Fintlemann has sometimes had them 
even in January, though without a good flavour. 

Recent experience has taught Mr. Fintlemann that cherries will force 
remarkably well in sawdust, or chopped moss, mixed with some powdered 
unburnt lime. Plants grown one year in two years old sawdust, and a little 
powder of lime, put into the forcing-house on the 16th of January, gave a 
ripe fi'uit by the end of February. 

The kind of cherry forced by Mr. Fintlemann is the same as our 
May Duke ; and some of the points of his practice, such as shortening the 
shoots to produce blossom-buds, thinning blossoms, the previous exposure 
to cold, and the use of warm water, seem worthy of the imitation of the 
British gardener. — Gard, Mag., vol. iii. p. 65. 

At the same time it must be borne in mind, that the atmosphere in Prussia, 
and on the Continent generally, is much clearer than in Britain, and that 
there are few days in which the sun during the short time which he is above 
the horizon does not shine brightly. Hence as far as light is concerned in 
forcing, the British gardener can never contend with the German one. 



FORCING THE FIG IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



485 



Sect. V. — Culture of the Fig under Glass. 
SuBSECT. I. — Natural Data on which the Culture of the Fig is founded. 

1029. The Fig (Ftcus Cdrica, L.) is a native of Asia and the sea-coast of 
Africa, and it is cultivated on the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, 
in Italy, and in the South of France ; but, like the olive, never far from the 
sea-side, or at great elevations. The soil is generally light, but superin- 
cumbent on a subsoil, v^^hich is supplied vrith vrater within the reach 
of the roots. It w^ould thus appear that the fig is not intended by 
nature to endure a severe winter, a great degree of drought, or a very 
hot summer; and this conclusion is in accordance with the succulence 
of its wood, the retention of young fruit on its shoots throughout the winter, 
and its broad succulent leaves. The spring and summer temperature suitable 
for the grape vine has been found to answer for the fig, but the latter requires 
a moister atmosphere, and more water at the root when in a growing state, 
and the temperature should not be below 40" during winter. It is the nature 
of the fig to produce two crops in the year, both when it is cultivated in 
the open air, and when it is under glass. The first crop, which is produced 
on the points of the shoots of the last year, ripens in Italy in May and June; 
and on walls in the climate of London in September and October. The 
second crop is produced on the shoots of the current year, and ripens in Italy 
in October ; but in the open air in this country it never ripens at all, except- 
ing a few of small size, which remain on through the winter, and constitute 
the first crop, just mentioned, of the following summer. Under glass, the first 
crop ripens at various periods between March and J une, according to the time 
of commencing to force ; and the second crop, which in the open air never 
attains maturity, is under glass that which is most to be depended on. The first 
crop under glass ripens in four or five months from the time of commencing 
to force, and the second crop in six or eight months. The fruit of the fig is 
what is called a common receptacle for the flowers, but turned up in a tur- 
binate or top shape, so as to inclose the florets and completely exclude them 
from view. The fig, both in fig countries and in British gardens, is apt to 
drop its fruit prematurely ; and in Italy and Greece the process of caprifica- 
tion is employed to counteract this tendency. It consists in placing among 
the branches of cultivated fig trees, branches of the wild fig, or even fruit 
that has dropped off" wild trees, in which a kind of gnat abounds, and which 
enters the fruit on the cultivated tree, and passing over the anthers distributes 
the pollen over the stigma. The utility of this practice is doubted by many ; 
at all events, it is neither practised in France nor Britain, but as a substitute 
for it, ringing the branch immediately behind the fruit has been found suc- 
cessful in some British gardens. 

SuBSECT. II. — The forcing of the Fig as practised in British Gardens. 

1030. The Fig is not a favourite fruit in Britain, though since the peace of 
1814 the taste for it has considerably increased. It is most generally forced 
in pots, either placed in pits, or in peach-houses, vineries, or even pine-stoves ; 
and as the plants bear two crops in a year, it is not difficult to have a supply 
of fruit at most seasons ; the chief dependence, however, is on the second 
crop, or that produced on the wood of the current year. 

1031. The construction of the Fig-house may be the same as that of the 
peach-house (991) ; but the leaves being large, the trellis may be placed 



486 



FORCING THE FIG IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



from six inches to a foot farther from the glass. The soil of the border 
should be light, sandy, and thoroughly drained. 

1032. The varieties best adapted for forcing are Pregussata, Figue blanche, 
or White Marseilles, and Brown Turkey, or Ashridge forcing, to which 
may be added the Nerii, which, it is said, requires less heat than the 
other varieties. The plants may be trained in the fan manner, and 
the mode of pruning should be such as to favour the production of 
young wood over every part of the tree. For this purpose a portion 
of the old wood requires to be cut out every year, from those parts 
of the tree where young wood has ceased to be produced freely ; and 
as this is seldom the case at any great distance from the root, most 
old fig-trees consist of a number of main branches proceeding direct 
from the root in the manner of suckers. Very little pruning is required for 
the fig ; but by pinching out the points of ^ the shoots after the fruit appears, 
its progress is hastened, and the chance of its setting increased. The fruit is 
very apt to become yellow, and drop off before it is fully swelled ; but this, 
it has been found by Sir Charles Monck {^Hort. Trans.^ vol. i., second series, 
p. 39.5), may be prevented by taking off a ring of bark immediately behind 
the fruit. By attending to this practice when it becomes necessary, the fig. 
Sir Charles Monck observes, may be forced to produce abundant crops of 
fruit, and bring them to perfect maturity. 

1033. The time of beginning to force the fig is commonly the same as that 
for forcing the grape or the peach, and the temperature is also much the 
same as that for the vine, or somewhat intermediate between it and 
the peach. The apricot, peach, plum, and cherry vegetate in March or 
the beginning of April ; but the vine and the fig require the temperature of 
May to bring them into vegetation even when growing against a south wall. 
Hence, when forced, they require a proportionately higher temperature to 
bring them into leaf. 

The first crop of figs, which is that produced on the points of the 
shoots of the last year, will ripen in May or June; but the second 
crop will not ripen before September, though, as it does not ripen all at 
once, it will last till December. The only difficult point in forcing the 
fig is to preserve the embryo fruit formed on the points of the shoots of 
the current year, so as that they may ripen as a first crop in the next year. 
The fig will thrive at a greater distance from the glass than either the vine 
or the peach, and also, according to Miller, with less air than any other fruit- 
tree. It is very subject to the red spider, which should be kept under 
by watering copiously over the leaves ; or, if that is not sufficient, by 
washing the flues or hot- water pipes with a mixture of flowers of sulphur 
and lime. 

1034. The forcing of fig trees in pots is perhaps the best mode, at least 
for small establishments, because, by having an abundant stock of plants, 
fruit may be obtained nine months in the year, as indeed it is at Preston- 
hall, in East- Lothian, where forty varieties are cultivated under glass. 
M'Phail says, figs may be ripened at an early season, by planting them in 
pots, and setting them into a hot-house or forcing-house. " The plants 
should be low and bushy, so that they may stand on the kerb of the tan-bed, 
or they may be plunged in a gentle tan-heat, or in a bed of leaves of trees. 
The best way to propagate plants for this purpose is to take layers or slips 
which have good roots : plant them in pots in good earth, one plant in each 



CULTURE OP THE MELON. 



487 



pot, and plunge them in a bed of tan or of leaves of trees, in which is a 
very gentle heat : a brick bed will answer the purpose very well ; or they 
will do in the forcing-house, if there be room for them. Let them be put 
into the house in the latter end of February or beginning of March, and 
keep them sufficiently watered. When they are two years old, they will 
be able to bear fruit ; the pots in that time having become full of roots. In 
the month of November or December, turn the plants out of the pots, and 
with a sharp knife pare olf the outside of the ball, by which the plant will 
be divested of its roots matted against the inside of the pot : then place them 
into larger pots, filling up the vacancy round the balls with strong loamy 
earth. During the winter, let them be kept in the green-house, or in a 
glazed pit of a like temperature, till the month of February ; which will 
be a means of preventing the fruit from falling off before it comes to 
maturity. In this manner let them be treated every year, till the plants 
become too large for the pots ; then set them into the forcing-house, where 
it is intended they shall ripen their frmt."~—{^Ga7'd. Mem.) 

1035. Winter treatment. — The glass of the fig-house should not be taken 
off during winter, because it is an important object to preserve the embyro 
fruit that are to produce the first crop in the following year. Hence, 
wherever it can be accomplished, the sea-side temperature of Genoa or 
Naples, which is rarely under 88° or 4-0°, ought to be maintained in the 
fig-house throughout the winter months. This is most conveniently and 
economically done when the plants are kept in pots or tubs, as they can 
then be removed to a shed or cellar, as is the practice in Germany. 

Sect. VI. — On forcing the Plum^ Apricot, Gooseberry, and other 
Fruit-trees and Fruit-shrubs, 

In Germany, and more especially Russia, it is customary to force all our 
hardy fruit-trees and fruit-shrubs, including even the currant and raspberry. 
The plants are invariably kept in pots ; and, when the fruit is ripe, the pot 
and the entire plant is,placed on the dessert-table. The forcing is generally 
carried on in the same house with various culinary vegetables, and being 
ripened without the natural quantity of light and air, it is, as far as we have 
tasted it, when in these countries in 1813 and 1814, without much flavour. 
Plums and apricots are occasionally forced in Britain ; they are planted in 
pots, and placed in pits, or in any forcing -house where there is room. The 
temperature and treatment of the peach-house, it will readily be conceived, 
is most suitable for them. 

Sect. VII. — Culture of the Melon. 

SuBSECT. 1. — Natural and experimental data on which the Culture of the Melon 

is founded. 

1036. The melon (Ciiciimis Melo, L.) is an herbaceous trailing or climbing 
annual, indigenous or cultivated in great part of the warmer districts of 
Asia or Africa from time immemorial. In the warmer parts of Europe, it 
has been cultivated at least from the time of the Romans. The melon is 
extensively cultivated in Armenia, Ispahan, and Bokhara, and very generally 
in Greece, Italy, and the shores of the Mediterranean. It succeeds in the 
open air as far as 43'' N. ; and its culture extends within the tropics, but 
only when it is abundantly supplied with moisture. Its extremes of tem- 



488 



CULTURE OF THE MELON. 



pei-ature may be 70" and 80" for atmospheric heat, and some intermediate 
degree, perhaps 75°, may be suitable for the soil. The atmosphere in the 
countries where the melon is most successfully cultivated is so dry that the 
plants depend almost entirely on surface irrigation and on dews. The soil in 
which the melon is found to thri ve best is a fresh loam, rather strong than 
light, such as may be obtained from an alluvial meadovr which is flooded 
during the winter season. In Persia, pigeon's dung is used ; and in Britain 
stable-dung, which has been thoroughly rotted, is commonly more or less 
mixed with the soil ; but it is not desirable to introduce manure to such an 
extent as to produce the same degree of luxuriance in the shoots which 
might be desirable under a tropical sun. The melon in this country requires 
all the light which it can receive, and therefore the plants must have their 
shoots trained close under the glass, for which purpose a trellis is found 
superior to the surface of the soil ; for unless this is the case, and abund- 
ance of air is admitted, the fruit produced will be of very inferior flavour. 
Early crops of the melon are with difficulty obtained in Britain, on account 
of our cloudy atmosphere, by which evaporation from the foliage is checked, 
and mildew and other diseases are produced. Late crops, it may easily be 
supposed, are less liable to be affected in this way, from the greater degree 
of light and heat admitting of more abundant ventilation. The varieties of 
the melon belong to two races: the Persians and the Cantaloups. The 
former are cultivated in this country with great difficulty, requiring a very 
high temperature, a dry atmosphere, and an extremely humid soil. The 
Cantaloups, which are so named from a place of that name in the ne h- 
bourhood of Rome, are cultivated throughout Europe with great success, 
and nowhere more so than in England. 

1037. Summary of culture for the Cantaloup melons. — The following 
summary is evidently by the author of the article " Peach," in the Penny 
Cyclopcedia ; at all events it is unquestionably the most scientific abridge- 
ment of melon-culture which has hitherto appeared : — "About four months 
may be allowed, on an average, for the period between the sowing of melons 
and the ripening of the fruit. The middle of January is found to be early 
enough to sow ; and the young plants are so exceedingly tender that acci- 
dents are then very likely to occur to them. It is on this account neces- 
sary to make successive sowings, in order to be prepared for replacement, 
if requisite, and also for continuing the supply throughout the summer. 
A sowing for the latest crops will require to be made in April. Melons 
may be grown by means of frames on hotbeds (489 and 841), or in pits 
(515), heated according to some of the various modes of hot-water applica- 
tion, now so generally adopted ; but whatever be the form of the pits or 
the mode of heating adopted, one point of essential importance is to have 
the sashes glazed with the British sheet glass, as being much clearer than 
the best crown glass, and as admitting of being used in panes of any length 
under five feet, and consequently requiring very few or no laps. The 
seeds are sown in pans, or in small pots, and transplanted into other 
small pots when their seed-leaves are about half an inch broad. It is 
best to put only a single transplanted melon into each pot. While 
this is done in a separate frame, that which is intended for their future 
growth and fruiting is prepared for their reception by placing small 
hills, rather more than a foot high, of light rich mould below each sash, 
and nearer to the back of the frame than the front. Care must be 



CULTURE OF THE MELON. 



489 



taken that this mould be of the proper temperature before the young plants 
are introduced, which is to take place when they have made a few rough 
leaves. As the roots extend, more soil should be added, of a gradually 
• stronger nature ; and ultimately the roots should have a depth of about 
fifteen inches of such soil. The soil should never be introduced in a cold 
state ; and if there be no means for previously bringing it to the tempera- 
ture of at least 70", it should be put into the frame in small quantities. 
When water is required, it should never be much below the above-men- 
tioned temperature, nor should it exceed 78°. It should not be applied 
when the air of the frame is at a high temperature from sun-heat. Shading 
is necessary immediately after watering, when the sun's rays have any great 
degree of power : unless this precaution is attended to, scorching will be 
induced, and the red spider will be likely to attack the foliage. With 
regard to pruning and training the runners or vines of melon plants, it is 
necessary that a sufficient number of these for filling the frame should be 
made to ramify as close to the base of the main stem as can be conveniently 
efi^ected, by pinching off the top of the latter when it has made a few joints, 
or four leaves above the cotyledons ; and the laterals, which in consequence 
become developed, may be again subdivided by a similar process. Blossoms 
of a monoecious character will soon after make their appearance. The male 
blossoms, or at least a portion of them, must be retained for the purpose of 
fertilisation, till the requisite quantity of fruit is fairly set, after which 
those shoots which have only male blossoms may be dispensed with, in 
order to afford more space for the foliage connected with the fruit. The 
extremities of the fruit-bearing vines are stopped by pinching at the second 
or third joint above the fruit. The vines must afterwards be kept regulated 
so as not to over-crowd the frame with more foliage than can be duly 
exposed to the light. The regulation should be early and frequently 
attended to, so as not to have occasion to remove many vines from the plant, 
or divest it of much foliage at any one time. A piece of slate or tile is 
placed under each fruit, for the purpose of keeping it from the damp soil. 
The heat must be fully maintained, or even considerably increased, as the 
fruit approaches maturity, in order to allow the admission of a more free 
circulation of air ; but if, at the same time, the bottom-heat be allowed to 
decline, the plants will become diseased, and fall a prey to the mildew or 
to the red spider." — Penny Cyc, vol. xv. p. 85. 

To these excellent observations we have only to add, that the trellis 
referred to in the preceding paragraph (1036) is raised from a foot to eighteen 
inches above the soil, and within from ten inches to fourteen inches of the 
glass. The trellis is formed in panels of the same size as the lights, and 
rests on projections from the front or back of the frame, or pit, or is sus- 
pended by hooks. The trellis may either be formed of wire fixed to a 
wooden frame, and forming meshes five inches square to admit passing the 
hand through to the soil beneath ; or it may be formed of laths three quarters 
of an inch broad, and half-an-inch thick, also formed into squares, and nailed 
at the intersections. In general laths are preferable to wires, on account of 
their forming a flat surface for the fruit to rest on. The trellis is not 
introduced to the frame or pit till the plants are grown sufficiently high to 
admit of their tops being brought through it. The shoot having been 
brought through the middle of the trellis, and grown three joints above it, 
remove two joints with the finger and thumb, which will cause the plant to 



490 



CULTURE OF THE MELON IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



throw out fresh shoots. Of these the top ones must be preserved, and 
stopped at every other joint ; and such as present themselves lower down 
the stem must he taken off. When those retained get sufficiently long, they 
must be tied down to the trellis with care, and after making two clear joints 
each they must be stopped back to one. In general four shoots, trained 
towards the four corners of the trellis till they reach within a foot of the 
outer edge of the bed, will be sufficient. There they must be stopped. They 
will now produce laterals, which should be thinned, three or four only being 
left on each of the four main shoots, and the others should be taken off close 
to the main stem out of which they grew. — {Mills s Treatise^ S^c, p. 60 
and p. 7 ; and Dunean on the Melon, p. 44. ) 

SuBSECT. II. — Culture of the Melon as practised in British gardens. 

The following article was written for this work by Mr. Forsyth, though 
it has appeared in the 16th volume of the Gardeners Magazine : — 

1038. The sorts I should cultivate are, a few Rocks, for their look at table 
at expensive entertainments ; Green-fleshed, as being economical and fashion- 
able (a middle-sized fruit about two lb. weight being considered the best) ; 
and Persians, such as the Sweet Ispahan and Hoosainees, for their rich 
aqueous pulp, and as by far the most delicate and delicious of the melon 
tribe. 

1039. Very early melons may be grown in pots, one plant in each, to 
mature one fruit, in the pine- stove, or in a house or pit on purpose, where a 
wholesome high temperature is maintained of 75° or 80° ; the fruit may he 
supported by being laid on a small earthenware saucer, inverted into a larger 
one suspended from the roof. 

1040. Seedlings. — Melons planted out on a ridge, on a bed of tan, dung, 
or leaves, under glass, may be advantageously cultivated in the following 
manner. In any house, pit, or frame, where an atmosphere as above 
described is maintained, sow some seeds in thumb-pots, one seed in each 
pot, which must be kept near the glass after the plants are above-ground, 
and be allowed a free circulation of air, in order to rear the plants as robust 
and short-stemmed as possible ; but, though I detail the process of rearing 
seedlings, I must not be understood to mean that they are equal to those 
raised from cuttings, which process I shall here detail : — 

1041. Cuttings.— In an atmosphere as above described, let the cutting-pots, 
prepared in the following manner, be placed half a day previous to their 
being used, in order that the mould may be warm, to prevent a check by 
cold soil to the bottom of an exotic cutting. If provided with a small crystal 
bell-glass, or a small hand-light closely glazed, either of these may be used ; 
but if provided with neither, which is nothing uncommon, you can doubtless 
command as much glass in square or fragment, as will cover the mouth of a 
48-sized pot. 

The cuttings should be taken from the extremities of the healthiest 
vines, cut close below the third joint from the tip, and inserted in thumb- 
pots filled with leaf-soil and loam mixed, about half an inch below the sur- 
face of the soil ; and these placed in the bottom of a 48-sized pot, and the 
cavity between the two pots stuffed with moist moss, and the glass laid over 
the top of the outer pot, which ought to be plunged in a hotbed up to the 
brim : this is an improvement in striking cuttings which I have never made 
known before, nor have I ever seen it practised by any one else. It is a 



CULTURE OF THE MELON IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



491 



common way to fill a pot three-fourths full of soil, and in that to insert the 
cuttings under a pane of glass ; and 1 have no doubt, when those that have 
practised that mode come to see this simple improvement, so much more 
workmanlike, and applicable not only to melon cuttings, but to all sorts of 
cuttings, exotic, greenhouse, and hardy, they will feel nowise reluctant to 
relinquish the old way. The advantages of this mode are, when the cuttings 
get up to the glass, w^hich they generall}' do before they have struck root, 
the outer pot can be changed for one a little deeper, and the moist moss serves 
the twofold purpose of conducting heat and moisture ; and, as the heat of 
the tan or dung bed will be 80° or 40° above that of the atmosphere of the 
house or pit (a good tan bed will range about 110° at six inches deep), it 
will be communicated through the outer pot to the atmosphere around the 
cuttings, thereby accelerating their striking root : this high atmospheric heat 
is an advantage possessed in common with the old system over the bell-glass 
propagating pot, 

1042. Planting out. — Plants being reared, either from seeds or cuttings, 
healthy and robust, are, let us presume, in 82-sized pots, about nine inches high, 
with leaves as large as the palm of the hand. The hotbed being made up to 
within eighteen inches of the glass, and a ridge of loamy turf, mixed with one- 
fourth its quantity of dung, pulverised to a mould, being laid along the centre 
of the bed, about twelve or fourteen inches deep, a day or two previous to the 
planting of the melons, and all fears of offensive steam from the bed or linings 
being guarded against, the plants may be turned out of the pots along the 
centre of the ridge, about one foot apart for a bed nine feet wide, or for a 
six-feet bed about fifteen inches apart, with a fine sweet moist heat, such as 
could be breathed comfortably, about 75° to 85°. Excess in quantity of 
heat is not so much to be feared as inferior quality of heat. A strong heat 
will rarify the au* and cause ventilation ; to facilitate which, a small aperture 
should be left open, say a quarter of an inch, at the top of every light, and 
this eighteen or twenty hours out of the twenty-four. The time that I 
should shut up close, would be at uncovering in the morning (which should 
be done as soon as it is light) ; and after syringing or steaming them in the 
evening, when no more air is wanted for the day heat. 

1043. General treatment. — Plants raised from cuttings show fruit with 
less vine than those reared from seeds ; and this is the best remedy, in con- 
junction with keeping them rather dry at the roots, for the ever-crying evil, 
that the " vines have run all over the bed without showing fruit." I 
should prefer leaving a plant reared from a cutting entire, without stopping, 
until it shows fruit ; those raised from seed must be topped, as they gener- 
ally draw up weak and long-jointed, if left entire. I should top them for 
the first time as soon as they show the rough leaf, and again as they advance, 
say when they have made two feet of vine, in order to produce fruitful 
laterals. When fruit appears, they must be carefully managed to prevent 
sudden atmospheric changes ; and, during the time that they are in flower, 
water overhead must be dispensed with, and gentle vapour only occasionally 
raised, to nourish the leaves, for it would be injurious to keep the flowers too 
moist at this time. Every female blossom must now be carefully impreg- 
nated ; and, as soon as the fruits are set and beginning to swell, plenty of 
moisture and a closer atmosphere will be of the greatest service till they are 
swelled full size, when moisture at the root, and also vapour on the leaves, 
must be finally dispensed with. As soon as a reasonable number of fruits are 



492 



CULTURE OF THE MELON IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



swelling favourably, say three to six on a plant, the rest, with every leaf and 
lateral, for which some good reason is not pledged, must unsparingly be dis- 
carded, leaving always one leaf, or perhaps two, beyond every fruit ; and let 
every fruit be elevated on an inverted earthen saucer. To grow very early 
melons dry heat is indispensable, as every leaf, in moist weather, ought to be 
carefully dried once every day ; and, in hot weather, every leaf ought to be 
as carefully moistened, by means of vapour or sjrringing. Before the fruit 
appears, and also when it is ripening off, a well ventilated atmosphere is best ; 
but, whilst the fruits are swelling, closeness and humidity will be found to 
answer the purpose best. An occasional dusting of powdered charcoal and 
lime, mixed with sulphur and Scotch snuff, will go far to prevent the ravages 
of insect enemies. 

The bed must be soiled over to the same depth as the ridge was origi- 
nally made, at different times, as the progress of the roots shall dictate ; and 
the roots must be supplied with soft well aerated water, as the firmness or 
flaccidity of the leaves must determine. As little shading as possible should 
be given, as the plants should be inured to the full sun as soon as possible ; 
the minimum heat may be 70", and the maximum 90°, though 100° would 
do no harm, even with the lights close, provided the laps and crannies about 
them were closed, or with the lights not closed, provided the transition were 
not rapid. — A.F. These directions are equally applicable to melons trained 
on a trellis, or on the surface of the ground. 

1044. Persian Melons are very subject to burst ; but Mx*. Knight found 
that by raising the points of the fruit higher than the stems, so as to give it 
an elevation of 30", not one fruit failed to ripen in a whole and perfect state. 
— (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 2nd series, p. 90.) 

1045. Culture of the melon in the open air. — In the climate of London a 
late crop of melons may be raised on beds of dung in the open air, the plants 
when newly turned out being protected by hand-glasses. The customary 
mode is to have the beds flat, about four feet wide and two feet and a-half 
high; and when the heat declines, casings of hot dung are applied, first on one 
side, and, when that casing has ceased to be effective, on the other. The 
better mode, however, is to form the bed in the direction of east and west, 
with the north side supported by boards, so as to be perpendicular, and three 
feet six inches or four feet high, and the south side sloping at an angle about 
40" east and west, and open to the south. The situation must be well 
sheltered from the north. Whichever description of bed is used, the plants 
may be raised from seeds or cuttings in April or May, and turned out in the 
first week of June. The plants should not be raised on bottom heat, 
because the transition to the open air is found to give them such a check as 
to turn the leaves yellow, and the entire plant sickly. There are two 
decided advantages in growing the melon in ridges sloping to the south : the 
first is, that the sun's rays are received at a much larger angle, in conse- 
quence of which the temperature is raised from 10° to 15° higher than it is 
in the shade ; and the next is, that a larger, and consequently a more 
effective, casmg can be applied behind. The only disadvantage is the diffi- 
culty of maintaining a uniform degree of moisture in the soil, which must, 
therefore, be frequently watered, and always with water at a temperature 
of 65° or 70 \ To retain the moisture, as well as to reflect the heat, the 
sloping face of the bed may be covered with flat tiles or slates, but not over- 
lapping, because that would conduct off the water. When the plants are 



CULTURE OF THE MELON IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



493 



first inserted in the bed they are closely covered with hand-glasses, but as 
soon as they have begun to grow the glasses are raised on bricks, so as to 
allow the shoots to advance from beneath them ; and these shoots are care- 
fully pegged down to preserve them from being deranged by the wind. 
The first fruit from such beds is generally cut in August, and they will 
continue productive till the plants are destroyed by frost in October. A 
thin covering of canvas during nights would no doubt contribute to the 
vigour of the plants by checking radiation. — (^Williams in Hort. Trans., 
vol. v., p. 364, and Mills's Treatise^ p. 67.) 

1046. Insects and Diseases. — Tlie aphis, the red spider, and the thrip, 
are the greatest enemies to the melon, and if once the plants are overrun 
with any of them, it is scarcely possible to restore them to health. The 
aphis may be destroyed by fumigating with tobacco, or the paper in which 
it is packed, and the rope with which it is bound, on its importation to this 
country. Any of these will do, and each must be a little moistened when 
it is used. The best method of doing it is with the fumigating bellows, 
the muzzle being introduced through a perforation in the front of the frame 
or pit, nearly on a level with the surface of the mould ; the sashes should 
be covered with mats at the same time, to prevent the escape of the fumes. 
The .operation should always be performed in the evening, and renewed the 
following one ; not a drop of water, from any source, should be allowed to 
touch the plants the next day. The frames are to be kept closed and 
shaded, so far as can be done without injury, and not opened until the latest 
desirable period. — (^Duncan on the Melon, p. 69.) The increase of the 
red spider, and thrip, may be prevented, in a great degree, by a well- 
ventilated atmosphere, and a due degree of care in syringing occasionally in 
the afternoons ; but if these insects should become numerous, they may 
be destroyed by syringing with water, to which one-fourth part of tobacco 
water has been added. The wood-louse is a constant enemy to the melon, 
and is most effectually kept under by keeping a toad or two in the frames. 
If they should become exceedingly numerous, a flower-pot, laid on its side, 
with some dry hay in it, renewing it when it becomes damp, is an excellent 
trap. The canker is a frequent disease in the melon, generally occurring at 
the point where the plants emerge from the soil. Mr. Duncan applies a 
little air-slaked lime, as fresh as can be obtained, to the wounded part : it 
does not cure the disease, for it is incurable, but it retards its progress. The 
rotting of the stems from damp, want of light, or too free a use of the knife, 
is nearly as fatal as the canker, and like it is incurable ; but where it takes 
place at a distance from the root, an increase of heat, by adding linings, and 
the free admission of air and light, will cause new shoots to be produced. 
Mildew, our readers are aware, may always be checked by powdering with 
flowers of sulphur. — (Duncan, p. 78.) 

1047. The red spider and the damp, the one as bad as the other, in melon 
frames, may be kept under by covering the surface with clean gravel, about 
three-fourths of an inch deep. The roots find their way to the surface of 
the mould, and foim a matted texture under the gravel, where, being more 
accessible to the warm air of the frame, by means of which a corresponding 
temperature, as regards the roots and tops, is maintained, whilst the roots 
are, at the same time, kept moist, the plants grow so vigorously as to 
overcome every enemy. The practice is common in the neighbourhood of 
Doncaster. — (Gard. Mag., vol. iii., p. 218.) 

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494 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUiMBER. 



Section VIII. — Culture of the Cucumber. 
SuBSECT. I. — Data on which the Culture of the Cucumber is founded. 

1048. The cucumher (Cucumis sativa, L.\ is an annual, climbing by 
tendrils, or trailing on the surface of the ground, a native of the East 
Indies, and probably of many parts of Asia and Africa. It has been cul- 
tivated in the old world from time immemorial for its fruit, which is used 
in an unripe state, alone, or in salads, and for salting and pickling. The 
cucumber will bear a tropical heat, for it grows abundantly in many tropical 
countries. In the lower regions of India, the mean annual temperature 
may be reckoned as high as 80" ; the thermometer indicating rarely so low 
as 70" in the hottest period of the season. The cucumber thrives well 
where the heat of the nights is more oppressively felt by Europeans 
than that of the days. As a wide difference does not occur in the diui- 
nal and nocturnal temperatures of tropical countries, where the cucumber 
grows spontaneously, it is not necessary that a great variation should, in this 
respect, be imposed upon it when under artificial treatment. In order to be 
tender when cut for use, it requires to be grown rapidly, and, therefore, re- 
quires as much heat and moisture as can be safely applied. If the native 
plants of colder climates are forced night and day in a uniformly high 
temperature, a drawing, or weakness, soon becomes evident ; but no such 
signs are exhibited by the rigid leaves of the pine-apple, although grown in 
a uniform temperature of 80°, provided they have not less than eleven or 
twelve hours' light out of the twenty-four. The cucumber will grow side 
by side with the pine -apple ; and also naturally in a much higher latitude ; 
but in that case its growth is limited to the summer season, u'hen nearly a 
tropical heat is maintained. If the nights are cold, although the days may 
be warm, cucumbers growing on ridges in the open air, in this climate, in- 
variably become diseased and attacked by mildew. A temperature ranging 
between 70° and 80° of artificial heat is suitable for the growth of the cucum- 
ber; if sun-heat is likely to raise the temperature much higher, air should 
be copiously, yet gradually, afforded ; and, presuming that the plants are 
in good health, and their roots well established, enough of moisture being 
present, they will bear 90° or more of sun-heat without injury. 

1049. In cultivating the cucumber in first-rate British gardens, the object 
is to have a supply of fruit throughout the year. This may be effected in 
dung-beds (841), but more conveniently by some description of pit heated 
by flues or hot water, or by a house constructed on purpose, with a steep 
glass roof. The plants may be raised either from seeds or cuttings. The 
best varieties for early culture are the Syon House, Hort's Early Frame, 
Weedon's Cucumber ; and for large fruit to be exhibited at horticultural 
shows, Allen's Victory of Suffolk, the Roman Emperor, and some others 
which it is unnecessary to enumerate, as new sorts are continually coming 
into fashion, and old ones losing their reputation. The soil cucumbers 
prefer is light and rich, but they will grow in poor soil watered with liquid 
manure. Sandy-peat has been found suitable for dung-beds in the winter 
season, because water passes rapidly through this soil, without so much being 
retained by it, especially on the surface, as to cause the plants to damp off. 
The shoots of the cucumber are commonly allowed to trail on the ground ; 
but they are much less likely to damp off when trained on trellises within 8 
inches or 10 inches of the glass, as practised since 1790 in a cucumber house 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. 



495 



at Knowlesley, and recently adopted in common frames and pits by Mr. 
Weedon. To concentrate the vigour of the plant, the shoots are stopped 
repeatedly as they advance in growth, by pinching out the growing point 
with the finger and thumb. Shoots bearing fruit are generally stopped at 
the second joint beyond the fruit, as soon as its blossom has begun to fade, 
in order to throw more of the sap into the fruit. Cucumbers i-equire a 
great deal of ventilation, and the best growers make it a point to have the 
foliage thoroughly moist during every night, and thoroughly dry during 
a portion of every day, during the whole of the plant's existence. The 
cucumber will live either in the open air or under glass, at a temperature of 
50", and it will grow and produce fruit at 60", but not vigorously and abund- 
antly at a lower temperature than between 75° and 80° — and with this the 
bottom-heat should correspond. With, abundance of light, air, and fre- 
quent watering, it will grow vigorously in an atmosphere of from 85° to 
90°, saturated with moisture for at least a portion of every 24 hours. The 
foliage of the plants ought always to be kept within a few inches of the 
glass ; and in the winter season all the light ought to be admitted that the 
state of the atmosphere admits of, and especially the morning sun. For this 
reason the glass over cucumbers, (and melons also,) should never be covered 
till it is nearly dark, and always be uncovered at daybreak. The cucumber 
requires an ample supply of water, which should be pond or rain water, 
and always of the same temperature as the soil in which the plants grow ; 
or a degree or two under it, as falling rain is generally a degree or two 
lower than the temperature of the atmosphere through which it falls. 
Liquid manure may be advantageously used when the soil is poor, or when 
it is limited in quantity, as in the case of cucumbers grown in pots. As the 
cucumber, like the melon, has the stamens and pistils in different flowers, 
artificial fecundation is by most gardeners considered necessary, or at least 
conducive to the swelling of the fruit ; but by others, and among these some of 
the best cultivators, it is considered of no use, excepting when seed is required. 
Many persons prefer cucumbers which have not been fecundated, on account 
of the much smaller size of the seed integuments, which never contain ker- 
nels; though, on the other hand, some prefer fecundated cucumbers, alleging 
that the kernels of the seeds communicate a superior flavour. It is found 
that seed is produced most freel}^ from plants grown in rather poor soil, 
and in the open air against a wall, rather than under glass. Hence the 
greater quantity of seeds found in cucumbers grown on dung-ridges in the 
open air, and the much greater quantity found in cucumbers grown in the 
sandy soil of Sand}^ in Bedfordshire, and sent to the London market for 
pickling and stewing, than in cucumbers grown in houses. Without abun- 
dance of seeds, cucumbers for picklmg or stewing would be good for nothing- 
Cucumbers grown for seed are of course always allowed to attain maturit}', in 
which state they are of a yellow colour. The seed is taken out, washed and 
dried, and preserved for use, and it is generally considered that, for early crops, 
seeds which are several years old produce plants less likely to run to foliage, 
and consequently more prolific in blossoms. Some of the best modern 
cultivators, however, think the age of the seed of no consequence ; and some 
preserve it in the fruit till it is wanted for sowing. The cucumber is liable 
to the same insects and diseases as the melon, which are to be subdued by 
the same means. Want of sufficient bottom heat, and watering with cold 
hard water, are the general causes which produce the mildew, canker, and 

K K 2 



496 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED. 



spot ; and want of atmospheric moisture encourages the red spider and the 
thrip, and to a certain extent also, the aphides. 

1050. These are the general principles of cucumber culture. Within the 
last two years, treatises have been published on the cultivation of the 
cucumber by JNIills, Duncan and Ayres ; and a few years before by Allen, 
Smith, and Weedon. These works treat of the culture of the cucumber in 
dung-beds, in pits of different kinds, in stoves, and vineries, in the cucum- 
ber-house, and in the open air ; and the following subsections derived from 
them will, we trust, supply all that is wanted by the Suburban Horticul- 
turist for routine practice. 

SuBSECT. II.— Culture of the Cucumber in a Dung-hed. 

1051. The formation of a dung-hed for general purposes has been already 
given (841 to 847). For the purpose of growing cucumbers in mid- winter, 
great care is necessary to prepare the dung properly, so that by reducing 
its heat there may be no danger of an excess, or what is termed a " burning 
heat," after the bed is made up. When this burning heat takes place, the 
bed becomes dry and mouldy to within a few inches of its surface, from 
which a noxious vapour arises, which, together with the excessive heat, 
speedily destroys the plants. Mr. Mills, whose treatise is very full on this 
mode of cucumber culture, directs to turn over the dung which is in 
preparation for a cucumber bed, once a week for six or eight weeks. 
{Treatise on the Cucumber, S^c, p. 12.) 

1052. The seed bed requires to be first formed. It should be 3 feet high 
at the back, and 2 feet 6 inches in front ; and when the lights are put on, 
eight or ten days should elapse before sowing the seeds. During this time 
the surface of the bed should be forked over every other day, about a foot 
deep, watering it if it should appear too dry, and admitting sufficient air to 
allow the steam to pass off freely, " In order to prove whether or not the 
bed be sweet, shut the lights down close for three or four hours ; then take 
a lighted candle in a lantern, push down one of the lights, and put the 
candle and lantern mto the frame, and if the candle be not put out by 
the excess of moisture, but should continue to burn, the bed will be in a 
fit state to receive the plants or seeds." (^Ihid. p. 14.) 

1053. Soil, — Cucumbers will grow in any light rich soil. M'Phail 
used leaf mould alone ; Alton uses light loam and rotten dung, of each one- 
third, and the remaining third composed of leaf mould and heath soil ; Mr. 
Mills began in 1811 to use sandy peat, the turfs being chopped moderately 
small with the spade but not sifted. Peat soil is not so rich as leaf mould ; 
but Mr. Mills finds that when placed on sweet fermenting dung, the roots 
will penetrate through it, and help themselves to food when the plants 
require it. "I have tried numerous experiments with soils," he says, 
"variously mixed, from the year 1811 to the present time ; and I am per- 
fectly satisfied ihsi peat alone is best, and I am now (January 1841) using it 
on dung-beds." {Ibid. p. 15.) 

1054. Seeds and treatment of the young plants. — Seeds must be proved 
before sowing, by putting them into a basin of water for about two hours, 
when those that are good will sink' to the bottom, and the rest may be 
thrown away. Nine seeds may be sown in a pot, 9 inches in diameter, filled 
with sifted peat well drained, on Michaelmas-day, if for early fruit. The 
seeds should beplaced round the pot near the outside, covered half an inch, 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED. 



497 



and the whole pressed down moderately firm. The pot may then be 
plunged half its depth into the dung-bed, or into a layer of old half-spent 
tan spread on its surface. The temperature should be from 60° to 70° with- 
out sun, and from 7o° to 80° during sunshine. Plenty of air should be 
given during the day, and a little all night. The plants will appear in 
four or five days, and when they are clearly above the soil, the pot may 
be lifted up and set on the surface of the bed. A lining will now require 
to be put round the bed, so as to increase the temperature of the 
interior, which it will do even if formed of half-decayed litter or damaged 
hay, or in short anything that will ferment a little but not much. "^Fhen 
the plants show the third leaf, reckoning the cotyledons two, they may be 
potted off singly into pots, 3 inches in diameter, either new or well cleaned 
in the inside, in order that the balls may turn out entire and freely when 
the plants are to be transplanted. The soil used should be moderately fine but 
not sifted, and a piece of turf should be placed over the crock at the bottom of 
the pot for drainage. The plants should be inserted so deep in the pot as that 
the seed-leaves should just be a little above the level of the rim, and the 
soil should be within an inch of the rim, in order to allow of adding a 
little more when the roots show themselves above the surface. The after- 
noon is generally preferred for potting, because too much light is apt to cause 
the leaves to flag. The tops of the plants, when set in the bed, should be 
within G or 8 inches of the glass, and as they increase in height the pot 
should be lowered, so as always to keep the plants about the same distance. 
Water may be applied whenever it appears wanting, there being much less 
danger in watering peat soil than in watering leaf mould, because the former 
only retains a very moderate quantity. Allien the heat of the bed falls 
below 70° some fresh lining may be added, more especially if the weather be 
dull and wet, the object being to dry the plants once a-day : a fine moisture 
appearing on them in the morning is a sign of health. " When the third 
leaf gets perfectly developed, a leading shoot will rise from the base of its 
petiole, which, as soon as it is clearly formed, should be pinched off ; its 
removal will give strength to the plant, and will cause it to throw out fresh 
shoots from the base of the seed-leaves. These shoots are allowed to grow 
until they are two joints in length, when they must be stopped by being 
pinched off with the finger and thumb to one joint." (^Ihid. p. 20.) The 
plants should be shifted into pots 6 inches in diameter, as soon the balls 
are filled with roots, using the same soil and drainage as before. Each 
plant should have three good shoots, which should be stopped at every joint, 
one joint at a time, and not all at the same time, wliich would check the 
progress of the plant. On that account a second leader should never be 
stopped till a shoot is seen coming forward on the one stopped previously. 

1055. Raising plants from cuttings. — Instead of raising cucumber plants 
from seed, they may be raised from cuttings, and thus kept on from year to 
year. The method of striking them is as follows : — Take a shoot which is 
just ready for stopping, cut it off just below the joint behind the joint before 
which the shoot should have been stopped, then cut smooth the lower end 
of the shoot or cutting, and stick it into fine leaf or other rich mould about 
an inch deep, and give it plenty of heat, and shade it from the rays of the 
sun till it be fau-ly stnick. By this method, as well as by that of laying, 
cucumber plants may readily be propagated. Mearns, when gardener at 
Shobdec Court, near Leominster, propagated his cucumber plants for a 



498 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED. 



winter crop iu this way, and found, " that the plants raised from cuttings 
are less succulent, and therefore do not so readily damp off, or suffer from 
the low temperature to which they are liable to he exposed in severe weather ; 
that they come into bearing immediately as they have formed roots of suf- 
ficient strength to support their fruit, and do not run so much to barren 
vine as seedlings are apt to do." He advises the cuttmgs to be taken from 
the tops of the bearing shoots, and planted in pots nine inches deep, half 
filled with mould. They should then be watered, and, the tops of the pots 
being covered with flat pieces of glass, they should be plunged into a gentle 
bottom-heat. " The sides of the pot act as a sufficient shade for the cuttings 
during the time they are striking, and the flat glass, in this and in similar 
operations, answers all the purposes of bell-glasses. The cuttings form 
roots, and are ready to pot off in less than a fortnight." — (^Hort. Trans., 
vol. iv., p. 411.) Mr. Duncan considers plants raised from seed as best, 
through every period of winter, from November to jMarch ; and cuttings 
during the interval between these months. Cuttings, he says, form the 
most prolific plants, and are not so luxuriant as seedlings. — (^Cucumher 
Culture^ p. 26.) 

1056. Fruiting bed. — The dung should be prepared as for the seed bed. 
The size of the frame may be 12 feet long, and 4 feet wide, the height at 
the back 2 feet, and in front 1 foot 6 inches ; the lights should be glazed 
with sheet glass, one pane to each division. If the bed is made in an exca- 
vation, it should be sufficiently large to allow of the dung being 8 inches 
wider than the frame all round; with an additional space of 18 inches in 
width for limngs, which will require a space 15 feet 6 inches long by 8 feet 
wide. Where there is a proper melon ground, however, such an excavation 
w^ill be unnecessary. " Commence the erection of the bed by laying on the 
ground, nine inches or a foot thick, brushwood, or the loppings of trees, 4 
feet 6 inches wide, and 12 feet 6 inches long ; on the wood lay a little long 
litter to keep the dung from falling into it, as this would stop the drainage, 
and prevent the bottom heat from working under the bed. Upon the litter 
place your manure, carefully shaking it as you proceed, and keeping the 
surface regular, by beating it down with a fork as 3'ou advance, but do not 
tread it. The manure should be 4 feet or 5 feet high at the back, inde- 
pendently of the wood, and 6 inches lower in front. When the bed is 
finished, put on the frame, and keep the lights carefull}?- closed till the heat 
rises, then give air, in order that the rank steam may pass off ; fork over 
the surface every other day, as directed for the seed-bed, and as the heat 
decreases give less air. If the dung with which the bed has been made has 
undergone the preparation directed, it will be fit to receive the plants in 
about fourteen days. Before transplanting, however, prove the sweetness 
of the manure with a candle and lantern, as pointed out for the seed-bed ; 
and, if satisfied on this important point, from 12 inches to 18 inches thick 
of peat-earth may be put on, to form the hillocks for the reception of the 
plants, taking care that as little as possible of the surface of the bed be 
covered therewith, for the less heat there is confined under the mould, the 
less liable will the roots be to receive injury." 

1057. Ridging oat the plants. — After the mould has been in the frame 
twenty-four hours, it will be sufficiently warm for the plants to be ridged 
out. To do this, make a hole in the top of each hillock, and place the pot 
containing the plant in it ; you will then be able to judge as to the proper 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED. 



499 



distance it should be from the glass, which may vary from G inches to 9 
inches. Having determined this point, turn out of the pot, by reversing it, 
the plant with its ball of earth entire, and, holding the surface of the mould 
in one hand, and the pot with the other, gently tap the rim against the edge 
of the frame, when the plant will drop out without losing any portion of the 
earth, or injurmg the roots, if the pot was properly cleaned previous to its 
being planted. Then drop the plant into the hole in the hillock, and press 
the mould firmly round the ball of roots ; the earth of which should be in 
the same state of moisture as that into which it is to be planted, otherwise 
it will not properly receive the watering, when poured upon it, as it will 
require to be once or twice, from a pot without the rose, until the roots 
extend themselves into the fresh soil ; after which the whole of the hillocks 
should be watered, from a watering-pot with the rose on, whenever requisite, 
choosing a fine sunny morning for the watering, that the surface may become 
moderately dry by the afternoon. The seeds for these plants should be sown 
on the 29th of September, and the plants should be ridged out on the 1st of 
November. — (Mills's Treatise, S^c, p. 26.) 

1058. A temporary lining, as directed for the seed-bed, should now be 
applied for the purpose of increasing the heat so as to carry off excessive 
moisture during the finest portion of every day, by evaporation, but at the 
same time not to raise a burning heat. 

1059.. Air. — A little air must be given during twenty hours out of the 
twenty-four, regulated as follows : — When you uncover the bed in the 
morning, the night air must be taken away, as the external air coming in 
contact with the glass will cause a depression of the internal heat, but the 
closing down the lights will sufficiently counteract its bad effects. Should 
the heat of the bed be low, and an increased warmth be requisite, let the 
unoccupied surface of the bed be forked over, about 6 inches or 8 inches 
deep, either back or front, and from this a fine steam will arise, which will 
be greatly beneficial to the plants ; and, when air is afterwards given, it will 
materially assist in drying them, which, as before remarked (1058), is 
necessary to be done, if possible, during the day. In an hour or two after 
uncovering in the morning, let a little air be given, reference being had to 
the state of the weather ; and again let it be gradually increased, after the 
lapse of a similar period, up to twelve o'clock in the day. About one, lower 
in part ; and at three or four o'clock shut down till six, when you should 
again give air, the heat then should be about 70°, and the plants dry. At 
eight or nine regulate for the night, according to the heat, and so let it 
remain untU the next morning, unless there should be a sudden change in 
the weather, when the lights may be shut down. — (^Ihid. p. 29.) 

1060. Earthing up. — The hills of earth being small, every part of them 
will be filled by the roots in the course of a week or ten days, and the roots 
will show themselves on the surface. They should therefore be covered 
with about two inches of fresh soil, previously warmed to the temperature 
of the bed, by being spread out on the parts not occupied by the hills. The 
linings must be occasionally turned to keep up the heat ; and when the 
inside of the frame becomes dry it should be sprinkled with water when the 
air is taken away in the evening, by which a healthy steam will be gene- 
rated for the plants during the night. When a dry bottom heat prevails, 
and the dung looks white and mouldy on the surface of the bed, it should 
be forked over, and watered with water about the same temperature as the 



500 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED. 



bottom heat ought to be, and cold shoald be carefully guarded against 
immediately afterwards, by giving air sparingly, so as not to promote too 
rapid an evaporation. If the temperature of the bed, with the dung in a 
dry mouldy state, does not exceed 75°, the plants will not be destroyed, 
more especially if air is given night and day to allow the impurities which 
rise from dung in such a state to pass off into the atmosphere. " Too much 
bottom-heat," Mr. Mills observes, " there cannot be, if it is moist and 
sweet." It will not destroy the roots of the plants, provided no more of 
the surface of the bed is covered with soil than the space occupied by the 
hillocks. The heat of the dung will then escape freely, and as the roots in 
the hillocks are above the dung they will not easily be injured by pure heat. 
Some persons form the hills on a flat basket, so as to be able to remove them 
if the bed should be overheated, or should become in other respects unsuit- 
able : others, as Mr. Smith, place the plants over an air-chamber or vault, 
the sides of which are formed with dung; while Mr. Duncan places his 
plants over a well formed in his dung-bed, two feet in diameter, under the 
centre of each light, communicating with exterior linings or casings, by 
transverse trenches. 

1061. Linings of cucumber beds and their management. — The following 
directions by Mr. Mills are the most complete that we know of on the 
subject of dung-linings ; and they may be studied with advantage with 
respect to the use and management of exterior casings or linings of fer- 
mented matters generally : — " Linings should be turned over once in 8 or 10 
days, to keep them in a regular state of fermentation, especially from 
November to February, inclusive. They should not, however, be all 
turned at once ; and if the back lining is turned, I will suppose, on the first 
or second, the frontage should be done on the fifth or sixth ; so that one half 
is turned in five days. The ends will not require turning so often, provided 
the heat keeps up to what is necessary, according to the season. To dry the 
inside of the frame in December, January, and February, let the linings be 
4 inches or 5 inches above the level of the surface of the bed, which will be 
sufficient ; in March and April they may be lowered in proportion to the 
increased power of the sun's heat. It may appear unnecessary to some 
persons to have the linings turned so often ; but I beg to remark, that on 
the lively heat emanating from them the well-doing of the plants depends, 
especially when the heat of the bed begins to decline ; and in proportion as 
attention is bestowed on them, will be the success of the cultivator. If they 
are allowed to lie undisturbed until they heat themselves dry, they become 
useless ; and the same effect is produced if they get overcharged with mois- 
ture. In both cases, if not rendered entirely useless, they will take so long 
a, time to recover their heat, as to render them next to valueless ; for where 
a warmth is requisite, in addition to that of the bed, the plants may be lost 
in the interval between the turning and re -rising of the heat. During the 
operation of turning, should there appear any part too much decayed, let it 
be removed, and its place filled with fresh linings, which should be put on 
the top of the old, in order to draw up the heat from it, and to keep up a 
good warmth round the frame ; besides, when the new Imings are above the 
bed, there will be nc danger of their rank steam getting to the plants. 
When the linings are again turned, the fresh manure applied must continue 
at the top ; and, if necessary, some more must be added to it, in order that 
the right height may be preserved. It must, however, be observed that the 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED. 



501 



new linings should never be allowed to mix with the old ones until they 
have become quite sweet ; for you must, on no account, allow rancid heat to 
be confined at the bottom of your linings. Attention to these directions 
must be continued until J une, if it is desired to keep the plants in a healthy 
state ; and although after the month of March the turnings need not be 
quite so frequent, a good warmth must be kept up, or the plants will not 
swell off their fruit kindly. Indeed, at an advanced period of the season, 
the roots will have got down into the dung, and so soon as that ceases 
to heat, they will perish from excess of moisture." — {Mills's Treatise, 
p. 36.) 

1062. Water. — " Watering frequently, and in small quantities, as before 
observed, is the proper way to keep the plants in a sound state ; but in the 
winter months, from the moisture of the fermenting material, and of the outer 
air, and the absence of solar heat, they will require but little from the water- 
pot. The surface of the bed, near the frame, will occasionally become dry 
from the heat of the linings passing upwards through it ; and when that occurs, 
let it be sprinkled with water through a fine-rosed pot, just before covering up ; 
and on fine mornings, about ten o'clock, give to the soil in which the plants 
are growing a little water in a tepid state. In November, December, and 
January, little water will be wanted, but in February, March, and April, 
more may be given ; always, however, in the morning, and only when 
there is a prospect of the plants becoming dry by covering-up time. It 
is a bad practice to water late in the afternoon, even in April, May, and 
June. In dull weather never water the plants, but the mould only." — 
{Ibid, p. 37.) 

1063. Stopping. — " Keeping the cucumber plants regularly stopped is of 
the utmost importance ; and it should always be done with the finger and 
thumb, because, when a knife is used, the wound does not heal, and the 
lateral generally dies back to the next joint. The shoots should never be 
suffered to get into a crowded state, otherwise they will become weak and 
unfruitful ; and their fruit, such as they will bear, will be of a small and 
inferior kind. Four good breaks or runners, stopped alternately, will be 
ample ; and two fruit are as many as a strong plant ought to swell at one 
time." — {Ibid. p. 38.) In order to keep the fruit from curving as it proceeds 
in growth, oblong cases lined with glass are employed ; or glasses made on 
purpose might be advantageously used. 

1064. Moulding up, is another point which demands special attention, and 
which must be done, if the grower means to excel in his undertaking. As 
the roots show themselves through the hillocks of earth, let them be covered 
with an inch or two of the soil recommended, placing more between the 
hillocks than elsewhere. This is done in order that the hillocks may meet 
and form a ridge along the middle of the bed by the end of December ; but 
care should be taken to keep the sides clear of mould, to admit of the heat 
of the linings rising through them, to give that lively heat within the frame, 
which is usually called top-heat, and which is necessary for the plants, as it 
causes them to dry in the day, during the most unfavourable weather, and 
yet gives them steam moisture by night. The whole of the bed should not 
be covered with earth until the end of March ; more particularly the front 
of it, for a breadth of at least 3 inches or 4 inches, because this being the 
lowest part of the bed the heat ascends to the highest part. {Ibid. p. 39.) 

JOGo. " The covering at night is the next point to be dealt with. As soon 



502 



CULTURE OP THE CUCUMBER IN A DUNG-BED. 



as the heat of the bed declines to about 65°, and when all danger of over- 
heating- is passed, use a single mat, and then a little hay, spreading it on the 
glass about one inch thick ; and commencing about the 20th of November. 
This covering should be thickened as the cold increases ; and when the wea- 
ther is very severe, double mats should be used. When the season turns, 
the days lengthen ; and as the sun's heat, during the day, aids in warming 
the bed within the frame, discontinue the covering by degrees down to a 
single mat, as at the commencement. Air must be given, more or less, 
every night from October to the first or second week in March" — (^Ibid. 
p. 40) ; because, from the large heating surface in proportion to the small 
volume of air to be heated, an excess of temperature, when the sashes were 
closed during a whole night, could hardly fail to be the result. 

1066. " Setting or impregnating the fruit has been practised by me early 
in the season ; and I believe it to be necessary, notwithstanding all that has 
been said against it, till about the 1st of March. Some have attributed the 
irregular swelling of the fruit to this operation ; but this is a mistake, it 
being want of strength in the plants, or their carrying too many fruit at one 
time, which occasions the irregularity." — (Ibid. p. 40.) 

1067. To jjrocure seed, Mr. Mills invariably raises plants specially for that 
purpose ; which, he says, should be grown as strong as possible, and not 
allowed to mature fruit till the roots extend to the outside of the frame ; 
after which they will be able to swell off, and bring to perfection two fruit 
each ; taking care that the handsomest be preserved, and that they be im- 
pregnated four or five times each, previous to the closing of the blossom. 
They should not be cut under six or eight weeks, then put into a cool room 
for a month, when they may be opened, the seed taken out, washed and 
dried ; those only which sink being retained. — (Ibid. p. 41.) 

1068. Inlaying, or earthing in, the vines of the cucumber, though still 
practised by some, " is now seldom resorted to by experienced growers, and 
is worse than useless ; for as soon as the buried portions take root the 
original roots perish ; and, in the place of one good plant, there will be a 
dozen weak ones." — {Ibid. p. 41.) 

1069. When extraordinary fine fruit is desired, allow the plant to mature 
one only ; but a succession should be permitted, so that the after-fruit do 
not follow too closely on the first. By this plan the growth will be rapid, 
provided the plants are in health ; and the fruit be much better flavoured 
than if grown slowly. When long in swelling off, the fruit frequently be- 
comes hard and bitter, and is therefore worthless. From 75° to 80° are as 
high as the plant will bear to advantage ; and in that temperature fruit will 
grow faster than in a higher one : the pruning and stopping being attended 
to as previously laid down." — (Ibid. p. 42. ) The foregoing directions by 
Mr. Mills are, we believe, among the best extant for growing the cucumber 
on dung beds, and we have given them at greater length than we otherwise 
should have done, because they contain instructions on various points equally 
applicable to the other modes of cucumber culture treated of in the following 
Subsections. Mr. Mills's directions respecting preparing the dung, making 
the beds, and applying and working the linings, show the mode of culture 
on dung beds to be exceedingly expensive and troublesome; so much so, 
that we do not wonder at the mode b}^ linings to brick-built pits (843), or 
by pits or houses heated by hot water or flues (490, 515, &c.), being gene- 
rally preferred by modern gardeners. 



CULTURE OP THE CUCUMBER IN PITS. 



503 



SuBSECT. 111. — Culture of the Cucumber in pits heated bp dung linings, Jlues or 

hot water. 

1070. Of pits heated wholly or in part hy dung linings^ there are a great 
variety of forms, chiefly differing in the construction of the exterior wall 
through which the heat is communicated to the bed of soil or fermenting ma- 
terial within. One of the most common, and most generall}^ useful, is that 
known as M'Phail's pit, already figured and described (848). The prin- 
cipal advantage of these pits is, that dung casings may be applied with little 
or no previous preparation, and thus much heat, that in the preparation of 
dung for common hotbeds is lost, is here turned to account. The treatment 
of the plants within the bed is exactly the same as that described in the pre- 
ceding subsection, and no better directions can be given for managing the 
linings than those of Mr. Mills (1061). 

1071. Pits to he heated hy flues or hot-water^ are as various in their con- 
struction as those to be heated by dung linings ; some forms have already 
been given (515, 935, and 947), and we shall in this subsection describe 
three other forms. 

1072. A pit to he heated hy a flue built by the late eminent horticulturist, 
Mr. Knight, is thus described. The back wall is nearly 9 feet high, and 
the front wall nearly 6 feet high, inclosing a horizontal space of 9 feet wide ; 
and the house is 30 feet long. — The fireplace is at the east end, very near 
the front wall, and the flue passes to the other end of the house within 4 
inches of the front wall, and returns back again, leaving a space of 8 inches 
only between the advancing and returning course of it ; and the smoke 
escapes at the north-east corner of the building. The front flue is composed 
of bricks laid flat, as I wished to have a temperate permanent heat, and the 
returning flue of bricks standing on their edges, as is usual ; the space 
between the flues is filled with fragments of burned bricks, which absorb 
much water, and gradually give out moisture to the air of the house. Air 
is admitted through apertures in the front wall, which are 4 inches wide, 
and nearly 3 inches in height ; and which are situated level with the top of 
the flues, and are 18 inches distant from each other. The air escapes 
through similar apertures near the top of the back wall. These apertures 
are left open, or partially or wholly closed, as circumstances require. 
Thirty-two pots are placed upon the flues described above, each being 16 
inches wide at least, and 14 inches deep ; but they are raised by an inter- 
vening piece of stone and brick out of actual contact with the flues. Into 
each of these pots one melon plant is put, which in its subsequent growth 
is trained upon a trellis, placed about 14 inches distant from the glass, and 
each plant is permitted to bear one melon only. Each might be made to 
bear more, but if they should be as large as Ispahan melons when perfect 
are, they would certainly be of inferior quality. The height from the 
ground, at which the trellis is placed, is such that I can with convenience 
walk under it, and of course discover, without difficulty, the first appear- 
ance of red spiders, or other noxious insects. — (Hort. Trans, vol. i. Second 
Series, p. 86.) This pit was used by Mr. Knight for the culture of Persian 
melons, but it is evidently well adapted for the culture of cucumbers, under- 
neath which sea-kale, rhubarb, or various other articles, might be forced. 

1073. A pit to he heated hy hot water and hyafiue from the fire which heats 
the hoiler, is thus described by Mr. Torbron. It is almost unnecessary to 
add that it will ajiswcr as well for melons as for cucumbers, and indeed if 



504 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN PITS. 



the pit was filled with proper soil and vines planted in it, there could not be 
a better house for an early crop of grapes. Length, 30 feet ; width, 8 feet ; 
height at back, 7 feet, at front, 4 feet. A flue to run first to the front, and 
return under the back wall, with cavities of 2^ inches. The space between 
the flues to have gutters for the pipes from a boiler, with a power of filling 
and emptying the gutters at pleasure ; so as to have a command of either 
dry or moist air, as either may be wanted. The floor of the pit may be 
supported on arches, or it may be made of planks, or of slates or tiles, 
resting on joists. The pit to be filled with mould, sand, or sawdust, accord- 
ing as it may be desired to grow the plants in pots or in the free soil. A 
trellis may be made to hook on the rafters, on which to train the plants. 
The upper surface of the pit to be two feet from the glass, and the trellis 
to be one foot from the glass. (Gard. Mag. 1841, p. 311.) 

1074. Corhett's cucumber-pit., Fig. 356, is heated with hot water circu- 
lated in open troughs, which, however, have covers for being put on when a 
dry heat is wanted. The mode of heating by water in open gutters, as we 




Pig. 356. Cucmnber or Melo7i Pit, 
The scale \ of 

a. Outer walls. 

6, Walls of the pit. 

c, Gutters, or troughs for heating the 
atmosphere. 

dj Troughs under the soil in the open 
chamber (m), -which is air-tigbt, 
resting on the openings (e), which 
convey the cooled air from the front 
walk to the trough at the back, to be 
heated ; these openings being intro- 
duced at regular distances of 4ft. or 
5ft. 

/' Walks round the bed. 



heated by hot water in open troughs, 
an inch to a foot. 

Shelf for plants. 
h, Trellis for training the plants. 
«, Descending return-pipe, which is a 

common 6-inch pipe. 
k, The trough at entering, which is closed 

from the boiler till it reaches c. 
I, Shewin's conical boiler, or the modifi- 
cations of it by Stephenson or Weeks, 
w, Air-chamber; the air of which is always 

at the point of saturation, 
n, The soil, or other material, iu which 
the plants are planted. 



have seen (515), is strongly recommended by Mr. Glendinning, as it is by 
Mr. Lymburn on account of the great radiating powers of water, which are 
equal to those of lamp-black, which is to polished iron as 100 is to 15. 
Mr. Duncan, from whose Treatise on Cucumber Culture the section, fig. 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN PITS. 



505 



856, is taken, also says Corbett's mode is " the most economical plan of 
heating yet discovered, and deserving the support of every one interested in 
horticulture, especially the cucumber grower." 

" The troughs," Mr. Duncan observes, "are arranged so as to produce both 
bottom and top heat, accompanied with proper moisture, or a dry air at 
pleasure, by putting on the covers to the troughs. The air in the confined 
chamber under the bed is always at the point of saturation, and a circulatory 
movement of the air of the pit, exterior to the chamber, is always main- 
tained by drains, passing from the front path, under the troughs in the 
chamber, to the troughs in the back path, at the bottom of the back wall, 
as shown in the section." (Cucumber Culture, p. 22.) The soil Mr. 
Duncan recommends is vegetable mould during winter, with a mixture of 
maiden loam during summer. 

1075. Greens cucumber pit, and also one in use at Mawley Hall, described 
in the Gardeners Magazine for 1841, p. 262, are both heated by hot-water, 
with some of the pipes laid in troughs of water, and may be safely recom- 
mended as far superior to any modification of hot-water pits, unless we 
except Mr. Corbett's. Mr. Green's pit is thus described by himself: — " The 
walls are built of 9 inch brickwork, 5 feet high in the back, and 2 J feet in 
front, and the space enclosed is 5 feet wide in the clear, and 36 feet long, 
covered with nine lights, and divided into three compartments. A trough of 
brickwork is carried along the middle of the bottom from end to end. This 
trough is constructed by first laying a bottom of two bricks thick, one foot 
wide, and then forming the two sides of the trough with bricks on edge ; the 
whole being so cemented as to hold water. The pit is heated with hot 
water by means of a branch of 2^ inch pipes proceeding from the boiler 
which heats a stove at a short distance. The hot water flows along the 
back and front of the pit, above the level of the bed of soil, but the return 
pipes are placed beneath the bed in the trough just described, which is filled 
with water, or partly so, as circumstances may require, by means of a small 
pipe that leads to the outside. Another small pipe is laid in the bottom of 
the trough for letting off the stagnant water, and for emptying the trough 
occasionally ; for in very dark damp weather, a drier heat is required. 
The soil that I grow my plants in is collected at least six months before it 
is wanted for use, and consists of turf not more than 3 inches thick, of strong 
maiden loam, built up in narrow ridges, with a layer alternately of an 
equal quantity of fresh horse-dung, and a good portion of straw. When 
wanted for use it is chopped up with a spade, is not sifted, and one-third of 
well decayed leaf-mould is added. In order to have a succession of fruit, it 
is requisite to sow the seed at three different times, the 1st and 20th of 
September, and the 5th of November. The first and second sowing I fruit 
in No. 2 pots, and the third I plant out. Before placing the plants in the 
fruiting pots, I first put a quantity of large potsherds at the bottom, with some 
large pieces of turf and dung, in order to insure a good drainage. The plants 
are placed sufficiently deep to leave three or four inches at the top of the pot, 
so that the plants may be earthed up as they advance in growth. When the 
pots are filled with roots, a good supply of water is given of the same tem- 
perature as that of the air they are grown in. I place one plant in the 
centre of each light, taking care that the bottom of each pot is about four 
inches above the water in the trough and the return pipe. The branches 
are trained on a temporary trellis, and the fruit is allowed to hang down. 



506 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN POTS. 



From the plants sown on the 1st of September I cut the first-fruit on the 
4th of November ; from that date to the 4th of December I have cut from 
three lights, or three plants, forty beautiful fruit of the Syon House kind, 
varying- from twelve to fifteen inches in length. The same plants will con- 
tinue bearing till about Christmas. I have just (Jan. 10th) begun to cut 
from the second sowing, which will continue bearing through March. The 
plants of the first sowing are thrown away at Christmas, and plants of the 
third sowing are planted out in their place. When I plant in a bed, I form 
the bottom of the bed by laying some strong stakes across the trough, and 
covering them with any rough boards. The stakes so laid will leave a 
cavity round the back and front of the trough, so as to allow the heat and 
moisture to rise from the bottom. The plants are put out in a narrow 
ridge, and earthed up in the usual way as they advance in growth, and the 
branches are trained upon a trellis, in the same way as for the plants in 
pots. These plants will bear well through the spring and summer months. 
As soon as the first three lights can be spared, I introduce shelves fifteen 
inches from the glass, and fill them with strawberry plants ; and the pit 
answers equally well as for cucumbers, only for strawberries the bottom- 
heat is not wanted." 

1076. The advantages gained hy this pit over any pit that I have ever 
seen or heard of, are, firstly, a great saving of labour and dung, which last 
at all times makes a very littery and unsightly appearance ; secondly, the 
having a sufficient command of top-heat in severe and changeable weather ; 
thirdty, the return pipe being buried, or partly buried, in water, gives a 
sufficient bottom-heat, moist or dry, at pleasure ; and fourthly, the vapour 
which can be produced from the trough admits of keeping the air at any 
degree of moisture required. By these means, the plants become so healthy 
and strong that a good crop of fine fruit is certain. — {Gard. Chron. for 
1841, p. 36.) 

1077. Messrs. J. Weeks and Co., who erected Mr. Greens pit, have 
obligingly furnished us with a section of it, fig. 857, to a scale of ^ of an 
inch to a foot. 

a a. Outer walls. 

b. Hot-water pipes, laid in a trough of 
brickwork (c), which can he filled with 
water, and emptied at pleasure. 

c, Trough of brick-work. 
d c?, Ground level. 

e, Joists of wood or iron, forming the floor 
of the pit. 

/, Bed for planting or plunging, in which 
there may be upright tubes, chimney- 
pipes, or flower-pots with the bottoms 
out, at regular distances, so to admit 
at pleasure the moist air from the 
chamber below. 
Fig. 357. Mr. Green's Cucumber Pit. rji^^ trellis. 

Seals ^ of an i?ich to a foot. % Hot-water pipes for top-heat. 

SuBSECT. IV. — Culture of the Cucumber in Pots, in a Finery, Vinery, or in a 
Cucumber -house. 

1078. The culture of the cucumber in pots has been reduced to a regular 
system by Mr. W. P. Ayres, whose Treatise on the Cultivation of the 
Cucumber in Pots (1841, 3^. Qd,), is not only the cheapest of six treatises 




CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN POTS. 



507 



which have been published on the same subject, but in our opinion the best. 
Mr. Ayres's great object is the production of " quantity " of fruit rather 
than fruit of large size ; "a dozen fruit of moderate length," he says, msLy 
be grown in the same time that it takes to prepare the plant and produce 

one or a brace of fruit of unusual dimensions." "In every garden 

where either pines are grown or vines forced early, frame-forcing of 
cucumbers may be entirely dispensed with, and fruit of superior quality, 
in greater quantity, and at a fiftieth part of the expense, produced." (Pre/.) 
The principal features in which Mr. Ayres's book differs from those which, 
have gone before it, is in advocating a lower temperature at night and in 
dull weather ; in taking greater advantage of light ; in not stopping the 
leading shoot till the plants are fully established ; and his using water of 
the same temperature as the soil the plants grow in. The principle of 
maintaining a lower temperature at night is not to be disputed ; but a proper 
distinction should be made between tropical plants — inhabiting regions 
where the usual difference between the temperatures of day and night is but 
little — and plants of higher latitudes, where a difference of 20° or SO" is not 
unusual. In the case of plants kept generally in a temperature of 80°, or 
say in a mean of 75°, a reduction of 5° will affect them as much as a reduc- 
tion of 10° or 15° would others habituated to a mean temperature of 50°. A 
rustic in this country would scarcely feel a difference of 15° lower tempera- 
ture, whereas a negro would feel miserably cold if he were placed in a tem- 
perature as much as 15°, or ev€n 10°, below 75°, or any other higher degree 
at which he might have previously found himself comfortable. If a range 
of 20° is necessary to effect the requisite firmness of tissue in plants of this 
climate, the same effect would be produced by a range of less than 10" as 
regards the highly-excited plants of the tropical regions. 

" Cucumber pits and frames have the sashes generally placed at an angle of 
15°, which is 13° too low to obtain the full solar power in June, when the sun is 
at his greatest altitude, 60° too low for December, and 36° too low for March 
and September." To cut cucumbers through the winter, from November to 
February, in pits or frames heated by fermenting materials only, is almost an 
impossibility, let them be attended ever so closely. The reason of this is 
the atmosphere of the pit being too moist, the plants absorb more aqueous 
matter than they can decompose and assimilate, and consequently, their 
digestive energies being impeded, the leaves become covered with mildew 
and other fungi, which consume their juices, choke their respiratory organs, 
and general debility, if not death, ensues. This is the cause of so many 
young plants damping off in dull weather, but keep them in an atmosphere 
which can be kept moist or dry, in accordance with the absence or presence 
of light, and no such effect will be produced ; thus proving the superiority 
of a heating apparatus, that will place the hygrometric state of the atmo- 
sphere under the control of the attendant, and explaining the reason of 
cucumbers growing so much better in houses heated by fire, than in dung 
pits, in the winter season. — (p. 8.) 

1079. Construction of the cucumber house. — The grand point to deter- 
mine is the slope of the glass, so as to obtain a maximum of solar influence 
in midwinter. " To obtain the perpendicular rays of the sun in December, 
it would be necessary in latitude 53° to place the glass at an angle of 75° 28'; 
in January, 71° 52'; in February, 62° 29'; and in March, 51° 41'." As the 
sun has but little influence from the autumnal to the vernal equinox, Mr. 



508 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN POTS. 



Ayres prefers securing the perpendicular rays in March and September, 
and therefore places his glass at an angle of 51°. At this angle he loses 
much of the sun's power in the summer, but that is of no consequence in a 
cucumber house. 

Fig. 358, to a scale of \ of an inch to a foot, is a copy of the section given 
by Mr. Ayres ; in which a, " is the tan-bed in which the pots containing 
the plants are plunged ; b, is the trellis to which the plants are trained ; 
c, is the pathway under which is a flue, with the pipe of an Arnott's stove 
passing through it, and d, is the ground line. Arnott's stove must stand in 
a vault accessible from without about a foot below the level of the bottom 
of the flue, to secure a good draught to the fire. The flue should be 
divided into four equal compartments, the first and third of which, by 
keeping the pipes wholly, or partially immersed in water, might be made to 
produce moist heat, while the others will produce dry heat ; so that by 
tilting or removing the covering tiles of any of the compartments, the 
humidity of the atmosphere will be placed quite under the command of the 
attendant. The cost of the stove 
and piping to heat a house of the 
above dimensions, and 20 feet 
long, would not be more than 4/. 
10*., and in the most severe wea- 
ther, with the assistance of the 
bark bed, it would maintain a 
temperature of 65° or 70° for about 
sixpence per day; and in ordi- 
nary weather, it would not cost 
more than from eighteenpence to 
two shillings per week. A stove 
of this kind, with Welsh coal, 
would not require attending more 
than four times in twenty-four 
hours. Hot water would be pre- 
ferable to a stove, but it would be 
more expensive, both in the erec- 
tion and subsequent management." 
(P. 4). A hot- water apparatus, 
as Mr. Ayres observes, would be 
more expensive in the first in- 
stance, but once well put up it is 
not liable to get out of order for a series of years. Explosive gases are often 
formed in Arnott's stove ; and altogether its management is precarious. 

Such a house as fig. 358 might be heated by hot water by Corbett's 
open gutters at very little expense, for the gutters might be of wood, or 
of the cast-iron eaves guttering used for projecting roofs. The pit might 
be filled with tan or leaves for plunging the pots in in winter and spring, 
and in summer with soil in which the plants might be grown without pots. 
The glass in Mr. Ayres' house is fixed, the sash bars being inserted into the 
wall plates at top and bottom ; and air being admitted through holes a foot 
square along the top of the back wall, protected by coarse canvas. The expense 
of erecting a house of this kind would be little more than that of erecting 
a brick pit of the same length. The glass, which ought to be of the new 




Fig. 358. Mr. Ayres' Cucumber-house. 
Scale ^ of an inch to afoot. 



CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER IN POTS. 



509 



sheet kind, in panes from three feet to four feet in length, may be covered with 
wooden shutters, reed or straw mats, or Pocock's asphalte roofing-, placed 
two inches distant from the glass. The great advantage of this house is, 
that let the weather be what it will the plants can always be properly 
attended and treated. 

1080. Treatment of the plants. — The cucumber, Mr. Ayres observes, 
will grow in any soil, even old tan or brick rubbish, provided liquid 
manure is supplied. He uses turfy loam two parts, thoroughly decom- 
posed dung two parts, leaf mould two parts, and very sandy turfy peat two 
parts. The whole thoroughly incorporated immediately before using, 
but not sifted. Manure water is prepared by steeping two pecks of 
sheep or deer dung, one peck of pigeon's dung, and half a peck of soot, in 
a hogshead of boiling rain water ; in two days it will be fit for use. When 
applied, it is diluted with rain water, and used alternately with clear water 
from March to October. The great secret of keeping the cucumber in 
vigorous growth in pots, Mr. Ayres continues, is the use of manure water. 
The plants should be raised from seed sown on the first of August, so as to be 
fit for planting in fruiting pots in the first week of September. These pots 
should not be less than sixteen inches wide, and eighteen inches deep. Two 
plants should be placed in each pot, but the leading shoot must not be 
stopped, but be allowed to grow until it reaches the top of the house. On 
this, success in pot culture mainly depends, for if the plants are stopped, they 
are thrown into a bearing state before they are sufficiently established, and 
the consec|uence is early fruit, but a short-lived plant ; but if the plants are 
allowed to grow to the length of ten or fifteen feet before the leading shoot 
is stopped, a great quantity of true sap will be generated, and the plant will 
consequently be better able to support a crop than if it had been allowed to 
bear fruit before it was properly established" (p. 12). The temperature 
which Mr. Ayres approves of is 60° through the night, 65'' in dull, and 70° in 
clear weather, by fire heat ; and 80", 90'', or even 100° with plenty of 
atmospheric moisture and air in sunny weather. The two shoots from the 
two plants in each pot are to be trained to the trellis at one foot nine inches 
apart ; and when they begin to send out laterals these must be stopped at one 
joint above the fruit. Impregnation or setting the fruit Mr. Ayres believes 
does neither good nor harm, for he has cut scores of fruit, the flowers of 
which never expanded. If the fruit grows crooked, he places it in glass 
tubes or narrow troughs, which mould it into the proper form ; or he sus- 
pends a small weight by a piece of bast to the end of each fruit, a practice 
which appears to have been first adopted by Mr. Robert Fish. For various 
other details we must refer to the work itself, which indeed ought to be in 
the hands of every cucumber grower, whether on dung beds, in pits in the 
open garden, or in a cucumber house. We may observe here that cucumbers 
were, we believe, first grown in a cucumber house on a trellis under the 
sloping glass about the end of the last century by Mr. Butler, the Earl of 
Derby's gardener. The roots of the plants w^ere in a bed of soil, and as they 
ceased to bear they were renewed one or two at a time, so that there was a 
perpetual crop throughout the year. In 1806 we first saw this cucumber 
house with an abundant crop, and in 1819, when we again saw it, the same 
gardener informed us that the house had never been without fruit since the 
period of our former visit. 



CULTIVATION OF THE CUCUMBER. 



SuBSECT, IV. — Culture and Treatment of the Cucumber for Prize Exhibitions. 

1081. The largest growing varieties are cliosen, of Avliicli Allen's Victory 
of Suffolk, the Roman Enaperor, Snow's Horticultural Prize, and Duncan s 
Victoria, appear to be among the best. The plants must not be allowed to 
set fruit till they hare attained considerable strength. The fruit is put into 
cylinders of glass or tin to protect the prickles and bloom. Every means is 
employed to encourage vigorous growth, and rather a higher temperature is 
maintained than m ordinary culture. " In the event of fruit being read}' to 
cut before the time wanted, they should be divided three parts across their 
foot-stalk, and secured to the trellis to prevent falling. By this means they 
will keep fresh and stationary several days, much better than by cutting 
or entirely separatmg them from the plant. If necessary to carry or send 
them to a distance, they should be packed nicely in a box made for the 
purpose, in the largest nettle leaves that can be got, or in cucumber leaves, 
but by no means in smooth leaves, which are certain to rub off the 
bloom. They may then be folded in tissue-paper, and wrapped in 
wadding, and placed in narrow boxes of well-thrashed moss (see 860). 
By these means the spines, powdery bloom, and partially withered blossom 
at the end of the fruit are preserved, without which no cucumber can 
be considered handsome, or well grown. In being exhibited they should 
be put in dishes in pairs or leashes, on a little clean moss, or on vine leaves, 
and the brace or leash should always be of the same sort, and if possible of 
the same length, and of a kind having a pure black spine." — (^Duncan's 
Cucumler Culture., p. 81.) "When cucumbers have lost their bloom, the 
blossom at the end of the fruit, or even some of their prickles, or when they 
have not grown quite straight, all these defects used formerly to be supplied 
by art. A bloom was put on the fruit b}^ laying it on a wire frame in a 
close box, and with a powder-puff charging the air of the box with a powder 
fomied of perfectly dry magnesia, minutely calcined. Half-decayed blos- 
soms were stuck on the point of the fruit with a little gum ; and prickles 
were inserted into small holes made with the point of a pin. Crooked cu- 
cumbers were rendered straight by placing them in a damp cellar, and there, 
by two strips of wood, one applied to each side, gradually effecting the object 
in view. All these processes will be found described in detail in the 
Gardeners' Magazine for 1828, p. 8G ; since which exposure they have been, 
we believe, almost entirely given up ; but it is well to know that such tricks 
have existed, in order to be on our guard agaiust their revival. 

SuBSECT. V. — Cultivation of the Cucumber i?i the open air. 

1082. Cucumbers grown in the open air are commonly protected hy hand or 
bell glasses. — The seeds are sown some time about the middle of April in a 
cucumber or melon bed, and when they come up, they are potted out into 
small pots, two or three plants in each pot, and are kept properly watered, 
and stopped at the first or second jouit. About the middle of May, a warm 
situation, where the mould is very rich, is pitched on, and a trench is dug 
oat about two feet deep and three feet broad, and the length is proportioned 
according to the number of glasses it is intended for. The bottom of this 
trench is covered with prunings of bushes, or coarse vegetable rubbish of any 
kind, and it is then filled with good warm dung, and when the dung is come 
to its full heat, it is covered over with eight, ten, or twelve inches deep of 



CULTIVATION OF THE CUCUMBER IN THE OPEN AIR. 511 



rich mould. Tlie glasses are then set upon it about three feet distant from 
each other, and when the mould gets warm under them, the plants are 
turned out of the pots with their balls whole, and plunged in the mould 
under the glasses, and a little water given them to settle the mould about 
their roots, the glasses set over them, and after they have made roots, and 
begin to grow, in fine days they are raised a little on one side to let the 
plants have the free air ; and as the weather gets warmer and warmer, air 
is given more plentifull}^, to harden the plants, so that they may be able to 
bear the open air, and run from und^r the glasses. When the plants begin 
to fill the glasses, they are trained out horizontally, and the glasses are set 
upon bricks or such like props, to bear them from the plants. After 
this the plants require nothing more but to be supplied with water when 
the summer showers are not sufficient, and to stop them when they 
become deficient of branches, and thin them of leaves or branches when 
they are likely to be overcrowded. In warm summers and in warm situa- 
tions, by this mode of management, the plants will bear plentifully for about 
two months, provided they be not attacked by insects or weakened by dis- 
eases-. If the situation should require shelter, a row of runner beans four 
feet from the bed at the north side and ends, and a row of some crop that 
will not grow more than three feet high, on the south side of the bed, and 
about the same distance from it, will attain this object. The surface of 
the ridge, for some time after it is made, should be covered with straw to 
shoot off the wet, and the leading branches must be pegged to the soil, but 
not stopped. — [Ai/res.) 

1083. Increasing the atmospheric heat of the soil. — When cucumbers are 
grown on the natural ground, as they are extensively at Sandy in Bedford- 
shire, a considerable portion of heat may be worked into it (see 956) by arti- 
ficial means. Thus, when the bed has been marked out, let the soil be dug 
over in the evening of every sunny day, and then either raked perfectly 
smooth, or covered with mats or litter ; in this way the radiation of accu- 
mulated heat being nightly intercepted, a sufficient quantity of heat will in 
a week or ten days be collected, to raise the temperature 8 or 10 degrees 
above that of the adjoining soil. — [Ayres's Treatise, p. 40.) 

1081. Cucumbers against a south wall. — " Cucumbers will succeed beau- 
tifully, trained against a south wall, if planted in a little good soil to start 
them ; afterwards they will flourish in the soil of the border, without fur- 
ther trouble, especially if the summer should be warm." — (^Duncans Cu- 
cumber Culture, p. 83.) Warm coverings at night, so as to prevent the ra- 
diation of heat acquired through the day, would, in this case, and also in that 
of cucumbers grown in ridges, prove very beneficial. 

1085. Grovjing cucumbers on balconies, or in court-yards. — " Those who 
have no garden ground, but have yards or balconies on a south, east, or west 
exposure, may plant them in very rich compost, in large pots, or boxes 
eighteen inches or two feet square, and train the plants to the wall. They 
will require precisely the same treatment in watering, stopping, &c., as 
directed for pots in the cucumber house. In this way those who have no 
garden may have the pleasure of growing their own cucumbers." — (Ayres's 
Treatise, p. 41.) 

1086, Watering cucumbers in the ojjen garden. — During the time the 
plants are under the glasses, they may be watered in the same way as if 
they were under frames ; but after the glasses are raised, and the plants 

L L 2 



512 



CULTURE OF THE BANANA. 



permitted to extend themselves over the bed, a very different process must 
be followed. Nothing is more common than to take a water-pot to a pump 
and fill it with water, the temperature of which does not in all probability 
exceed that of the mean temperature of the earth, viz. 48", and directly 
proceed to sprinkle the cucumbers. Now the soil in the open garden, from 
May to September, will, if open and porous, seldom be below 60" in heat, 
and therefore to apply water at 48° will reduce it to 54°, or, according to 
Mr. Gregor Drummond (823-1) several degrees lower, and consequently 
check the plants ; but if water is applied, the temperature of which is 70°, 
the heat of the soil will be raised to 65°, or, according to jNIr. Gregor Drum- 
mond (ibid.), some degrees higher, and the plant will, as the cucumber 
requires bottom heat, be much accelerated in growth. "NT^ater, therefore, 
on a warm dull day, and as seldom as possible, but when it is done do it 
effectually; that is, saturate the ground to the depth of a foot at least, and 
with water which, either by admixture with warm water, or by exposure 
to the solar influence, has attained the same temperature as the soil in 
which the plants are growing (ibid. p. 40). 

1087. Cucumber and melon culture compared. — Much of what has been 
advanced on the culture of the cucumber may be applied to the culture of 
the melon, but their treatment differs in the following particulars. The 
melon cannot be ripened in this country in the winter-time, and therefore 
the seeds need never be sown before February. The soil for the melon 
should be of a firm texture, loamy, and should lie solid in the bed rather 
than loose like that of the cucumber. It is often covered with gravel, 
pebbles, tiles, or slates (1047)- When the fruit of the melon is advancing to 
maturity, water must be gradually withheld so as not to deteriorate the 
flavour ; whereas in cucumber culture the supply of water must be unin- 
terrupted. The melon, in hot, dry seasons, can be brought to a higher 
degree of perfection than the cucumber, because the atmosphere cannot in 
general be kept sufficiently moist for the latter fruit. In the highest state 
of cultivation, the cucumber requires as much heat as the melon ; but it may 
be grown in a much lower temperature, more especially as compared with 
that required by the Persian varieties of the melon, for these require a 
greater heat than the Cantaloups. 

Section IX. — Culture of the Banana. 

1088. The banana (Miisa sapientum, L.) is a scitamineous (50) herba- 
ceous evergreen, a native of Asia, in forests, in soil formed of rich masses of 
vegetable matter, kept moist by the shade of trees. There are many 
varieties cultivated in India and other warm regions of the East, varying in 
height from three feet to twenty feet ; but those which are in most esteem 
in British gardens are the Musa s. Cavendishii, from the Isle of France, and 
the M. s. dacca, from the East Indies, neither of which exceed the height 
of three feet or four feet. The culture of these plants for their fruit in 
British stoves is of very recent date, but as the fruit is excellent, and is 
produced great part of the year, it may probably become as general as that of 
the pine-apple. The culture of the banana for the dessert was first com- 
menced by Mr. Paxton in 1836, who, after two years* trial at Chatsworth, 
said that we " might recommend it advantageously for a suburban garden 
and this, as will be afterwards seen, is confirmed by five years experience. 



CULTURE OF THE BANANA. 



513 



((?. j\r. 1838, p. 104.) The Musa s. dacca, and some other varieties, have 
been fruited by 'Sir. M'Nab, in the stove of the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, 
who, in December 1886, sent a large box of it to the Lord Mayor of London, 
for the banquet given to the Queen at Guildhall.— (G. J/. 1838, p. 106.) 
Some excellent varieties of banana have also been fruited in the gardens at 
Syon ; and the Duke of Devonshire's variety, M. s. Cavendishii, is gro^vn 
in abundance for the table of the King of the French, at Versailles and 
Meudon. — (See G. il/. 1841, p. 887.) AH the varieties of banana are 
propagated by suckers ; they are grown in large pots or tubs, eighteen inches 
or two feet in diameter, in a mixture of leaf-mould, sand, and thoroughly 
rotten dung, and watered with liquid manure. The same temperature that 
suits the pine-apple will suit the banana. Suckers will fruit within the 
year, and they may be retarded or accelerated so as to ripen their fruit at 
almost every season. The following paragraph on this fruit was supplied 
to the Gardener s Magazine^ in 1841, p. 430, by Mr. Paxton. 

1089. A Banana house, SO feet long, 15 feet wide, 12 feet high at the back 
and six feet high at the front, heated by flues or by hot water, will hold 
about ten full-grown or fruiting plants^ with room between for different-sized 
successional ones, to be tubbed successively as the large plants ripen off their 
fruit, these being shaken out of their tubs as soon as the fruit is gathered, and 
potted, to produce suckers ; by judicious management in tubbing and in 
administering water, a supply of fruit may be had the greater part of the 
year. I have had at one time ten fruiting plants nearly of the same size and 
age, being suckers produced the same spring, and receiving similar treat- 
ment; yet no two of them produced their spadix at the same time ; and even 
if they were disposed to do so, it may be prevented, different treatment being 
given them. As their approach to fruiting is easily ascertained by their 
leaves decreasing in size, soon after which the embryo fruit-stalk may be 
detected by the sudden swelling of the lower part of the stem, if more than 
one should show these indications at one time, the one it is desired to fruit 
first must hare abundance of water and the wai-mest situation, and the others 
be retarded by opposite treatment. The period between them may be still 
further lengthened a considerable time, if the whole spadix of fruit of one 
approaching too close upon another in ripening be cut off with a portion of 
the stem attached, when the upper tier of fruit is just ripening, and suspended 
in a dry and airy room, iu the way that late grapes are often kept. I have 
cut excellent fruit from a spadix, two months after it had been separated 
from the plant ; and they may be made to ripen fast or slow in this manner, 
according to the temperature to which they are exposed. The quicker the 
flower- stem is made to develop itself, the longer the spadix will be, and the 
greater quantity of fertile flowers it will produce ; consequently the greater 
weight of fruit, which will vary from fifteen to thirty pounds, according 
to the plant's strength, the season, and other circumstances. I need hardly 
add that the soil can scarcely be too rich, and that it should be rather light 
than retentive, in order that abundance of water may be given, and readily 
pass off. In Paxton s Magazine of Botany for 183G, it is observed that 
"a pit 40 feet long, 15 feet broad, and 5 feet high, will produce several hun- 
dredweight of fruit in a year, with no other care or attention than that of 
giving plenty of manure to grow in, and a good supply of heat and water. 
The Banana will fruit at all seasons, and no doubt with easier culture thau 
any kind of fruit grown under glass." — {Ibid. 1836, p. 316.) 



514 



FORCING THE STRAWBERRY. 



Sect. X. — Forcing the Strawhe7'ry, 

1090. Data on which the forcing of the strawherry is founded. — The straw- 
berry (Fragaria, Z/.) is a genus of herbaceous perennials or biennials, of 
which some species are natives of Europe, and others of North and South 
America. They all grow in woods, and m soil more or less loamy and 
moist ; but the kinds have been so changed by culture in British gardens, 
and this culture has been so successful both in the open garden and under 
glass, that we shall adopt it as a guide. Almost all the kinds of strawberry 
in cultivation will bear forcing ; but the kinds preferred are chiefly the 
Old Scarlet or Virginian, for its high flavour and colour in confectionary, 
Keen's Seedling, and the Roseberry or Aberdeen Seedling, for their large 
size and abundant crops, and occasionally the Alpine, because it can be 
kept in a bearing state throughout great part of the winter. As the 
flavour of the Scarlet and Keen's seedling strawberries is seldom good 
when they are ripened before the middle or end of March, forcing is 
seldom commenced till the middle of January, and those excited about 
that time, and properly treated, will ripen fruit in about nine weeks. 
The plants should be previously well established in pots ; though in 
default of this they may be taken up with balls, and potted, and at once 
placed in the forcing-house ; or the balls may be set close together on the 
surface of a bed of fermenting material, or heated by a flue or hot- water pipes 
underneath. The crown of the plants, whether in pots or on a bed, should 
not be more than a foot from the glass. The temperature at first should 
not exceed 45° or 50°, with fire heat, and abundance of air should be given, 
even when the temperature is as low as 40°. After the fruit is set, the tem- 
perature may be raised from 55° to 00°, with fire heat, and 65 or 70° with 
sun heat, provided abundance of air is given. Strawberries may be forced 
with great advantage in the peach-house, or in the cherry-house, in pits, or 
in such houses as that shown in fig, 127, in p. 189. They may be also forced 
in the open garden by having pipes of hot water laid a foot under the surface 
of the soil, between the rows of the plants, and covering them with glass or 
with canvas during nights, and in stormy weather. In short nothing can 
be more easy than forcing this most delicious fruit. 

1091. Routine practice in forcing Keen s Seedling and the Old Scarlet or Vir- 
ginian strawberries, — As soon as the runners are fit for the purpose, lay a quan- 
tity, say two and three in a 82-pot, others one in a 60, in a good strong loam, 
with a portion of well-decayed manure. Place a stone on each runner, for the 
double purpose of keeping the plant in a fixed position and preserving moisture 
to the roots. The first runners are preferable, the sort Keen's seedling. 
As soon as the plants are well rooted, re-pot the sixties into thirty-twos, 
and the thirty-twos into twenty-fours — still using the same strong soil ; 
then place them in the hottest part of the garden, fully exposed to the direct 
rays of the sun, but not under a wall. The best situation is the centre of a 
vine-border, first placing there a quantity of half-decayed manure, generally 
some old dung linings, to put round the pots, to prevent the sun acting too 
powerfully on the roots. Here they should be left exposed to the elements 
most conducive to bring them rapidly to a state of maturity : a free circulation 
of air, abundance of moisture, which they should be liberally supplied with, 
a,nd a full share of solar heat. In this situation the plants grow freely, 
forming well-matured crowns, to send up fine stems of bloom in the forcing- 



FORCING THE STRxVWBERRY. 



515 



house, with strong and vigorous roots to support them. Those in twenty- 
fours remain ; after a time examine the others, and those that have the 
strongest roots re-pot into twenty-fours, pursuing the same method as 
hefore ; so that, out of 700 or 800 pots, half the number will be twenty- 
fours, with one, two, or three plants in a pot, and the remainder in thirty-twos, 
with one plant in a pot. One plant to either sized pot is preferable to a 
greater number; and if the above method is pursued, it will, from the 
rapidity of their growth, be found quite sufficient. If the autumnal rains 
are heavy, lay the pots on their sides, and about the middle of December 
place them in some frames, to keep the frost from injuring the roots, till 
they are placed in the forcing-house, 

1092. Thus grown and protected, the strawberries may, any time between 
December and March, be brought into the forcing-pit, previously filled with 
tan, dung, or leaves, to about eighteen inches of the glass. On this bed the 
plants are set, and a gentle temperature of from 50° to 55° is maintained in 
the pit : if without fire-heat, so much the better. From this time, till the 
plants have perfected their fruits, a leaf should never be allowed to droop 
for want of water : yet the reverse is equally destructive, more especially 
before the flower-stems appear ; as soon, however, as these are up, a liberal 
supply of water is necessary till the fruits get to their proper size ; 
when it must again be supplied sparingly, only just enough to keep the 
leaves from flagging, till the strawberries are gathered. Whilst in flower, 
a temperature of from 60° to 65°, with a free circulation of air, is best. 
The fruit once set, the plants will do well in a stove where the minimum 
temperature is as high as 75°, provided abundance of air can be admitted. 
Plants treated in this manner, introduced into the forcing-house in the 
middle of December, will generally perfect their fruit about the middle 
of JMarch. The fruit ought to be thinned out : all the deformed ones should 
be cut clean away, and the more promising ones should be pegged to the 
sunny side of the pot, and if there are too many leaves the footstalks of a 
number of them may be broken or twisted, so as to check the flow of sap 
and throw it into the fruit. Dry heat and free air are indispensable to their 
being w^ell flavoured. 

1093. After forcing, turn the plants out of the pots, and plunge them in 
rows, at moderate distances, in a piece of spare ground in the garden, well 
exposed to the sun and free circulation of air. From these a slight gather- 
ing will be obtained after the natural crops are over ; and well-established 
plants for forcing may be obtained from their runners, the latter being so much 
earlier produced than they are from plants in the open ground. In the 
autumn take the plants up with good balls of earth, and plant them in rows 
in a melon-pit or cold frame, placing them rather thick, to economise the rows 
and press the mould firmly to their roots. The pit need have neither 
bottom-heat nor pipes, but be simply covered with mats. As soon as the 
frosts set in, place the lights on, but do not begin to cover up with mats 
before March. If warm showers come in April, take the lights off, and let 
the plants have the benefit of the showers (which is better than watering from 
a pot), to forward them. When the sun is shining hot in the afternoon, 
shut up close, and cover up directly with double mats. You will find the 
next morning a sensible diflerence in their appearance. These plants will 
bear abundantly, coming in at a very seasonable time, just before the out- 
door strawberries, which are very often retarded by late frosts ; when the 



516 



FORCING THP. ASPARAGUS, SEA-KALE, RHUBARB, 



days being gaiierally very hot, strawberries are in great demand, and, it 
being too hot for them in the houses, they are sometimes very scarce. After 
the fruit is gathered, the plants are dug up and thrown away, and the pit 
planted with melons. By following this simple routine, year after year, 
you will be able to supply a family, however large, with abundant crops of 
this beautiful fruit, and in the highest state of perfection, at a very trifling 
expense. — (^Gard. Mag. xvii. p. 265.) 

1094. The Alpine strawberry continues bearing in the open air till it is 
checked by frost, and if a month previously to this a number of plants have 
been planted in a bed of soil on heat, or potted and placed in a frame, pit, 
or strawberry-house, quite near the glass, and a temperature kept up of 
from 45° to 55° during night, and from 55° to 60° during day, the plants will 
continue bearing during winter ; and they may be succeeded by other 
plants kept through the winter in cold frames, and put into heat about the 
middle of February. This mode is very successfully practised in the 
neighbourhood of Paris. — (See Gordon, in Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 269.) 

Sect. XI. — Forcing the Asparagus, Sea-kale, Rhubarb, Chiccory, 
and other fleshy roots. 

1095. These different vegetables may be forced where they stand in the 
open garden, by placing hot dung over them ; or when they are planted in 
rows or beds, by digging out trenches between eighteen inches or two feet 
wide, and two feet deep, and filling up these trenches with hot dung. Or 
the plants may be taken up before the forcing season, with as many of the 
roots as possible, and planted close together in a house, frame, pit, or even 
cellar, on a bed of fermenting matter, or of soil heated artificially, at first 
to 40° or 50°, and gradually raised to 60", 65°, or 70°. Nothing can be more 
simple or easy than this kind of forcing, since it is merely the excitement by 
heat and moisture, without or with but very little light and change of air, of 
the mass of vegetable nutriment laid up in the root-stalk. 

1096. Asparagus. — In the beginning of winter, begin six weeks before it 
is proposed to have a crop ; when the days are longer, five weeks, or but a 
calendar month before. Those who wish to have asparagus on the table at 
Christmas should prepare for forcing it in Noveniber. The temperature 
at night should never be under 50°. In the day-time, keep the maximum 
down to 62°. If by the heat of the bark or dung, and the use of mats or 
canvas covers at night, the thermometer stand as high as 50°, fire-heat will 
be unnecessary ; but otherwise recourse must be had to the flues or hot- water 
pipes. A very moderate degTce of fire-heat, however, will be sufficient ; 
and a small fire made in the evening will generally answer the purpose. 
Sometimes in dull, hazy weather a fire may be necessary in the morning, 
in order to enable you to admit air more freely, and to dry off damp. Air 
must be freely admitted every day in some cases, to allow any steam to pass 
off\, and for the sake of the colour and flavour of the plants. As the buds 
begin to appear, as large a portion of air must be daily admitted as the 
weather will permit. When the asparagus bed has, after planting, stood 
two or three days, and when the heat has begun to warm the roots, give the 
plants a sufficient watering. Pour it out of a pot, with the rose on it, to 
imitate a shower of rain ; let the bed have enough to moisten the mould 
well, and to wash it in among the roots. Repeat such waterings now and 
then. By the time the buds have come up three inches above the surface, 



CHICCORY, AND OTUER FLESHY ROOTS. 



517 



they are fit to gather for use, as they will then be six or seven inches in 
length. In gathering them, draw aside a little of the mould, slip down the 
hnger and thumb, and twist them off from the crown. This is a better 
method than to cut them ; at least it is less dangerous to the rising buds, 
which come up in thick succession, and might be wounded by the knife, if 
cutting were practised. The roots, after they have furnished a crop, are 
considered useless for future culture, because no leaves having been allowed 
to develop themselves, of course no buds could be formed for the succeed- 
ing year. If the pit in which asparagus is forced be twenty-five feet to 
thirty feet long, it will be enough for the supply of an ordinary family to 
fill one-half at a time. If the second half be planted when the shoots in the 
first half are fit for use, and so on, a constant succession may be kept up in the 
same pit for any length of time required. In some gardens asparagus is 
gro\vn in beds cased with pigeon-holed brickwork, with alleys betw^een two 
feet wide and two feet deep, which are filled with hot dung, and frames are 
put over the beds. This, however, is an expensive mode, and w^e are not 
aware of any advantage which it has over Mr. Lindegaard's practice of 
merely deepening the alleys to about three and a half feet, and filling them 
up with hot dung, covering the beds with litter, over wdiich hoops for sup- 
porting mats should be placed ; or any other means of protection should be 
adopted that may best prevent the effects of cold at night, or of rain and 
sleet, or snow, either of which would rob the ground of much of its acquired 
warmth from the linings. Beds treated in this manner in December will 
produce a crop in four or five weeks, which will last for five or six weeks. 
After the crop is gathered, the dung is removed from the alleys, which are 
then filled to the brim with rich soil, for the roots to strike into. Asparagus 
plants forced in this manner are injured, but in three seasons they will 
be restored and may be forced again successfully. When asparagus is 
forced in this manner later in the season, much less dung is required, and 
the plants are proportionately less injured. — [Hort. Trans, vol. v. p. 509.) 

1097. Sea-kale may be forced exactly in the manner above described for 
asparagus ; but a less degree of heat is required, for the sea-kale naturally 
shoots up early in spring, while the buds of the asparagus are much later in 
appearing. The asparagus requires to be grown four years from the seed be- 
fore it is fit to force, and hence Mr. Lindegaard's mode, by which the plants are 
not destroyed, is the best where practicable ; but as the sea-kale can be forced 
at two years' growth, and the plants are consequently less valuable, there is 
less objection to taking them up, forcing them, and throwing them away. 
Mr. Errington plants a certain number of rows of sea-kale every spring, three 
feet apart, and the plants fifteen inches distant in the rows ; the plants having 
been raised from seed the previous year in a drill. The roots are taken up for 
forcing as soon as the leaves are decaying, with much care ; and as much as 
possible removed entire, as the root is of course a magazine of nourishment for 
the incipient bud. The main stock is then ' laid in by the heels,' and covered 
w^th litter until w^anted. In the mushroom- house there is a pit or trench 
sunk below the level of the floor-line about four feet : this furnishes room in 
the length of the house for about four successive ages ; and the second lot of 
roots is introduced the moment the first begins to bud, and so on with the 
rest. Fermenting matter, viz., dung and leaves mixed, is placed about two 
feet six inches deep, under the roots, taking care to have bottom-heat 
enough ; as, if that becomes too hot, the heat can easily be reduced with 



518 



FORCING THE ASPARAGUS, SEA-KALE, &.C. 



water; and the more water the sea-kale receives in this way, the more 
tender it becomes. The roots are placed in this fermenting matter as thick 
as they will stand, merely flooding in some fine old tan or old rich soil with 
water, to fill the crevices between the roots completely. The surface of the 
crowns, when so placed, is a foot, or nearly so, below the floor line ; and, 
when planted, a row of trusses of straw is laid side by side over the whole, 
to shut in the steam, and keep it completely dark, which is one of the main 
points; and, with the straw and the shutters, this is completely effected. In 
the same house Mr. Errington produces a continual supply of chiccory, 
rhubarb, and other articles, by the same s^'stem. — ((x. M. 1841, p. 270.) 

No vegetable is more easily or cheaply forced than sea-kale, whether in the 
open air in beds or drills, or by covering the plants with pots (fig. 58, in p. 143) 
or boxes to be surrounded by hot dung ; or by taking up the plants and potting 
them, and placing them in cellars, frames, or pits, or on a bed of heated ma- 
terials. A temperature of from 40 to 45 degrees will excite vegetation, after 
which it may be raised to 50 or 55 degrees. Great care must be taken never 
to exceed 55 degrees. Plants of sea-kale in the open ground may be forced 
every year ; but much the cheapest mode is to take up the roots and force 
on beds heated artificially. 

1098. Rhubarb and Chiccory. — What has been said of sea-kale, in the 
preceding paragraph, will apply equally to rhubarb and chiccory. They 
may both be forced in the open ground by trenches filled with hot dung, or 
by pots or boxes placed over them, and surrounded by that material ; or, 
what is by far the most economical mode, the plants may be taken up and 
potted, and placed in a cellar ; or, like the sea-kale, they may be planted 
close together on a bed of material heated artificially, or laid side by side in 
the floor of a vinery, or between the flue and wall, and covered with 
tan, peat, or leaf-mould. The rhubarb should be grown at least two years 
from the seed, in the same manner as the sea-kale, before being taken up 
for forcing ; but the chiccory may be sown the same year. The leaves of 
the chiccory require to be blanched, and therefore it ought always to be 
forced in the dark ; but as most people prefer the rhubarb only partially 
blanched, a certain degree of light may be admitted. In Belgium the 
roots of chiccory are taken up on the approach of winter, and stacked in 
cellars in alternate layers of sand, so as to form ridges with the crowns of the 
plants on the surface of the ridge. Here, if the temperature is a few degrees 
above the freezing point, the crowns soon send out leaves in such abundance 
as to afford an ample supply of salad during the whole winter. — (See 
Lippold, in G. M. for 1836, p. 250.) 

1099. Forcing other roots. — The common dandelion (Leontodon Taraxa- 
cum, L.) affords a salad in all respects equal to that of the chiccory, and may 
be similarly treated. Hamburg parsley, the common parsley, burnet, fennel, 
wild spinach (Chenopodium Bonus Henricus, Z/.), wild beet, for the leaves 
as spinach^ and the common turnip for the leaves as greens, and various 
other plants having fleshy roots, and of which the foliage or leaf-stalks are 
used in salads or cookery, may be forced on the same principle as asparagus, 
sea-kale, &c. ; the practice being founded on the physiological fact first 
explained to gardeners by Mr. Knight, viz., that " the root of every perennial 
herbaceous plant contains within itself, during winter, all the organisable 
matter which it expends in the spring in the formation of its first 
foliage and flower-stems ; and that it requires neither food nor light to 



FORCING THE COMMON POTATO, &C. 



519 



enable it to protrude these, but simply heat and water ; and if the root be 
removed entire, as soon as its leaves become lifeless, it will be found to vege- 
tate, after being replanted, as strongly as it would have done if it had retained 
its lirst position." 

Sect. XII. — Forcing the common Potato^ the sweet Potato^ and other tubers. 

1100. The common potato (Solanum tuberosum, L.) is forced in a great 
variety of ways. The best varieties for this purpose are the ash-leaved 
kidney, the Rufford kidney. Fox's seedling, and Shaw's Early. (See 
our Catalogue of Culinary Vegetables). They may be forced in 
pots on shelves in a peach-house or vinery, or in frames or pits mode- 
rately heated, the plants in every case being kept quite near the glass, 
as few plants suffer more when placed at a distance from the glass than 
the potato. Abercrombie says, " for a fair crop of tubers, which shall be 
somewhat dry and floury, and of the size of a hen's egg, plant sets of 
the ash~leaved variety in single pots filled one-third part with light earth 
in January. Place them in a hothouse or hotbed, earth them up as they 
appear, and about the middle or end of February transplant them, with their 
balls entire, into a pit prepared as for asparagus. Distance, from plant to 
plant, one foot each way. Give water occasionally, and admit as much air 
as possible at all times. Potatoes so managed will produce a crop at the end 
of March or beginning of April." The general mode is to plant in frames or 
pits, on a bed of fermenting material, sufficient to produce a gentle heat, for 
the potato will not bear rapid forcing, a high temperature, or a dry atmo- 
sphere. They however, cannot have too much light, being natives of a high 
table-land, with a clear sky. Some gardeners plant them on old hotbeds 
and supply the heat by linings ; and many plant them on beds unprotected 
by glass, but covered with hoops and mats during nights and very severe 
weather. 

1101. A substitute for new potatoes is obtained by placing layers of pota- 
toes alternately with sawdust in a box, and placing it in a moderate tem- 
perature in a room or cellar. The potatoes vegetate and produce tubers in 
December and January, about the size of walnuts, and sometimes larger, 
without any leaves having been protruded. This plan is most successful 
when potatoes of the growth of the season-before-last are used. By this 
treatment, no leaves will emerge above the soil, and, consequently, as no 
nutritive matter can be deposited by them, the new potatoes, which may 
be produced at any required period by burying the old potatoes three weeks 
before, are nothing more than a recomposition of the old tuber, in conse- 
quence of the application of heat and moisture. Few persons, however, will 
be satisfied with this kind of substitute for a new potato formed by the aid 
of light and foliage. Another mode of producing a substitute for new 
potatoes is, by retarding the tubers of early varieties, by keeping them in a 
cool dry cellar till June or July, and then planting them. Being early 
sorts, they produce, even when planted thus late, a crop of young potatoes 
which possess in a great degree the flavour peculiar to potatoes taken 
fresh from the stem. By covering the ground with litter, so as to exclude 
the frost, young potatoes may thus be obtained throughout the winter. (See 
G. ilf., vol. viii., p. 56, and our Catalogue of Culinary Vegetables). 
In the mild climate of Cornwall, where the winters frequently pass with 
little or no frost, the planting of sets can be deferred till autumn ; and with 



520 



FORCING KIDNEY-BEANS AND PEAS, 



a little protection, the plants, although pushed above ground, are preserved 
through the winter, and, in consequence, afford an early supply of genuine 
young potatoes. — (G. Ji"., ii., p. 464, and v., p. 107.) 

1102. The sweet potato (Convolvulus Batatas, Z,,), though but little 
cultivated in British gardens, is imported from Spain and sold in the fruit- 
shops. It is cultivated in the open air in the neighbourhood of New York 
(G. M. vol. V. p. 275) during their hot summers, and on dung-beds in the 
neighbourhood of Paris, where it is sold in the market and the fruit-shops, 
and much esteemed. The best crops that we saw in 1828 were in Admiral 
Tchitchigoflf's garden at Sceaux. The tubers are planted in February, or 
earlier or later at pleasure, and in the pine-stove or in a small hotbed ; and 
the shoots they produce are taken off and planted a foot apart every way, on 
dung-beds, covered with 15 inches of earth and protected by hoops and mats 
in the manner of ridged cucumbers. This may be done any time from April to 
June, and the shoots are not dibbled in, but laid down in drills about 3 inches 
deep, keeping 2 inches of the point of the shoot above the earth. In about 
two months after transplanting, some of the tubers will be fit to take off for 
use, and the plants will continue producing till they are destroyed by frost. 
To preserve the tubers through the winter the greatest care is required. In 
the King's forcing- gardens at Versailles, they are kept in a growing state all 
the winter in the pine-stoves. ^Vith the exception of this difficulty of pre- 
serving the tubers through the winter, the sweet potato is just as easily 
cultivated as the common potato. Though the shoots are naturally ascend- 
ing and twining, like those of Tamus communis, the plants are not sticked, 
and therefore the shoots cover the ground, and form over it a thick matting 
of dark green smooth foliage. In the early part of the season, the tubers 
are taken off as they attain the size of early kidney potatoes ; later the 
whole crop is dug up. If the sweet potato were once fairly introduced into 
British gardens, we have no doubt it would form an article of regular 
culture there. {G. M. v. 276 ) 

1103. The Ojcalis Deppei, which, it will be found from our Culinary 
Catalogue, produces tubers, stems, and foliage, that are much esteemed ; and 
the Tropasolum tuberosum, which also produces eatable tubers, with the 
flavour of sea-kale or the richest asparagus, may be forced in the same 
manner as the potato. 

Sect. XIII. — Forcing Kidney-beans and Peas. 

1104. The kidney-bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, Z.), being a native of India, 
may be forced in the same heat as that required for the pine-apple ; but 
although it will bear this extreme, it will succeed in a temperature very much 
lower. The varieties generally preferred are — the early speckled, early 
negro, and dun-coloured dwarf, the latter being thought the best. They are 
planted in equal parts of rotten dung reduced to a soil, and loam, in shallow 
24-sized pots : place in the bottom of the pot one inch of crocks, and above 
them 1 inch of soil ; then plant six beans, covering them with 1 inch more 
of soil. These pots may be stowed away in any corner of the stove till the 
plants appear above ground, when they must be brought near the glass, and 
thinned out to two or three of the best plants. As they advance, they must 
be earthed up ; and the leader may be pinched off, to render them short and 
bushy. When they come into flower, air must be admitted, to set the fruit ; 
and every pod must be gathered as soon as it is fit for the table, not to rob 



FORCING SALADS, POT-HERBS, &C. 



521 



the others that are forming. The plants may be grown in a house at any 
temperature above freezing, and below blood-heat ; the medium, 60° to 65°, 
is preferable. They succeed well when planted out in a pit or frame, with 
or without bottom-heat, in rows 18 inches apart, and 3 inches in the row ; 
and, as they advance, they are to be topped as above, and sticked. Planted 
at Christmas, they require about eight weeks to bring fruit fit for the table, 
in a temperature of 60° or 65°. To have kidney-beans all the year, the first 
sowing for forcing should be made in August, and sowings should be 
made every four or five weeks till April, after which the crop in the open 
air from plants which have been raised in heat will come into use. The 
aphis and thrips often attack the French bean when grown under glass, but 
these insects may be readily destroyed by fumigation, by tobacco- water, or 
by quassia-water. 

1105. The common garden pea (Pisum sativum, Z,.), may be forced, but 
being a native of a colder climate (the South of Europe), not so successfully 
as the kidney-bean. The best early varieties are the early May, early 
Warwick, and early frame. It is necessary to begin at a low tem- 
perature, and not to exceed 50° or 60° with sun heat, and from 40° to 50° 
during the night, till the fruit is set. Afterwards the temperature may 
be increased, so as to vary during the day from 55° to 70°. The peas may 
be sown in pots or boxes, and either fruited in them, or transplanted into 
other pots or boxes, or a pit. In general the best mode is to grow them in 
pots or boxes, because these admit of being kept well ventilated and close 
to the glass. Without abundance of light and air it is in vain to attempt 
forcing the pea. For the earliest crop the seeds may be sown in October, 
and these will produce pods in February or March, from which time by 
successive sowing, peas may be obtained till they are produced in the open 
ground from plants which have been raised in heat, and transplanted into a 
warm sheltered situation. Whatever description of forcing is adopted, trans- 
planting is found to check luxuriance, concentrate growth, and produce a 
greater amount of blossom in a limited space. 

Sect. XIV. — Forcing Salads^ pot-herbs, sweet-herhs^ and other 
culinary plants. 

1106. Lettuce, chiccory, radish, cress, mustard, rape, parsley, chervil, 
carrot, turnip, onion, and similar plants, may be raised in pots or in beds, 
in a gentle heat, and quite near the glass. In general it will be of little 
use beginning to sow sooner than January; and indeed, with the exception 
of the carrot, parsley, and onion, February will be soon enough, on account 
of the light required. Young carrots being much used in soups, some 
families require a supply all the year, which is to be obtained by successive 
sowings in the open air and on heat. The first sowing on heat may be made 
in January, to succeed the autumnal sowing in the open garden; and the 
second may be made in February or March, to serve till the first crop in 
the open air comes into use. 

1107. Small salading, such as cresses, mustard, rape, radish, chiccory, 
lettuce, &c , to be cropped when in the seed leaf, or in the third or fourth 
leaf, may be sown in boxes or in beds, and kept in a warm, moist atmo- 
sphere, near the light. As the plants forming small salading are always 
cut beneath the seed-leaf, as soon as one portion of salading is gathered, the 



522 



FORCING SALADS, POT-HERBS, &C. 



soil may be stirred and a second crop sown. Where there is a constant 
demand for small salading, a sowing requires to be made every week. 

1108. Radish. — To obtain the earliest spring radishes, Abercrombie 
directs to " sow on a hot-bed, of dung or leaves^ some of the early dwarf 
short-top varieties in December, January, or the beginning of February. 
Having made a hot-bed two feet or two and a-half feet high of dung, place 
on the frame. Earth the bed at top six inches deep ; sow on the surface, 
covering the seed with fine mould about half an inch thick ; and put on the 
glasses. When the plants have come up, admit au- every day in mild or tole- 
rably good weather, by tilting the upper end of the lights, or sometimes the 
front, one, two, or three inches, that the radishes may not draw up weak and 
long-shanked. If they have risen very thick, thin them in young growth, 
moderately at first, to about one or two inches apart. Be careful to cover 
the glasses at night. Give gentle waterings about noon, on sunny days. 
If the heat of the bed declines much, apply a moderate lining of warm 
dung or stable litter to the sides, which, by gently renewing the heat, will 
forward the radishes for drawing in February and j\Iarch. Remember, as they 
advance in growth, to give more copious admissions of air daily, either by 
tilting the lights in front several inches, or, in fine mild days, by drawing 
the glasses mostly off : but be careful to draw them on again in proper 
time. Small turnip-radishes of the white and red kinds may be forced in 
the same manner. For raising early radishes on ground not accommodated 
with frames, a hot-bed made in February may be arched over with hoop- 
bends or pliant rods, which should be covered with mats constantly at night, 
and durmg the day in very cold weather. In moderate days turn up the 
mats at the warmest side, and on a fine mild day take them wholly off." 

1109. To produce full-grown cabbage-lettuces througJwut the winter is a 
desideratum in Holland, where the higher classes have cabbage-lettuces on 
their tables ever}'- day in the year. The seed is sown on the first of 
September, and when the plants have produced their fourth leaf they are 
transplanted into a melon-bed which has done bearing ; and as soon as they 
have taken root, abundance of air is given night and day. In October, 
when the air grows cold, and the heads of the cabbage-lettuce begin to get 
close or hard, air is no longer given, and the lights are entirely closed ; but 
the leaves must be prevented from touching the glass, as, if they do, the 
least unexpected frost will hurt their edges, and the consequence will be 
that the plants will rot. In this case the frame will have to be lifted every 
now and then. When the nightly frosts commence, generally in October, 
great attention must be paid to covering the beds with a single layer of bast 
mats, and adding slight linings; yet too much covering is to be avoided 
before the plants are grown to perfect heads. Watering is quite out of the 
question, and even very hurtful ; care, indeed, should be taken to prevent 
moist are as much as possible. Cover more or less, according to the severity 
of the weather, and keep the lights uncovered in the day, whenever and as 
much as the weather will permit. In this way the Dutch gardeners produce 
cabbage-lettuce during the whole winter till April, when they are succeeded 
by the plants which have been early forced. In the Royal gardens in 
Denmark, this method was practised by M. Lindegaard for nearly half 
a century ; by Mi\ Rutger, at Longleat, for thirty years : for an equal 
period at Bulstrode, when that place was the residence of the Duke of 
Portland; and for a number of years at Hylands, when that property 



FORCING THE MUSHROOM. 



523 



belonged to P. C. Labouchere, Esq. — (See G. M. vi., p. G91 ; viii., p. 174, 
and iii. p. 388.) 

1110. Perennial pot and sweet herbs, such as mint, sage, tarragon, savory, 
thyme, tansy, scurvy- grass, and such like plants, may be taken up from 
the open ground, potted, and transferred to the forcing-house, where they 
will soon produce abundance of foliage ; care being taken to let the heat 
with which forcing is commenced be low, in proportion to the coldness of 
the country of which the plant is a native, and that of the season at which 
it naturally expands its leaves. Thus, in forcing scurvy-grass, which is a 
native of Denmark, a much lower temperature ought to be commenced with 
than in forcing sage, which is a native of Greece ; and again, a plant which 
naturally springs up in April will bear commencing with a higher tempera- 
ture than one which makes considerable progress in the previous colder 
months. 

Sect. XV. — Forcing the Mushroom. 

SuBSECT. I. — Data on which the Culture and Forcing of the Mushroom 
is founded. 

1111. The mushroom (Agaricus campestris L.) is indigenous to Britain, 
appearing " in the fields chiefly after Midsummer, in the months of July, 
August, and most abundantly in September. On a ten years' average, the 
temperature of these months respectively in the neighbourhood of London 
has been found to be 64", 62", and 57°; and in the same periods the tempe- 
rature of the earth one foot below the surface is a few degrees higher ; but 
at the depth of two or three inches, where the vegetating spawn is situated, 
the temperature in hot sunny weather is frequently as high as 80°. Whilst 
such hot weather continues, mushrooms are rarely met with ; but when the 
atmosphere changes to a humid state, and when the earth becomes suffi- 
ciently moistened and lowered in temperature, in consequence of rain and 
absence of sun-heat, to be between 60" and 65°, mushrooms become plenti- 
ful. Hence it may be concluded that spawn will not be injured by a heat 
of 80° during what may be termed its underground state of progression. 
This is corroborated by the fact that spawn introduced into melon-frames 
when the beds are moulded, increases whilst the melons are grown in a heat 
of about 80° ; and when the melon crop is over, the frame cleared, and the 
heat of the bed naturally abated, a gentle watering, with shade, is all that 
is necessary to bring up an excellent crop of mushrooms from the spawn so 
deposited. It is evident, from what has been stated, that the spawn requires 
a high temperature for its diffusion ; but, when this has taken place, a 
declining temperature is requisite, till gradually the bottom-heat is lowered 
to 60° or 65°, and the temperature of the air limited between 55° and 65°, 
when the production first appears above the soil. 

" With regard to moisture, it may be observed that a dry atmosphere is 
injurious, not only to artificial crops, but also to those in the fields ; for the 
latter, warm foggy mornings are most favourable, and these should be imi- 
tated as closely in cultivation as circumstances will permit. A gentle steam 
is more easily maintained in mushroom-houses than in structures adapted for 
other subjects of cultivation where light is an object of importance ; but 
mushrooms do not require its agency, and consequently a glass roof is unne- 
cessary : on the contrary, the roof and walls where they are intended to be 
grown should be composed of such substances as will cause the least possible 



524 



FORCING THE MUSHROOM IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



condensation of the internal vapour, and wliich are in other respects eligible 
for the purpose. 

" A thatched roof of a good thickness is very proper ; a slated or tiled one 
is, on the contrary, objectionable, unless a ceiling be formed under it. If 
the cavity between the ceiling and the external covering were filled with dry 
moss, a more complete protection would be formed against any sudden vicis- 
situdes of cold and heat, an object of importance towards success either in 
the cold winter months or during the greatest heat of summer." — {Penny 
Cyc^ vol. xvi. p. 19.) 

SuBSECT. II. — Forcing the ]\[ushroom in British gardens. 

1112. The ordinary form of a mushroom-house is a lean-to shed, at the 
back of a south wall, or of a range of hothouses, about nine feet wide, eight 
feet or nine feet high at front, and twelve feet or fifteen feet at tlie back. 
Along the middle there is a path three feet wide over a flue, or hot water- 
pipes, or in some cases a trench of two feet wide, and the same depth for a 
bed of femientmg manure. Planks, in this latter case, are placed over the 
dung for the purpose of walking on. The space between the walls and the 
path is occupied by shelves of slate or flag-stone, three feet broad, eighteen 
inches or two feet apart in the height ; each shelf having a slate or stone curb 
nine inches deep. The manner in which mushrooms are grown in such a 
house is as follows : — 

1113. The spaini may be either made or purchased. Cake or brick spawn 
is the sort best worth making, and the best sort of materials to make it of 
are, equal portions of horse-droppings, cow- droppings, and loam, well mixed, 
and pounded or beaten, adding only as much water as will bring the materials 
to the consistency of brickmakers' moulding clay. Then let a circular mould 
without a bottom, nine inches in diameter and three inches deep, be placed on 
a table, with the wide end uppermost, and filled with this mortar and straked 
level ; before it is turned out of the mould, let three holes be made in each cake, 
with an iron-shod dibber, one inch and a half deep : the mould must be 
shaped like the frustum of a cone, that the cakes may easily part with it. 
IVhen the cakes are all but hand dry, let them be spawned, by putting a 
piece of spawn about the size of a pigeon s egg in each hole, inclosing it with 
a little of the original mortar. Then pile the cakes in pairs, with their 
spawned ends together, resembling a cask ; and in this state let them be 
cased up in brick -shaped batches, and sweated and kept up to about 85°, by 
placing a layer of sweet dung all round and over the batch, varying it in 
quantity", to obtain the desired heat. The spawn must be exammed as it 
runs in the cakes, and when one is broken and appears mouldy all through, 
and smells of mushroom, it is mushroom spawn in the highest state of per- 
fection. It must not be allowed to run so far as to form a thread-like sub- 
stance. To preserve it, it must be thoroughly dried in an airy loft, and 
kept dry for use. It will retain its properties for several years. 

1114. To grow the mushrooms. — Collect a quantity of horse-droppings, 
dry them a little in an open shed, then lay a stratum of loamy turf, two 
inches or three inches deep, in the bottom of the bed, and over this three 
layers of droppings, each about two inches deep, rendered as compact as pos- 
sible, by giving each layer a good pummeling with a hand-mallet. ^Tlien 
the last layer is made up, thrust a few " watch sticks" into the bed, in order 
to ascertain when it begins to heat. When the heat is getting pretty strong, 



FORCING THE MUSHROOM IN BRITISH GARDENS. 



525 



let the bed be first beaten all over, then make holes with an iron-shod dibber, 
nine inches apart, and deep enough to reach the stratum of loam : these will 
soon cool the bed ; and when the heat is declined to about 80", the holes may 
be bored by a conical block of wood, to about two inches in diameter, at two 
inches deep, in order to receive the spawn. These holes must be filled up, 
to about three inches from the surface, with loam and horse-droppings mixed; 
then insert a bit of spawn, about the size of a hen's egg in each, and fill the 
holes up level with the surface, with the loam and droppings. The holes 
being closed, the heat will increase, and must be attended to : if violent, a 
few deep narrow holes may be made to let it escape ; and, if too slight, it 
may be aided by a covering of dry hay, or a layer of warm dung ; and when 
all danger of violent heat is gone by, and the spawn beginning to run, put on 
the upper stratum of loam, mixed with a little cut hay or dry horse- 
droppings to make a tough firm crust, about one inch deep. A tempe- 
rature of from 55° to 60" is found best for the atmosphere in the house, 
and about 90° of bottom heat will set the spawn actively to work. The 
beds must not be allowed to get too dry — a layer of moist hay will pre- 
vent this ; and, if too wet, a dry atmosphere can be got by gentle fires and 
open ventilators, which will aid them a little. But a bed once allowed to 
get thoroughly wet after spawning is hopeless, and should certainly be 
removed without loss of time.— (G. M. for 1839, p. 335.) 

1115. Growing the mushroom in a cellar may be readily accomplished 
where the temperature does not fall below 45°, or rise above 70", Take 
a quantity of fresh manure, with short litter intermixed, from a stable 
where the horses are fed on hay and corn, but not on green food. Spread 
the manure on the floor of the cellar about four inches deep, and beat it 
firmly down with a mallet. After a few days repeat this operation, and 
again do so at intervals, till the bed becomes about fourteen inches deep, and of 
such a breadth as may be most convenient. To ascertain the degree of 
heat, put two or three sharp pointed sticks into the bed, and when, upon 
being drawn out the next day, they feel about milk- warm, or between 80° 
or 90°, it is time to put in the mushroom spawn. Observe, however, that 
when this operation is performed, the heat should be rather on the decline 
than on the increase. 

Having purchased, or otherwise procured the spawn, break it into pieces 
about the size of a hen s egg. Place the pieces all over the bed, about a foot 
apart, and tw^o inches below the surface. Beat the whole down hard. Be 
careful not to let the heat increase above the degree mentioned above, other- 
wise the spawn will be destroyed, and the bed must be stocked again with 
fresh spawn. Indeed, for security's sake, it is aiwaj'S best to repeat the 
spawning when the heat is on the decline. After all danger of increased 
heat is passed, cover the bed with light soil about two inches deep, then 
beat it down hard. Mushrooms always do best in a firm hard soil : however 
hard, they will find their way through it. They have even been known to 
raise the pavement of a cellar floor, 

1116, Management of the bed. — Examine the sticks which were originally 
placed in the bed, if they are lukewarm all is right. A few days afterwards 
cover the bed with hay or straw ; but if it increases the heat, remove it for 
a time. If the place is warm and dark this covering may be dispensed with. 
In five or six weeks the mushrooms ought to appear. A gentle watering 
now and then will hasten their growth ; but too much will cause the spawn 

M M 



526 



CATALOGUE OF FRUITS. 



to rot, and then, of course, the bed will be unproductive, whereas it ought 
to produce for five or six weeks. The covering keeps the soil moist, espe- 
cially when much exposed to the air. — {J. Wighton^ in G. M. for 1842.) 

1117. Mushroom spawn, planted in loam and dung, or in either, and 
screened from sun and rain in summer, will produce this vegetable in 
abundance ; and the same materials will produce the same effect, under 
favourable circumstances, in winter ; such as being placed in boxes or 
baskets in a stable or warm cellar. Mushrooms may be grown remarkably 
well on dung-beds, covered with frames, having thatched hurdles or boards 
instead of glass ; the surface of the bed being covered with hay, litter, or 
dried shorn grass. 

Half-dried droppings of highly fed horses, good spawn, and a gentle moist 
atmosphere, are the principal things to be attended to in cultivating the 
mushroom. 

1118. In gathering mushrooms for present use, they may be cut ; but, if 
they are to be kept a few days, they must be got with the stem entire, which 
is easily done by slipping it off with a gentle twist. 

1119. — The duration of a crop of mushrooms varies from three to six 
months, so that it is always safe to make up a bed or a couple of shelves 
every three or four months. Very successful and economical modes of 
growing the mushroom will be found in Callows Improved Mode of Culture, 
1831, post 8vo., 7*. Qd. ; and in Smith, on Cucumbers and Melons, 1839, 
12mo., 4^. 



CHAPTER IV. 
CATALOGUE OF FRUITS. 

1120, The fruits usually cultivated in British Gardens are, for the greater 
part, borne on trees and shrubs, but some are on herbaceous plants. They are 
mostly natives of temperate climates, and cultivated in the open garden, but 
a few are natives of warm or tropical countries, and require the protection 
of glass and artificial heat. The whole may be arranged, either systema- 
tically, or according to their natures ; or geographically, or according to the 
climates in which they are indigenous ; and this last arrangement will also 
indicate the classification which may be made with reference to their treat- 
ment in a state of culture. 

1121. Botanically, the fruits usually cultivated in British gardens, are 
classed by the natural system, or according to their natures, as follows : — 

Berbercicea;. Berberis, the barberry. 

Aurantiacece. Citrus, the orange, lemon, citron, lime, and shaddock. 
Vitdcece. Vitis, the grape. 

Amgdalinece. Amygdalus, the almond, peach, and nectarine; Armeniaca, the 
apricot ; Prunus, the plum, and Cerasus, the cherry. 

Pomdcece, Pyrus, the apple, the pear, and the service; Cydonia, the 
quince ; Mespilus, the medlar; and Eriobdtrya, the Japan quince. 

Rosdcece, Rubus, the raspberry, and Fragaria, the strawberry. 

GranatdcecB. Punica, the pomegranate. 



CATALOGUE OF FRUITS. 



527 



Myrtacece. Psidium, the guava. 

CucurUtacece. Cnciimis, the cucumher and melon ; Cucurbita, the gourd, 
and pumpkin, and Carica, the pawpaw. 

Passiflordcece. Passiflora, the granadilla. 

Cactacece. Opuntia, the Indian fig. 

GrossuldcecB. Ribes, the gooseberry and currant. 

CaprifolidcecB. Cdrnus, the cornel, and Sambucus, the elder. 

Vaccindcece. Vaccinium, the bilberry, and Oxycoccus, the cranberry. 

Solandceas. Physalis, the winter cherry, and the Peruvian cherry ; Cap- 
sicum, the Cayenne pepper ; Lycopersicum, the love-apple, and Solanum, the 
egg-plant. 

MleagndcecB. Shepherdia, the buffalo berry. 
Urticdcece. Ficus, the fig, and Morus, the mulberry. 
JuglanddcecB. Juglans, the walnut, and Carya, the hickory. 
CorylacecB. Castanea, the chestnut, and Cor-ylus, the filbert. 
Musdcece. Musa, the banana. 
BromelidcecB. Ananassa, the pine apple. 

1122. Geographically and HorticuUurally, these fruits may be arranged 
as belonging to : 

1123. Climates analogous to that of Britain, and which can be grown in 
the open air in British gardens, including the barberry, plum, cherry, 
apple, pear, quince, medlar, raspberry, strawberry, goosebeny, currant, 
cornel, elder, bilberry, cranberry, winter cherry, buffalo-berry, mulberry, 
chestnut, filbert, walnut and hickory. 

1124. Climates analogous to that of the South of France, and which can 
be grown against walls exposed to the South, or heated by flues in British 
gardens, including the vine, almond, peach, nectarine, apricot, pomegranate, 
and fig. 

1125. Climates sub-tropical^ or tropical, including the orange, lemon, 
lime, and shaddock, Japan quince, guava, cucumber, melon, gourd, pumpkin, 
pawpaw, granadilla, Peruvian cherry, Indian fig, Cayenne pepper, love- 
apple, egg-plant, banana, and pine-apple. 

This last arrangement we shall adopt as the most suitable for horticul- 
tural purposes, and we shall therefore treat first of hardy, or orchard fruits, 
next of wall fruits, and lastly of house fruits. The cornel, buffalo berry, 
pomegranate, winter cherry, Peruvian cherry, guava, pawpaw, granadilla, 
and Indian fig, are but little cultivated in British gardens, yet as the 
possessor of a suburban garden may reasonably wish to taste all the fruits 
that can be grown in any British garden whatever, whether small or large ; 
and as a single plant of each kind of fruit will afford this gratification, and 
occupy very little room in the garden, w^e thought it right to include them, 
though of each we shall treat but very slightly. See the notice of the fru its 
cultivated in our very limited garden at Bayswater, given in the Suburban 
Gardener, p. 341. 

Those who wish for more extensive lists than we shall here give of the 
fruits in common cultivation, will consult the Horticultural Society's Fruit 
Catalogue, third edition ; those who wish to see engravings, and peruse bota- 
nical descriptions, of the species of trees and shrubs from which the differ- 
ent varieties of cultivated kinds have been originated, may consult the 
Encychpcedia of Trees and Shrubs ; and those who wish to know the 

AI M 2 



528 



THE APPLE. 



natural, horticultural, and domestic history of every species, in greater detail 
than they have ever elsewhere been given, will have recourse to the 
Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum. 

Sect. I. — Hardy or Orchard Fruits. 

1120. The hardy fruits include all those which arrive at maturit}'' in 
the open garden, without the aid of glass or artificial heat. These are the 
apple, pear, quince^ medlar, the true service, cherry, plum, gooseberry, 
currant, raspberry, strawberry, cranberr}^, bilberry, cornel, elder, barberr}^, 
winter cherry, buffalo berry, chestnut, filbert, w^alnut, hickory, and mulberry. 

SuBSECT. I. — The Apple. 
1]27- The Apple^ Pyrus Malus L. JNIalus communis Z)ec., (Pom- 
mier, J^r., Apfelbaum Ger., Apfel, Dutch^ Pero INIelo, and Melo Porno, 
ItaL, and Manzana, Sjmn. Eng. Bot., t. 179 y Arb. Brit.^ Vol VI.; and 
Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 45,) is a deciduous tree, under the mid- 
dle size, with spreading branches, which form in general an irregular 
head. In its wild or crab state, it is indigenous in most parts of Europe, 
and as a fruit-tree, it is cultivated in all civilised countries, more especially 
in those of temperate climates. It flowers in May, and ripens its fruit at 
various periods from July to November, and some sorts of apple maybe 
kept throughout the year, or longer. The tree is naturally of considerable 
hardiness and durability, but the cultivated varieties are comparatively 
delicate and sV.ort-lived. Trees of the more hardy varieties, however, have 
been known to endure for two or three centuries ; but it is presumed that 
individual trees of such varieties as the Hawthornden, and the Ribston 
pippin, would scarcely live a century. The apple, like every other plant, 
accommodates itself more or less to the climate and soil in which it is placed, 
but still it attains a higher degree of perfection in one particular climate and 
soil, than in any other. The climate of England, and the north of France, 
and the loamy soils on lime-stone rock that are found in these countries, 
appear to bring the apple to the highest degree of perfection. Italy and 
Spain are much too warm, and the north of Germany and Sweden, too cold 
and sunless. Several kinds of apples were introduced into Britain by the 
Romans, who possessed, according to Pliny, twenty-two varieties ; but, in 
all probability, these were lost in the interval between the Roman civil 
power in Britain, and the power of the Church, though many wildings might 
doubtless spring up, when the trees established by the Romans began to be 
neglected. Some of the varieties in existence, it may be reasonably supposed, 
were introduced by the Roman clergy, but the greater number of sorts 
w^hich have not been raised in Britain have doubtless been introduced from 
Normandy, either when that country was subjected to England, or pre- 
viously at the Norman conquest. The apple is not indigenous in North 
America, but nevertheless it flourishes in all the temperate parts of the 
United States, and the flavour of some varieties grown in America, for 
example the Newtown pippin, is thought by many to be superior to that 
of any kinds grown in the north of France, or England. The number of 
varieties now in cultivation has been greatly increased within the present 
century, partly from importations, but chiefly from seedlings raised in this 
country. In consequence, we have varieties suitable for difi^erent soils and 



USES AND PROPERTIES OF THE APPLE. 



529 



situations, from the warm moist climate of Devonshire and Cornwall, to 
the cloudy and stormy atmosphere of Orkney. There are varieties which 
ripen as early as July, and others which are not fit to eat till the following 
spring ; and which, with proper care, will keep till apples come again, and 
even longer. No fruit tree is more prolific than the apple when in a suit- 
able soil and situation, and no fruit is applied to a greater variety of useful 
purposes, 

1128. The uses of the apple in pies, tarts, sauces, the dessert, or boiled or 
roasted, is familiar to every one. The expressed juice fermented forms 
cider, — that of the crab verjuice ; and when both these liquids are mixed, 
and properly managed, a very good wine, it is said, may be produced. 
One-third of boiled apple pulp, baked mth two-thirds of flour, and fer- 
mented for twelve hours, is said to make an excellent bread, very palatable 
and light. In confectionery the apple is used for comfits, compotes, marma- 
lades, jellies, pastes, tarts, fritters, and various other purposes. To form a 
jelly, the apples are " pared, quartered, and the core removed, and put in 
a closely- covered pot, without water, in an oven, or over a fire. When 
well stewed, the juice is squeezed through a cloth, a little white of an egg 
is added, and then sugar ; and lastly it is skimmed, and by boiling reduced 
to a proper consistence." — Kenrick. Medicinally, boiled or roasted apples 
are considered laxative and at the same time strengthening. In perfumery, 
the pulp of the apple beat up with lard forms pomatum ; and by mixing 
apples with elder-flowers, in a close vessel, an odour of musk is said to be 
communicated to them. The juice of the apple concentrated by boiling 
will keep for several years, and ma}^ be used to form a liquor similar to cider, 
by adding a little to water as it is wanted for use. The apple-tree when 
in flower is very ornamental, particularly some varieties which have their 
petals tinged with pink, such as the Hawthomden ; and the tree is still 
more beautiful when covered with fruit, especially with such as are highly- 
coloured, such as the red Astrachan, the tulip-apple, &c. The bark of the 
tree may be used for dyeing yellow ; and the wood being fine-grained and 
very compact, is well adapted for turning and for staining, so as to be used 
as a substitute for ebony. We have dwelt long on the uses of the apple, 
because, with Speedily, we regard it as a fruit of more use and benefit to 
the mass of society than all the other fruits cultivated in Britain united. 

1129. Properties of a good apple. — Apples for table are characterised by a 
firm juicy pulp, elevated, poignant flavour, regular form, and beautiful 
colouring ; those for kitchen use by the property of falling, as it is techni- 
cally termed, or forming in general a pulpy mass of equal consistency when 
baked or boiled, and by a large size. Some sorts of apples have the pro- 
perty of falling when green, as the Keswick, Carlisle, Hawthornden, and 
other codlins ; and some only after being ripe, as the russet tribes. Those 
which have this property when green are particularly valuable for affording 
sauces to geese early in the season, and for succeeding the gooseberry in 
tarts. For cider an apple must possess a considerable degree of astriugency, 
with or without firmness of pulp or sugariness of juice. The best kinds, 
Knight observes, are often tough, dry, and fibrous ; and the Siberian Har- 
vey, which he recommends as one of the very best cider apples, is unfit 
either for culinary purposes or the table. The same eminent pomologist 
has found that the specific gravity of the juice of any apple recently 



530 



THE APPLE. 



expressed, indicates, with very considerable accuracy, the strength of the 
future cider. 

1130. Varieties. — The varieties of apple in cultivation previous to the 
time of Henry VIII. do not appear to have been numerous; but Evelyn 
informs us, that Harris, the fniiterer to that monarch, introduced many 
sorts of apples and other fruits from Flanders, and distributed them in the 
neighbourhood of thirty tovrns in Kent only, to the great and universal im- 
provement of the countr}\ In the time of Charles I., Lord Scudamore in- 
troduced a number of cider apples from Normand}^ into Herefordshire. 
Hartlib, during the Commonwealth, in 1650, " believes there are nearly 
500 sorts in this island." Some were introduced from Holland in the time 
of William III., and the number would doubtless gradually increase till the 
commencement of the present centmy, when it has been greatly accel- 
erated by the growing taste for gardening, and the great stimulus given by 
Mr. Knight to raising new fruits from seed. The Horticultural Society of 
London have collected varieties of fmit from every part of the world, and 
the number of sorts of apples, that have been proved in their gardens to be 
distinct, is believed to be nearly 1500; the number of names exceeding twice 
that amount, many varieties having more than one name. The great diffi- 
culty, where the choice is so ample, is to make a selection, and this, with 
the assistance of Mr. Thompson, we have been enabled to do, so as to present 
lists of unquestionable excellence. 

1131. Early dessert Apples. 

Eai'ly Red Margaret., syn. Red juneatiug, middle size, conical, greenish 
yellow striped with red, tender and rich ; ripe in August ; a good bearer, 
and the fruit most abundant at the extremities of the branches. 

Early Harvest^ syn. Large Early, or Prince's Harvest, Above the middle 
size, roundish, yellow, with crisp, juicy flesh, and brisk rich flavour ; ripe 
in the beginning of August. 

OsUn.^ syn. Arbroath pippin. ISIiddle size, oblate, pale yellow, firm, rich, 
spicy, aromatic ; ripe in August and lasting till September ; a good bearer, 
and altogether one of the best summer apples, A Scotch variet}^. 

Kerry Pippin. Middle size, oval, yellow and red, firm, sugaiy, and rich ; 
September to October; a good bearer, a healthy tree, and altogether an 
excellent fruit. As the name implies, it is an Irish variety. 

Summer Golden Pippin. Below the middle size, ovate, flattened at the 
eye, yellow, crisp, and rich ; September ; tree of medium size, and a 
tolerably good bearer. 

1132, Dessert Apples to succeed early kinds, 
Wormsley Pippin. Middle size, roundish, pale green, crisp, juicy, and 

rich ; September to October ; excellent for the dessert, and peculiarly rich 

when cooked ; the tree a great bearer, healthy and vigorous. 

King of the Pippins.^ syn. Hampshire yellow. Above the medium size, 

rather oblong, ^^ellow and red, firm, juicy, and rich; October to January; 

a great bearer, and a vigorous^ healthy tree. 

Golden Reinefte, syn. "^Vyker pippin. Middle size, flattish, yellow and 

red, sugary, rich, yellow flesh; October to Januaiy ; a good bearer, the 

tiee of the middle size, and the fruit very handsome. 



SELECTION OF DESSERT APPLES. 



531 



Macleans Favourite. Middle size, roundish, yellow, crisp, rich, with the 
flavour of the Newtown Pippin ; November till February ; tree moderately 
vigorous, a good bearer. 

Clay gate Pearmain. Middle size, pearmain shaped, greenish yellow and 
brownish red, rich, with a Ribston pippin flavour ; November till March ; 
tree hardy. 

Ribston Pippin^ syn. Glory of York. Above the middle size, roundish, 
greenish yellow and red, crisp, juicy, peculiarly rich and high flavoured; 
November to March ; a good bearer, a spreading tree, deserving a wall, 
where it will not otherwise succeed. 

Court of Wick, syn. Wood's Huntingdon. Below the medium size, ovate, 
yellow and some red, firm, juicy, and rich ; a very excellent fruit ; October 
to April ; tree hardy, a good bearer. 

Pearsons Plate. Under the middle size, oblate, yellow, green, and red, 
of first-rate quality ; December to March ; a good bearer, and remarkably 
handsome apple. 

Golden Harvey., syn. Brandy apple. Small, roundish, yellowish russet, 
firm, exceedingly rich, and high flavoured ; in this respect a fruit of the very 
highest excellence ; December to May ; the tree is slender, upright, and a 
moderate bearer. 

Hughes s Golden Pippin. Small size, roundish, yellow, firm, j uicy, rich ; 
December to February ; a good bearer, and a moderately vigorous tree. 

Pitmaston Nonpareil. Middle size, roundish, pale green with slight rus- 
set, rich nonpareil flavour ; December till February ; a good bearer. 

Braddick's Nonpareil. Nearly middle size, roundish^ green, and bright 
brownish red, partakes of nonpareil flavour; January till April ; tree a 
most abundant bearer. 

Herefordshire Pearmain^ syn. Old Pearmain. Above the middle size, 




Fig. 359. Pearmain-shape, exemplified in the Herefordshire Pearmain Apple. The Pearmain 
shape is understood to be a truncated cone, with the base rounded, and projecting tnore towards 
the stalk on one side than the other. 



532 



THE APPLE. 



pearmain-sliaped (fig. 859), yellowish, green and red, rich, yellowish flesh ; 
November to March ; a good bearer, and a spreading, healthy tree. 

Sturmer Pippin. Middle size, short, conical, yellowish green and brownish 
red, firm, brisk, rich ; February to June ; a good bearer and a healthy tree. 
The fruit retains its briskness till Midsummer. 

Couj't Pendu-Plat, syn. Garnon's apple. Middle size, oblate, green and 
red, firm, rich, and sugary ; December to April ; a great bearer, a small 
tree, blossoming late, by which it escapes the spring frosts. A Dutch 
variety. 

Reinette du Canada. Large, flattened, greenish yellow and brown, juicy, 
brisk, very rich, subacid ; November to April ; tree spreading, and a good 
bearer. Very common in France. 

Old Nonpareil^ syn. Reinette Nonpareil. Middle size, roundish, flattened, 
and broadest at the base, greenish yellow, firm, crisp, peculiarly rich, aro- 
matic; January to May; a good bearer, a tree with slender shoots, rather 
upright than spreading, and the fruit excellent. 

Scarlet Nonpareil. Middle size, roundish, greenish yellow and red, firm, 
crisp, sugary ; January to April ; a good bearer and a healthy tree. 

Downton Nonpareil. Middle size or rather large, round, greenish russet, 
juicy, with sharp, brisk flavour ; December till April; tree hardy, and an 
excellent bearer. 

1183. Early Kitchen Apples. 

Dutch Codlin. Very large, roundish, greenish yellow ; August to Septem- 
ber ; a good bearer, and a vigorous tree. 

Keswick Codlin. Above the middle size, conical, greenish yellow, juicy, 
subacid ; August to September ; a great bearer and a healthy tree. 

Hawtho7'nden. Large, roundish, oblate, pale green, firm, juicy, subacid ; 
October to December ; a great bearer, the tree coming soon into bearing. 

Nonesuch. Middle size, round, green streaked with red, crisp, subacid ; 
September to October ; a good bearer, and the tree of medium size. The 
fruit of this variety is noted for its transparency when made into apple-jelly, 
for which purpose it is the best sort in cultivation. 

1134. Kitchen Apples for Winter and Spring use. 
Blenheim Pippin^ syn. Blenheim orange. Very large, roundish, yellow 
and streaked with red, tender and rich ; November to February; a mo- 
derate bearer, and a strong growing tree. This is also a very good dessert 
apple. 

Tower of Glammis, syn. Late Carse of Gowrie. Large, conical, greenish 
yellow, brownish red next the sun, firm, juicy ; November till February ; 
tree vigorous, a good bearer ; a heavy, excellent kitchen apple. 

Waltham Abbey Seedling. Large, roundish, yellow, firm, requires but little 
sugar in cooking; September till February ; the tree an abundant bearer. 

Dumelows Seedling.^ syn. Wellington. Above the middle size, roundish, 
yellow and red, firm, crisp, juicy ; November to March ; a good bearer, 
and a hardy spreading tree. The fruit in long keeping retains well its 
briskness. 

Bedfordshire Foundling., syn. Cambridge pippin. Large, roundish, greenish 
yellow, firm and rich ; November to March ; a good bearer, and a vigorous 
healthy tree. 



SELECTION OP KITCHEN AND CIDER APPLES. 



533 



Alfriston. Very large, roundish, greenish yellow, firm, juicy, subacid; 
November to April ; a good bearer, and a healthy tree. 

Gloria Mimdi, syn. Monstrous pippin. Very large, roundish, yellow, 
tender, juicy; October to January ; a moderate bearer; the fruit, from its 
size, is apt to be blown from the tree, unless it be grown on dwarfs. An 
American variety. 

Royal Russet, syn. Leathercoat. Large, obtuse, conical, russet, somewhat 
rough and subacid in flavour, but excellent cooked ; November to May ; 
a good bearer, and a spreading tree. 

Brabant Bellefleur. Large, roundish, yellow and red, firm, crisp, juicy ; 
November to April ; a good bearer, a spreading tree, and an excellent fruit. 

Northern Greening. Middle size, oval, green, firm, crisp, juicy, subacid ; 
November to April ; a good bearer, and the fruit not liable to shrivel. 

Norfolk Beaufin, syn. N. Beefin. Middle size, roundish, green and 
dark red, hard consistence ; December to June ; a good bearer, and the fruit 
excellent when dried as a sweetmeat. 

Easter Pippin, syn. French Crab. Middle size, roundish, green and dull 
brown, and will keep above a year, firm, crisp, and subacid ; December ; 
a good bearer, and k hardy tree. 

Gooseberry Pippin. Large, somewhat oblong, yellow, firm, subacid ; 
February till August ; named from its sauce being a substitute for, and re- 
sembling that of green gooseberries. 

1135. Cider Apples. 

Siberian Bitter Sweet. Small, roundish ovate, yellow, more sweet than 
bitter ; September ; a great bearer, and the tree free from insects and canker. 

Foxley. Small, roundish ovate, orange yellow, specific gravity 1080; 
October and November ; a great bearer, and a healthy vigorous tree. 

Red Streak, syn. Old Red Streak, or Scudamore's Crab. Roundish, 
streaked, spec. grav. 1079 ; December to April ; a good bearer, and the 
fruit produces cider of the first quality. 

Fox Whelp. Middle size, ovate, dark red, spec. grav. 1078 ; December 
to January ; a good bearer, and a healthy tree. 

Golden Harvey. A dessert apple, already described, which produces 
excellent cider, spec. grav. 1085. 

Hayloe Crab. Small, ovate, yellowish, spec. grav. 1081 ; October to 
February ; a great bearer, and a healthy, hardy tree. 

Coopers Red Streak. Middle size, roundish, streaked ; November to 
December ; a great bearer, and a vigorous, healthy tree. 

1136. Dessert apples which may be used as kitchen apples. — Sugarloaf 
Pippin, Wormsley Pippin, Autumn Pearmain, King of the Pippins, 
Fearn's Pippin, Ribston Pippin, Old Pomeroy, Herefordshire Pearmain, 
Reinette du Canada, Dutch Mignonne, Downton Nonpareil, Newtown 
Pippin, Boston Russet. 

1137. Kitchen apples which may he used as dessert apples. — Gravenstein, 
Blenheim Pippin, Bedfordshire Foundling, London Pippin, Northern Green- 
ing, Rhode Island Greening. 

1138. Apples for cottage gardens, where the soil and situation are favour- 
able, and which may be used either for the table or the kitchen. — Where the 
space will admit of only one tree, the best is the Ribston Pippin ; where 
two, the Ribston Pippin and the Blenheim Pippin ; where three, or more. 



534 



THE APPLE. 



add successively to those previously named, the Sturmer Pippin, King of 
the Pippins, Herefordshire Pearmain, Wormsley Pippin, Reinette du 
Canada, Bedfordshire Foundling, Downton Nonpareil, Waltham Abbey 
Seedling. 

1139. Apples for training against the walls or on the roofs of cottages, or 
on the walls of cottage gardens. (See p. 471) — Ribston Pippin, Old Non- 
pareil; and if a large kitchen apple be required, the Bedfordshire Foundling. 

1140. Apples for cottage gardens in situations liable to spring frosts. — 
The Court Pendu-plat, as expanding its blossoms later in the season than 
any other apple ; and the Northern Greening. 

1141. Apples for a cottage garden in an unfavourable climate. — The Clay- 
gate Pearmain and Sturmer Pippin are considerably hardier than the Ribston 
Pippin. The Northern Greening is a hardy and late kitchen apple ; and 
the Keswick Codling is a hardy autumn kitchen apple. The Hawthornden 
comes earlier into bearing than any other variety generally cultivated ; and 
it is to be preferred to the KesvAdck Codling, were it not that it is liable to 
canker in some soils. 

1142. Apples adapted for walls of different aspects are enumerated in 
p. 422. 

1143. Apples adapted for espaliers, dwarfs, or conical standards, are enu- 
merated in p. 428. 

] 144. Apples suitable for an orchard are enumerated in p. 431. 

1145. Apples remarkable for the form of the tree, or the beauty of the 
blossoms or fruit. — The red Astrachan has the fruit of a bright red, with a 
fine bloom like that of a plum. The white Astrachan, or transparent crab 
of Moscow, has the fruit of a wax colour, with a fine bloom, and it is almost 
transparent. The black crab has small fruit which is of no use, but it is so 
dark as almost to be black. The Lincolnshire Holland pippin is remark- 
able for the large size of its blossoms, and the fruit keeps till February. 
The tulip apple has fruit of a very bright red, and is a great bearer. The 
violet apple has fruit of a violet colour, covered with a bloom like that of 
the plum. The cherry crab is a spreading tree with drooping branches, 
and numerous fruit about the size and colour of a large cherry. The 
supreme crab is a more erect tree than the cherry crab, with larger fruit. 
Bigg's everlasting crab is a vigorous-growing, round-headed tree, the 
fruit and leaves of which remain on long after Christmas, in sheltered 
situations. 

1146. General principles of selecting varieties of the apple. — The first 
requisite in forming a selection is to determine how far the climate, 
soil, and situation, diff^er from those of the central counties of England, 
which may be taken as those for which most of the selections above given 
are adapted. A number of varieties which may be grown as standards in 
the centre or the south of England, require a wall in various parts of the 
north of England and of Scotland. The winter and spring table apples 
may require a south wall in one district, while in another they may attain 
equal maturity as standards or espaliers. Where there is ample room, a 
selection of large sorts, as the Alexander and Blenheim pippin, or of such 
as are the most beautifully coloured, as the violet, Hollandbury, &c., may 
be made to gratify the eye ; where ro.om is wanting, useful sorts and 
great bearers are to be preferred,— such, indeed, as are enumerated in 



PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE. 



635 



the above selection, which has been made with a view to both quality 
and abundance of produce. In general, small-sized fruit are to be pre- 
ferred for standards, as less likely to break down the branches of the 
trees, or be shaken down by winds ; middling- sized and high flavoured 
sorts for walls ; and the largest of all for espaliers. In respect to 
a soil liable to produce canker, sorts raised from cuttings may be 
desirable, as the Burknott and codling tribe ; and where an occupier 
of a garden has only a short interest therein, such as come into imme- 
diate bearing, as the Burknotts and others from cuttings, and the Haw- 
thornden and other short-lived dwarf sorts on Paradise or creeping stocks, 
may deserve the preference. On the contrary, where a plantation is 
made on freehold property, or with a view to posterity, new varieties on 
crab or free stocks should always be chosen, as, if for cider, the Orange, 
Ingestrie, Harvey, &c. Some excellent sorts will grow and produce crops 
everywhere, as the Hawthornden, codling, and Ribston pippin ; the latter of 
which Nicol says, will grow at John o' Groat's House, and may be planted 
in Cornwall ; others are shy bearers in cold situations, as the Newtown 
pippin of America, most of the newl3^-imported French sorts ; and the Ita- 
lian apple Malo di Carlo, which though exceedingly beautiful and delicious 
in the north of Italy, proves pale and insipid in England in our finest 
summers. Indeed, the apples of the south of Europe generally, when 
transplanted to England, prove worthless. See 887. 

1147. Propagation, — The apple may be propagated by seeds, cuttings of 
the branches or roots, by layers, suckers, inarching, grafting, or budding, 
but the two last modes are most generally adopted for continuing varieties, 
and seeds are seldom resorted to, except when new varieties are the object. 
Only a few sorts, such as the Burknott, some of the codlings, and the creep- 
ing apple, can be increased readily by cuttings ; but this mode is resorted to 
occasionally, when these kinds are wanted as stocks for grafting on. Suckers 
from a grafted tree can only be used as stocks; but from kinds of apple which 
are used chiefly as stocks, such as the paradise apple, suckers are not an 
uncommon mode of propagation. It thus appears that the first step in the 
propagation of the apple by grafting or budding, is the propagation of the 
stock. Crab stocks are raised from seeds of the wild crab, and are used 
when the object is strong and durable trees ; wildings or seedling apple 
stocks, are used for strong trees in good soils, and are raised from seeds of 
apple trees, most commonly of free-growing seedlings, which have grown in 
hedges in cider counties, or from cider apples ; dwarfing stocks, such as the 
paradise, doucin, creeping apple, and some codlings, are commonly raised 
from layers (625) and suckers. Seedlings, after one year's growth in the 
seed-bed, are transplanted in rows, three feet apart and eighteen inches dis- 
tance in the row | and they are commonly grafted the third or fourth spring 
from the seed, when they are from half an inch to one inch in thickness. 
Both dwarfs and standards are commonly grafted within a few inches of the 
ground, and the standards are formed by encouraging the leading shoot, 
which is commonly cut over at the end of the second year at the height of 
five or six feet from the ground, and after it has grow^n another season in the 
nursery, the side-shoots being cut off about midsummer, it is fit for being 
transplanted to where it is finally to remain. If the tree should not be 
sold or transplanted the first year after the head is formed, the shoots are 



THE APPLE. 



shortened, technically " headed in," to one or two buds, and this operation is 
repeated every spring till the plant is sold or transplanted to where it is 
finally to remain. The same heading-in takes place with dwarfs, the reason 
in boih cases being that it is desirable to have no more wood left on the tree 
than the root, after undergoing the mutilation consequent on transplanting, 
can readily support. Occasionally, both standards and dwarfs are trained in 
the nursery, either as standards or as dwarfs or espaliers, in which case, at 
the time they are to be removed, great care is requisite to take them up 
with as large a proportion of their roots as possible. The more frequently 
dwarf trees are transplanted in the nursery before being finally removed, the 
greater will be the number of their fibrous roots ; and as these must neces- 
sarily be within a limited space, the quantity of nourishment they take up will 
be limited also. Hence by their number of fibrous roots, they will suffer 
little from removal, while by the concentration of these roots they will only 
absorb the nourishment obtained within a very limited space, and thus keep 
the tree dwarf, and throw it early into a fruit-bearing state ; or at least pre- 
vent it from gro^^^[ng so vigorously as if it were furnished with a number of 
ramose roots, which by extending their fibres to a distance have a proportion- 
ately greater command of nourishment. Hence maiden plants one year 
grafted on free stocks that have not been transplanted, are to be preferred in 
every case where the object is large and vigorous trees ; and when the object 
is dwarf trees, plants on dwarfing stocks that have been several times 
transplanted should be chosen. 

1148. Soil and Situation. — The apple tree acquires the largest dimensions 
in a deep strong loam, or marly clay, on a rocky bottom, or on a subsoil 
that is not retentive of moisture, and in a situation which is neither very 
high nor very low. "It will grow tolerably well in any common soil, 
neither extremely sandy, gravelly, nor clayey, on a dry subsoil, and with a 
free exposure. On wet, hilly subsoil, it will do no good ; but, after being 
planted a few years, will become cankered, and get covered with moss. 
"\Fhere fruit trees must be planted on such soils, they should first be rendered 
as dry as possible by under-draining ; next, provision made for carrying off 
the rain-water by surface-gutters ; and, lastly, the ground should not be 
trenched above a foot deep, and the trees planted rather in hillocks of earth, 
above the surface, than in pits dug into it. There is no point of more im- 
portance than shallow trenching and shallow planting in cold wet soils, in 
which deep pits and deep pulverisation only serve to aggravate their natural 
evils of moisture and cold." — Sang. 

1149. Mode of bearing, pruning, and training, — The apple bears invariably 
on the old wood, often on that of the preceding year, and the blossoms con- 
tinue being produced from terminal and lateral spurs, or short robust shoots, 
for a great number of years. These spurs requu-e to be thinned out, when 
they become crowded, to be shortened when they become too long, and to 
be cut in when they become so old as to produce smaller fruit than is 
desirable. 

The treatment of spurs is that part of the pruning of the apple when 
trained against walls or espaliers, on which the production of fruit chiefl}- 
depends, and it requires greater skill and care than any other part of 
])r^ining. For this reason, and as the spur pruning of the apple corresponds 
exactl}" with the spur pruning of the pear against walls or espaliers, and in a 



PRUNING AND TRAINING THE APPLE. 



537 



great measure also with that of all other fruit trees that bear on spurs, we 
shall enter into it here at some length, as this will save repetition in treating 
of the pear, cherry, plum, apricot, mulberry, and even the gooseberry and 
currant. We shall commence with an apple tree one year grafted, just 
taken from a nursery and planted at the base of a wall or espaher rail. We 
shall give the winter and summer pruning for ten years, commencing 
every year with the beginning of the winter pruning, which should 
always be performed as early in the winter as possible. We have supposed 
the tree to be trained in the horizontal manner, but the mode of treating 
the spurs is equally applicable to every other kind of training, and to 
standard trees or bushes as well as to those against walls or espaliers. We 
quote this article verbatim from the Gardener s Magazine^ Vol. III. 

1150. Spur ring-in pruning. First year. Winter pruning. — The tree is 
headed down before it begins to push ; in doing which, the foot is placed 
upon the soil, and close to the bole, in order to prevent it from being drawn 
up by the force which is used in the operation. The cut is made in a 
sloping direction towards the wall, and about half an inch above the bud 
which is selected for the leading shoot. The tree is cut down so that seven 
buds remain. 

Summer pruning. If all the buds push (which will generally be the 
case)_, they are all permitted to grow until they have attained three inches 
in length, when two of them are rubbed off ; those nibbed off are the third 
and fourth buds, counting upwards from the origin of the tree, The upper- 
most shoot is trained straight up the wall for a leading stem, and the 
remaining four horizontall}^ along the wall, two on each side the stem of the 
tree. These shoots are trained nine inches apart, for when they are much 
nearer than this they exclude the sun and air from operating upon the buds 
and wood, in such a manner as is required to keep the tree productive. 
When the leading upright shoot has attained about fifteen inches in length, 
the end is pinched off so as to leave it about eleven inches long. This 
causes shoots to be produced from the upper part of the leader thus stopped, 
three of which are trained in, the uppermost straight up the wall, and the 
others one on each side the stem of the leader. This stopping of the leading 
shoot is not performed later than the end of June or earl}^ in July; for, 
when it is done much later, those shoots which push afterwards in that 
season do not arrive at a sufficient degree of maturity to withstand the 
winter, and are frequently destroyed by frost. When it happens that a tree 
has not done well in the early part of the season, and the upright shoot is 
not of a suitable length or vigour at the proper period for stopping it, it 
is not meddled with afterwards until the winter pruning of the tree, "\^^hen 
the tree grows either too weak or too vigorous, lower the branches or raise 
them as may be requu-ed. See 791, rule 2. 

Second year. — Winter pruning. At the middle or end of November the 
tree is pruned. The upright leading shoot is now shortened down to ten 
inches from the place where it was last stopped. The tree will now be 
represented by the accompanying sketch (fig. 860). The side shoots (but 
which will hereafter be termed branches), are not shortened, but left 
their full length. If, during summer, the end of a branch should have been 
accidentally broken or damaged, the general consequence resulting from 
it is the production of several shoots or fruit buds. If shoots (which is very 



538 



THE APPLE. 



generally the case) were produced, and were shortened during summer 
agreeably to directions for similar shoots in the treatment of the tree for the 
second year (see Summer pruning)^ they are now cut down to about half an 
inch in length (fig. 361). If, instead of shoots, natural fruit-buds should 
have been produced (these are short and stiff, from half an inch to an inch in 
length, and reddish at the ends), such are allowed to remain untouched, as 
it is on those that fruit are produced. The advantage of shortening back the 
upright shoot as much as is directed to be done is, that by it branches 
are certain to be produced at those 
places desired, so that no vacancy 
occurs. The leading upright shoot 
thus attended to will reach the top 
of a wall twelve feet high in seven 
years, which is as soon as the tree 
will be able to do, so as to support 
every part sufficiently. The tree 
is always loosened from the wall 
every winter pruning ; the wall is 
swept and washed, recoloured with 
paint or coal-tar, if required ; and 
the tree is anointed with soft soap, 

or some anti-insect composition, and ^ig. SeO. Horizontal TrainiJtg, nrst year. 

fresh mulch laid to its roots. 

Summer pruning. — When the buds upon that part of the leading stem 
which was produced last have pushed, they are all rubbed off to the three 
uppermost. The topmost is trained straight up the wall, for a lead to the 
main stem ; and the two others, one on each side. The instructions given 
for stopping the leading shoot in summer, also shortening it back in winter 
pruning, &c., are attended to until the tree arrives at a few inches from the 
top of the wall. The side branches are allowed to grow without being 
shortened back at any time, until they have extended as far as can be per- 
mitted, when they are pruned in every winter, by cutting back each leading 
shoot to two buds from where it pushed the previous spring. Any shoots 
arising from the fore part of the main stem are taken clean away. The 
buds upon the wood made last year will this summer generally make fruit- 
ful ones. If, on the contrary (as is sometimes the case), shoots are produced 
instead of fruitful buds, they are allowed to grow ten or twelve inclies long, 
until the wood atiains a little hardness towards the bottom of it, when they 
are cut down to about two inches in length ; and at the bottom part of what 
remains, one or two fruit-buds are formed, so as to be productive in most 
cases the next year, but in others not until the second year. Although such 
a shoot was shortened as directed, yet it will generally push a shoot or more 
the same season from the top part of it. After such have grown a suitable 
length (as before described), they are cut back to about two inches from 
where they pushed. If more than one shoot were produced after the first 
shortening, and a bud or two is well swelled at the origin of the shoot (as 
before described), all the shoots are left, and shortened as directed ; but, if 
no such bud is produced, all the shoots are cut clean away, excepting one, 
which is treated in shortening as before directed. The latter practice will 
generally be found necessary, and also be more advantageous, as a greater 




SPUR-PRUNING THE APPLE. 



539 



portion of sun and air is admitted to the buds, which will be considerably 
strengthened and forwarded to a mature state. If after such treatment 
fruit-buds are not produced from the origin of the shoot, nail the shoot to 
the wall, parallel with the branch, which is uniformly successful in producing 
them. 

Third year. — Winter pruning. Such of the buds as produced wood shoots 
the last year, and were shortened during summer as described, are now 
shortened more. It frequently happens that a fruitful bud, or in some 
instances two, will have been formed at the lower part of the shoot, (fig. 361, 
aa) ; such shoots are now cut off about a quarter of an inch above the 
uppermost of the fruitful buds (&) : but (as it is sometimes the case), if 
there have not been fruitful buds produced, there will be growing buds, and 
then the shoots are cut down so as to leave one bud (fig. 861, c). On 
some occasions the growing buds and 
fruitful buds will appear but very in- 
distinctly, and in an embryo state ; 
when this is the case the shoots are cut 
down so as to leave two of those em- 
bryo buds {d d). There are generally 
some natural fruit buds which did not 

push to shoots, all such are left entire ^Sl. Spur Pruning, third year. 

(e). They are of a reddish colour, and are easily distinguished from grow- 
ing buds, which are considerably less and all of a dark colour. 

Summer pruning. This summer the fruitful buds are productive. 
When the fruit has swelled a little, a shoot generally proceeds from the 
stem of the spur (which it may now be called), just underneath the fruit : 
such are allowed to grow eight or ten inches long, and are then shortened 
back to two inches, or so as to leave three eyes upon each (fig. 8G2, A aj. 




Fig. 362. Spur Pruning, fourth year. 



By shortening the shoot, strength is thrown into the fruit, -and, during 
summer, two or more fruit-buds are generally produced at the bottom of the 
shoot thus cut down (fig. 862, 6&), or, otherwise, from the lower part 
of the spur (fig. 362, c). It sometimes occurs that when the tree is 
very vigorous, some of the buds (fig. 362, h h) will push into shoots, or 
occasionally into bloom, during the latter end of summer. If shoots, they 
are allowed to grow, and are then shortened, as described for similar 
shoots ; but, when bloom is produced, it is immediately cut off close under 
the blossom. 

The shoots (fig. 861, c) produced after the third year s winter pruning are 




540 



THE APPLE. 



allowed to grow, and are then shortened, as already directed for similar 
shoots (see Second year s summer pruning). The shoots which were pruned 
as directed last winter, and had embryo buds (fig. 361, d.d) during this 
summer generally have a fruit-bud, and in some cases two, formed at their 
bases. The treatment of all shoots produced upon any of the spurs in future, 
is agreeably to the previous instructions given. 

Always thin the fruity and where two are situated together, take one 
away ; this is done when they begin to swell. 

Fourth Year, — Winter Pruning. The spurs (fig. 862, a b) which w^ere 
productive last summer, and upon which a shoot was made and shortened 
(fig. 362, a, spur a), are now regulated in the following manner ; — If there 
be two good fruit-buds formed upon the stem of the spur (fig. 362, d d, 
spur b), all that part of it above such buds is cut away, about a quarter of 
an inch above the uppermost (as at c) ; but, if there is only one good fruit- 
bud upon the stem, and one upon the shoot which was cut in during sum- 
mer (as at fl, spur a), then it is pruned off (as at spur c, ee), so that two 
buds only remain (as at //). When there is only one fruit- bud upon the 
stem of the spur (as spur d, «), and no fruitful buds at the shoot (&), then 
all the spur is pruned away (as at c). Sometimes those spurs that bear 
fruit will not have a shoot produced, but, instead of it, a fruitful bud (as 
spur E, a) ; it is then pruned off just above such bud (as at b). 

Summer Pruning. All shoots are pruned, as already directed, in the 
second and third years. 

Fifth Year. — Winter Pruning. All the spurs are allowed to retain 
three fmitful buds each ; but as there are generally more than is required 
to keep, some of them are thinned away, retaining the best buds. The 
ripest buds are most plump and red at the ends. If such buds are situated 
near to the origin of the spur (as fig. 363, spur a, a a a), they are retained 

in preference to similar fruitful 
h ^11/^ buds that are nigher the end of 

C i^J=^ the spur (as h h) ; the spur is 

then cut off (as at c c). When 
there are no fruitful buds near 
to the origin of the spur, those 
are left that are further off ; but 
always take care to preserve the 
bud situated nearest to the 
branch M'hich supports the spur, 
whether it be a growing or a 
fruitful one (as spur b, in which 
a is a fruitful bud, and b a grow- 
ing one). 

If there be a suitable supply of buds upon the old part of the spur {as 
c, c c c), they are retained in preference to those buds formed at the bases 
of shoots which have been pruned during summer (as e b) ; for when there 
is a proper supply on the old part of the spur, all such shoots are cut clean 
away, with the exception of one that is situated near to the origin of the 
spur (as e), when that bud and the two next are only left. 

Summer Pruning is performed as before directed. 

Sixth Year. — Winter Pruning. In order to convey a correct method of 




Fig. 363. Spur Pruning fifth year . 



SPUR PRUNIx\G THE APPLE. 



541 



the treatment of the spurs in future, it will be necessary fo point them out 
by numbers, as 1, 2, and 3. The enumeration will proceed from the bole of 
the tree, along the branch. After three spurs are thus numbered, begin 
again, and proceed with No. 1, &c. (agreeably to fig. 864). 

Every spur. No. 1, is now cut down to the lowest bud there is upon 
it, whether it be a fruitful bud (as a), or growing bud (as &). Every 
spur, No. 2, to have three fruit buds (as ccc), and every spur, No. 8, to 



When a spur, No. 1, is destitute of 




Fig. 364. Spur Pruning, sixth year. 



have four fruit buds (as d d d d). 
either a fruitful or a 
growing bud towards 
the lower part of it, 
such a spur is cut down 
so low as only to leave 
about one half inch re- 
maining (as fig. 864, a). 
There is generally an 
eye or embryo of a bud 
situated near to the 
origin of the spur (as a, 
spur a) ; from this a 
shoot or a fruitful bud 
is produced the ensuing 
summer, and thus a supply is obtained for that cut away. 

Summer Pruning. All shoots are shortened during summer, as before 
directed. Particular care is paid to the spurs No. 1, as a shoot or a fruitful 
bud is generally produced nearer to the base of the spur than to the bud 
that was left at winter pruning, and most commonly at the opposite side of 
the spur to it. Either a shoot or a fruitful bud generally pushes from those 
spurs that were cut entirely down (as spur a, fig. 364) ; the shoots are cut 
down, as directed for others. 

Seventh Year. —Winter Pruning. The spurs No. 1 now generally have 
two fruit-buds each ; they are allowed to retain them (as fig. 365, a a). If, 
instead of a fruitful bud, a shoot pushed (as 5), and a fruitful bud was 

formed at the lower 
part of it ; the shoot 
is then cut off just 
above it (as at c) ; 
but if there is not a 
fruitfulbud formed, 
it is cut down, so as to 
leave it half an inch 
long (as at d). The 
spurs No. 2 have 
four fruit-buds left 




Fig. 365. Spur Pruning, seventh year. 



upon each (as e e e e) ; the spurs, No. 3, are now cut down, so that only one 
fruitful bud remains (as /). 

If a fruit-bud has been produced from the spur cut entirely away (as 
spur A, fig. 364), it is left entire (as fig. 865, g) ; but if a shoot, instead of 
a fruitful bud, it is cut off just above the lowest bud, whether a fruitful or 
a growing bud (as at spur b). This treatment to such spurs cut entirely 
down, is always pursued to similar ones in future. 



542 



THE APPLE. 




Fig. 366. Spur Prunittg, eighth year. 




Fig. 3G7. Spur Pru?iing, nhith year. 



Summer Pruning. — This is attended to agreeably to the foregoing 
directions. 

Eighth Year. — Winter Pruning. The 
spurs, No. ], are allowed to retain 
three fruit buds each (as fig. 866, a a a), 
and the spurs, No. 2, are now cut down 
(as h) ; the spurs. No. 3, are regulated as 
was done to spurs Nos. 1 and 2. See 
Si.vth and Seventh Yea r's Summer Pruning. 

Summer Pruning. This is performed 
as before directed. 

Ninth Year. — Winter Pruning. The 
spurs. No. 1, are allowed to have four fruit-buds each (as fig. S67, aaaa) ; 
the spurs, No. 2, to have two fruit- 
ful buds (as h b), and the spurs. No. 
8, to have three (as c c c). 

Summer Pruning. Performed as 
before. 

Tenth year. — Winter Pruning. 
The spurs, No. 1, are now cut down 
again (as fig. 868, a, a fruitful 
bud, and 6, a growing bud). The 
spui's. No. 2, are pruned to three 
fruit-buds (as c c c), and the spurs. 
No. 8, to four fruit-buds (as d d d d). 

It will be observed that the spurs, No. ], have now been cut down twice ; 
the first time in the sixth year, and the second in the tenth. Thus, those 

spurs cut down to a fruitful bud 
(as fig. 364, a) have borne fruit 
four years ; and those spurs cut 
entirely down, or to a growing 
bud (as A, ft, fig. 864), would have 
only borne fruit three years. In 
these two cases, always leave 
the spurs with three fruit-buds 
each this winter, and cut them 
down the following winter, un- 
less they have grown very vigor- 
ous and straggling. 

The system already detailed, of 
cutting down and renewing the spurs, is practised with all others as here 
directed. Thus, the next year, the spurs No. 8 are cut down (as in fig. 
365,/;, and the second year from this time, the spurs No. 2. (as fig. 866, 6), 
and in the fourth year from the present time, the spurs No. 1 cut down (as 
fig. 864, a, and fig. 868, a) require to be cut down again. 

Conclusion — To some the above directions may appear tedious and 
intricate ; but it became necessary to enter into minute details, in order 
to illustrate the principle of this system of spur pruning, the object of 
which is to obtain spurs always at a proper distance from each other, 
so that a suitable portion of sun and air may be admitted to them, and so 
that the spurs may always be icept supplied with young healthy wood and 




Fig. 36S. Spur Pruning, tenth year. 



PRUNING THE APPLE. 



543 



fruitful buds. This renewal of spurs may be practised for a great many 
times, and thus those long injurious straggling spurs which are so generally 
seen on wall trees and espaliers may be avoided. (G. M. iii. p. 2 — 9.) 

1151. Pruning^ ivith reference to the evtire tree^ should have for 
its object to admit the light and air among the branches, to preserve 
the symmetry of the head by causing it to spread equally, and in the same 
form and manner on every side, and to eradicate branches which are diseased 
or decaymg. In the case of espalier and wall trees it may frequently be- 
come necessary to shorten a portion of the roots in order to lessen the vigour 
of the branches, and throw them, into a fruit-bearing state ; and the same 
treatment may occasionally be required for dwarfs, and conical trees (794 
and 798) on dwarfing stocks ; but it can seldom or never be either necessary or 
desirable for standards, which require the aid of long ramose roots to enable 
them to resist high winds ; and their roots as well as their heads having 
abundant space for extension, a due equilibrium is preserved between them. 
(6r. ikT. /or 1842, jt>. 809.) Most trees and shrubs, whether fruit-bearing, 
ornamental, or merely useful, require a certain degree of pruning in sum- 
mer, as well as in autumn or spring. The object of summer-pruning, 
in all standards and bushes, ought to be to stop or to thin out shoots 
of the current year, in order the better to admit the sun and air to mature, 
by means of the leaves, the shoots which remain. The shoots, so stopped 
or removed, may either be cut or stopped to one or two buds with a view 
to forming spurs, or cut close off, according as there may or may not be room 
for the spurs to be developed. In the case of trees on walls, espaliers, or 
trained as dwarfs, or cones, it is not desirable to add much strength to the 
root, and therefore most of the summer shoots should be shortened early in 
the season by pinching out their points with the finger and thumb, when 
they are only a few inches in length, repeating this operation when the 
shoot, thus shortened, has again developed its last or farthest bud, as in the 
case of summer pruning the vine (9G1). At the same time, wherever shoots 
are wanted to complete the form o r dimensions of the tree, or when it is 
desirable to add strength to the stem or the root, there the branches should 
be left at their full length to be laid in, shortened, or cut out, at the au- 
tumnal or winter's pruning, as may be found most desirable. The apple 
against a wall or espalier is almost always trained in the horizontal manner, 
already described in detail (806) : it is better adapted for dwarfs than 
any other fruit-tree, and the mode of training these, as well as of forming 
cones, has been given (792 to 799). Espalier-training has been exemplified 
(896), and also apple -training against walls (806). Apple-trees, when 
grown old and unfruitful, may frequently be headed in (762) with advantage, 
more especially if the surface of the soil is stirred and enriched with fresh 
soil and manure. They may also be regrafted (653). 

1152. Gathering and keeping. — All apples, intended to be kept for some 
weeks or months, should be gathered by hand and carried to the fruit-room 
in baskets ; but as it is difficult to prevent a number of fruit from dropping, 
or in exposed situations from behig blown down by the wind, all that are 
bruised should be kept by themselves, in order to be used first. Table apples 
should be spread out singly on shelves, or packed in sand, fern, or kiln-dried 
straw, or in jars with any of these materials (858) ; but kitchen sorts 
may be laid in layers on shelves, or on a cool floor. The common mode of 
keeping, by those who grow apples in large quantities for the market, is to 

N N 2 



544 



THE APPLE. 



lay them in heaps in cool dry cellars, and cover tliem with abundance of 
straw. In some parts of England they are preserved in ridges, the apples 
being laid on, and covered with, green turf or straw, and the ridge finished 
with a foot or more of soil to keep out the frost, in the same manner as is 
done in keeping potatoes in ridges or hods. By this mode they keep per- 
fectly ; but it is evidently better adapted for a market gardener who sells his 
produce in large quantities, than for a gentleman's gardener who has to furnish 
small portions of fruit daily. For him, shelves or the cellar-floor are to be- 
preferred during the winter, and jars during the spring and summer months. 

The French crab, the northern greening, and various other long keeping 
sorts, may be preserved in dry sand, on a large scale in cellars, or in ridges (or 
hods or pies, as they are called in some places), or on a small scale in jars kept 
in cellars, for two years or upwards. The French crab may also be kept on 
shelves in a garret for two years ; but by this mode it is always more or less 
shrivelled. What is termed the sweating of apples, consists in covering 
them with short grass, aftermath hay, mats, or blankets, or any similar 
covering, so as to excite a degree of fermentation, the heat produced by 
which expands the water in the apple, and causes it to exude through the 
pores of the skin. This takes place sooner or later, according to the tempe- 
rature of the atmosphere, but generally, in a fruit-cellar at 40°, in the course 
of a week or ten days, after which the apples are wiped, and being thus 
deprived of a portion of their moisture, it is thought they will keep better. 
This ma}'- be true where they are kept on shelves, exposed to a change of 
air ; but the natural moisture of the apple is no impediment to its keeping 
in any situation where the air and the temperature are not, or but very 
slightly, changed. — (See 858 and 930.) 

1153. Diseases, Insects, Casualties, 8)C. — No tree is more subject to the 
canker than the apple, and particularly some kinds, such as the Ribston 
pippin, Hawthornden, &c. Practically, the canker may be considered in- 
curable ; but it may always be prevented, or its appearance deferred, by pro- 
curing young trees which are free from it, and taking care not to plant them 
too deep, or to dig deep round them afterwards, so as to force the roots to pene- 
trate into the subsoil. The canker is not only produced by too deep planting, by 
deep digging, in cultivating the ground round the tree, and by a wet or otherwise 
unfavourable subsoil, but by a late climate or a late season, in which the wood 
is not properly ripened. To facilitate the ripening of the wood in a bad cli- 
mate, nothing is better than to prevent the tree from making much wood to 
ripen ; and this may be effected by keeping the soil poor rather than rich, 
by planting on hillocks above the surface, and by never stirring the soil more 
than an inch or two in depth, for a space round the tree equal to, or rather 
more than, that covered by its branches. The woolly aphis, or American 
blight, is the most injurious insect that infests the apple tree, but it is also 
that which is most easily destroyed. This is effected by washing the parts 
with diluted sulphuric acid ; which is formed by mixing f oz. by measure of the 
sulphuric acid of the shops with 7^ ozs. of water. It should be rubbed into 
the parts affected by means of a piece of rag tied to a stick, the operator 
taking care not to let it touch his clothes. The same mixture appKed all 
over the bark of the tree will effectually destroy mosses and lichens. 
After the bark of a tree has been washed with this mixture, the first shower 
will re-dissolve it, and convey it into the most minute crevice, so as effec- 
tually to destroy any insects that may have escaped. ( G. M. vol. IX., p. 336.) 



THE PEAR. 



545 



There are several species of weevil which attack the young shoots of the 
apple tree, or bore into their blossom buds before they expand in spring. 
There are also several species of moth, some butterflies, and the aphis and 
chermes mali, but very little can be done either to prevent the attacks of 
these insects, or to destroy them after they have made their appearance. 
Smoke of any kind, such as from damp straw, if the heads of the trees can 
be enveloped in it, will bring down caterpillars, and by destroying these the 
number produced next season will be lessened. Tobacco water, thrown over 
the tree with an engine, will kill the aphis and chermes, but this remedy is 
too expensive for general use. Lime-water will destroy the caterpillars of 
all insects that live on the leaves of plants ; but neither it nor tobacco- 
water can be readily brought in contact with the larva of beetles and other 
insects that live in the interior of the bud or shoot, — See our Chapter on 
Insects, and the different modes of destroying them, p. 93 to 123; and also 
that on the Diseases and Accidents to which Plants are liable, p. 123 to 126; 
and consult " Kollar s Treatise on the Insects injurious to Gardeners, 
Foresters, and Farmers," 

SuBSECT. II. The Pear. 

1154. — The Pear — Pyrus communis, L. (Poirier, Fr. ; Birnbaum, Ger. ; 
Peer, Dutch ; Pero, ItaL ; and Pera, Span. ; E. B. 1784 ; Arb, Brit. vol. ii. 
p. 880; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 417), is a deciduous tree of a more 
upright and regular form than the apple-tree, and of greater duration. It is 
indigenous in the woods of most parts of Europe, and also in many parts of 
Asia ; but it is not found in North America. The wild pear differs from 
the apple in growing on poorer soil, having a larger and more permanent 
tap root, and in a seedling state not coming so soon into bearing. The pear 
in its cultivated state is found in the gardens of all civilized countries, more 
especially in those of temperate climates. In Britain it forms a leading 
article in the dessert, from July to March, or later. 

1155. Uses.~The fruit of the pear is more esteemed in the dessert than 
that of the apple, but the latter is much more valuable in the kitchen. The 
pear is used for baking, stewing, compotes, and marmalades. Pared, and dried 
in the sun, the fruit will keep several years, either with or without sugar, 
and those sorts which are less esteemed for the table are found to answer 
best for this mode of drying and preserving. Perry is made from the ex- 
pressed juice of the pear, fermented in the manner of cider, and when well 
made of the most suitable kinds of fruit, it is more highly prized than cider. 
The tree has not its white blossoms tinged with red, like those of the apple, but 
it grows to a greater height and assumes a more pyramidal shape : the leaves 
die off in autumn of a richer yellow or red ; and the tree being of greater 
duration than the apple, it is from these properties better adapted for 
ornamental plantations. The wood is light, smooth, and compact, and 
much used in turnery, tool-making, for picture- frames, and for dyeing to 
imitate ebony. The leaves will dye yellow. 

1156. Properties of a good Pear. — Dessert pears are characterised by a 
sugary aromatic juice, with the pulp soft, and sub-liquid or melting, as in the 
beurres or butter-pears. Kitchen pears should be of large size, with the flesh 
firm, neither breaking, that is, firm and crisp, nor melting, and rather austere 
than sweet, as in the Wardens. Perry pears may be either large or small ; 
but the more austere the taste, the better will be the iquor. Excellent 



546 



THE PEAR. 



perry is made from tlie wild pear, which is altogether unfit either for the 
kitchen or the dessert. 

1157. The varieties of pear cultivated by the Romans, Pliny informs us, 
were numerous ; in France they have long been more so than the varieties of 
the apple ; and hence the kinds in former cultivation in this country were 
obtained from France, and generally required the protection of walls. Since 
the peace of 1815, however, many new and hardy varieties of pear have 
been introduced from Belgium, where the cultivation and improvement of this 
fruit has, till lately, been more attended to than anywhere else. Some excel- 
lent and very hardy varieties have also been raised by the late Mr. Knight, so 
that the old French varieties, with the exception of some of superior excel- 
lence, such as the Jargonelle, are rapidly disappearing from our gardens. 
In 1812 more than 700 sorts had been proved, in the Horticultural So- 
ciety's Gardens, to be distinct, as appears by the Society's Fruit Catalogue. 
The following selections from this large number have been made for us by 
Mr. Thompson, 

1158. Dessert Pears arranged in the order of their ripening and keeping. 
Citron des Carmes, syn. Madeleine. Middle size, obovate, yellowish 

green, tender, juicy ; July ; a good bearer, and an upright growing tree. 

Jargonelle, syn. Epargne. Large, pyriform, greenish yellow, tender, 
juicy, rich, and melting ; August ; a good bearer. The tree generally re- 
quires a wall, for Jike the Cohnar, Brown Beurre, and many old French 
varieties, its constitution is not adapted to withstand the vicissitudes to which 
standards are subjected ; but as the fruit ripens in the hottest part of the 
season, it will succeed on any aspect, even facing the north. 

Summer St. Germain. Middle size, obovate, pale green, tender and 
juicy ; August and September; a good bearer as a standard, and a vigorous- 
growing tree. 

Ambrosia, syn. Early Beurre. Middle size, roundish, greenish yellow, 
buttery and rich ; September ; a good bearer, and a strong growing tree. 

Dunmore. Large oblong-obovate, greenish yellow, and smooth brown 
russet, buttery, melting and rich ; September ; a hardy vigorous tree, and 
bears abundantly as a standard. 

Fondante d'Automne. Middle size, obovate, greenish brown, melting 
and rich ; September and October ; a good bearer, and a hardy tree. 

White Doyenne, syn. White Beurre. Above the middle size, obovate, 
pale yellow, buttery, deliquescent ; September and October ; a great bearer, 
and producing fruit of the best flavour when grown as a standard. 

Seckle., syn. New York Red Cheek. Small, obovate, brownish yellow 
and red, tender, juic}'-, high aroma ; October ; a good bearer as a standard. 

Louise Bonne of Jersey. Large, pyriform, greenish brown and red, 
melting ; October and November ; a good bearer as a standard. 

Marie Louise, syn. Braddick's Field Standard. Large, oblong, greenish 
yellow and brown, melting, buttery, delicious ; October and November ; a 
great bearer, and a hardy tree. 

Beurre Bosc, syn. Calebasse Bosc. Large, pyriform, russeted, of a cinna- 
mon colour, l)uttery and high flavoured; October and November; a 
moderate bearer, and best grown as a standard. 

Gansel's Bergamot, syn. Bonne Rouge. Large, obovate, yellow russet 
brown, melting, buttery, high flavoured ; October and November ; a 
moderate bearer, and best adapted for being grown against a wall. 



SELECTIONS OF PEARS. 



547 



Duchesse d'Angouleme. Very large, obtusely obovate, yellow and russet, 
melting and juicy ; October and November ; a good bearer, especially against 
a wall ; but the fruit is better flavoured from a standard. 

Beurre Diel, syn. Dorothee Royale. Very large, obovate, or obtusely 
pyramidal, yellowish brown, buttery and rich ; October and November ; a 
great bearer, and a hardy vigorous tree. 

Hacon's Incomparable, syn. Downham Seedling. Middle size, or rather 
large, roundish, brownish, or greenish yellow, slightly russeted, buttery, 
rich, and high flavoured ; December and January; one of the hardiest and 
best of pears. 

Nelis d'Hiver, syn. Bonne de Malines. Middle size, obovate, yellowish 
msset brown, buttery, melting, very rich ; November to January; a good 
bearer as a standard, and deserving also a wall. 

Althorp Crassane. Middle size, roundish, obovate, greenish brown, 
buttery, first-rate flavour ; October and November ; a good bearer, as a 
standard ; being hardy it does not require a wall. 

Winter Crassane. Large, turbinate, green, yellow, and brown, buttery, 
first-rate quality ; January ; a hardy tree, and a great bearer as a standard. 

Napoleon, syn. Medaille. Large, obtusely pyramidal, pale green, 
melting, and extremely juicy ; November and December ; a good bearer, a 
vigorous tree, either on a wall or as a standard, and free from canker. 

Thompson s. Middle size, obovate, brownish yellow, melting, buttery, 
and rich ; November till January ; bears as a standard. 

Glout Morceau, syn. Beurre d'Hardenpont. Large, obtuse elliptic, pale 
green, buttery, melting, excellent ; November to January ; a great bearer; 
deserves a wall, but does not particularly require it ; a hardy tree, and 
altogether one of the most valuable sorts of pears in cultivation. 

Passe Colmar, syn. Chapman's. Middle size, obovate, greenish yellow 
russet, melting, juicy and sugary ; December and January; a great bearer, 
either as a wall tree or standard, and free from canker. 

Kniylit's Monarch. Middle size, obovate, yellowish brown, melting, and 
very rich ; December and January ; a good bearer, and a hardy tree. 

Ne plus Meuris. Middle size, roundish and somewhat irregular in shape, 
brownish russet, buttery and rich ; November to March ; a great bearer, 
and the tree hardy. 

Easter Beurre, syn. Bergamotte de la Pentecote. Large, roundish oblong, 
yellowish green, russet, and brown, buttery and melting; January to March, 
and in jars among sand till June ; a great bearer, and well deserving a wall. 

Beurre de Ranz, syn. Hardenpont du Printemps. Large, obtusely pyra- 
midal;, brownish green, melting, juicy and rich; March to May, or in jars, 
among sand or kiln- dried straw, till July ; a good bearer, and well deserving 
a wall. This and the two preceding varieties being the best keeping pears, 
ought to be planted in greater quantity than any other variety ill private 
collections, so as to produce an abundant supply through the spring and, 
by cai=eful keeping, till pears come again. 

1159. Kitchen Pears arranged in the order of their ripening and keeping, 
Bezi d'Heri, syn. Franzosische Rumelbirne. Middle size, roundish, 
yellow and reddish blush, tender, and with the flavour of anis ; October to 
January ; a great bearer, and succeeds well as a standard ; excellent for 
stewing, and very free from grittiness. 

Bequene Musque. Middle size, oblong, tapering, pale yellow, stews 



548 



THE PEAR. 



tender; October to January; a great bearer, a hardy tree; and though the 
fruit in a raw state is disagreeable, yet it is excellent when stewed. 

Spanish Bon Chretien. Large, pyramidal, yellowish green and red, tender 
and very good; November and December; a moderate bearer, requiring a wall. 

Double de Guerre, syn. Double Krijgs. Large, oblong, obovate, brownish- 
russet, and red, stews tender ; November to February ; a good bearer, and 
succeeds well as a standard. 

Catillac, syn. Katzenkopf, or Cats* Head. Large, broadly turbinate, 
brownish-yellow, and red, stews a good colour ; December to April ; a good 
bearer, and succeeds well trained en pyramide. 

Uvedale's St. Germain, syn. Uvedale's Warden. Very large, oblong, 
greenish-yellow, and brown, very good ; December to April ; a moderate 
bearer, requires a wall, on which the fruit has been grown to weigh upwards 
of three pounds, but it is not so productive as the preceding. 

1160. Perry Pears, arranged in the order of their merits. 
Oldjield. Below the middle size, turbinate, pale, russet-green, austere ; a 
great bearer, a hardy tree, and the specific gravity of the juice 1067. 

Barland. Small, obovate, greenish-russet, very austere ; a great bearer, 
and the specific gravity of the juice 1070. 

Longland. Middle size, oval, yellowish, austere ; a great bearer, an up- 
right tree, and the specific gravity of the juice 1063. 

Teinton Squash. Middle size, roundish, greenish- russet, very austere ; a 
moderate and rather uncertain bearer, but the perry very highly esteemed. 

1161. A list of pears adapted for walls of different aspects, has been given 
in p. 422. 

1162. A list of pears for espaliers, dwarfs^ or standards, trained conically 
or spurred in, has been given in p. 428. 

1163. A list of pears adapted for an orchard or being grown as standards, 
will be found in p. 432. 

1164. A selection of pears, where the space is very limited, or for cottage 
gardens. — Jargonelle, Dunmore, Marie Louise, Beurre de Capiaumont, 
Beurre Diel, Hacon's Incomparable, Glout-morceau, Easter Beurre, and 
Beurre de Ranz. These are pears of first-rate excellence, and they will all 
succeed as standards in any climate where wheat can be brought to per- 
fection, with the exception of the jargonelle, which, from the causes already 
mentioned (p. 546), requires a wall or espalier, even in the best climates. 
Where there is only room in a cottage garden for one pear tree, Hacon's 
Incomparable, which is one of the best, and almost a constant bearer, may 
have one branch or limb grafted with the Marie Louise, others with the 
Easter Beurre, Glout-morceau, and Beurre de Ranz, which would thus afford 
a succession of fruit of first-rate excellence from October till March. The 
three last-named pears may be advantageously trained against the walls of 
a cottage, or on a trellis raised about 6 inches above its roof (987). The 
jargonelle succeeds admirably against cottage walls, and on any aspect. 

1165. Pear trees of forms adapted for landscape scenery. — Glout-morceau, 
a handsome pyramidal tree with spreading branches, hardy, a good bearer, 
and the fruit most excellent. Swan's egg, a handsome pyramidal tree, and 
an excellent bearer, but the fruit of only second-rate merit. The Elcho, a 
Scotch variety, with a fastigiate head almost like that of a Lombardy poplar, 
but the fruit of little value ; and the Beurre Diel, a handsome and some- 
what fastigiate tree, a great bearer, and the fruit excellent. 



PROPAGATION AND CULTURE OF THE PEAR. 



549 



1166. The propagation^ nursery culture, and choice of plants^ are mnch 
the same for the pear as for the apple ; but the pear is never propagated by 
cuttmgs, which root with difficulty, and as it is oftener required for walls 
than tlie apple, it is more frequently flat trained for one, two, or three years 
in the nursery. — The pear is grafted or budded on stocks raised from seeds 
of the wild pear, or from any strong upright-growing kind, when the object 
is large and durable plants ; and when dwarfs or conical trees are to be pro- 
duced, the stock used is the quince, which is propagated for that purpose by 
layers. The mountain ash, the medlar, the wild service, the white beam, 
the common thorn, and the crab apple, have also been used as stocks for the 
pear ; and hence, wherever there is a thorn hedge, or a wood or plantation 
containing white service trees, white beam trees, or the mountain ash, pear 
trees may be speedily grown in abundance. Grafting on the mountain ash is 
practised at Ems and in other parts of Nassau (G. M, 1842, p. 228.), and is 
said to retard the blossoming of the trees, and thus adapt them for a climate 
where there is danger from spring frosts ; while the flesh and flavour of the 
pear is said not to be affected. Grafting the pear on the thorn is known to 
bring it into very early bearing, and to produce thriving trees on a strong 
clayey soil, where neither stocks of the wild pear nor the quince would 
thrive. The thorn stock, however, is said to render the fruit smaller and 
harder. When the thorn is grafted either with the apple or pear, the scions 
or buds require to be inserted as near the root of the stock as possible, in 
order that the moisture of the soil may aid in the sv/elling of the stock, 
which, notwithstanding this care, generally remains of smaller diameter 
than the apple or pear grafted on it, and thus acts like the operation of 
ringing in increasing the fruitfulness of the tree. The quince, as it grows 
naturally in situations within the reach of water, is evidently the best stock 
for moist soils, and it is also thought the best for clayey and light soft soils ; 
while for chalky and silicious soils, and gravels of every kind, the pear 
stock is recommended. The pear does not unite very readily with the 
apple, and when it does so, is but of short duration. When grafted on a 
pear stock, the plants have fewer fibrous roots, in proportion to the bulk and 
age of the plant, than the apple on a crab stock ; and hence it requires more 
care in taking up for removal, and in the nursery requires to be more fre- 
quently transplanted than the apple. As quince stocks have more fibrous 
roots than pear stocks, the pear on them is transplanted without difficulty. 

1167. Soil^ situation^ and final planting. — The pear grows naturally on a 
much poorer and drier soil than the apple, but to produce large crops of 
excellent fruit it requires like it a deep loamy soil on a dry subsoil. On a 
wet subsoil the pear will do no good, and the remarks made under this head 
(1148), in treating of the apple, are equally applicable to the pear. The 
distances at which the pear ought to be planted against a wall may be some- 
what greater than that for the apple, or from 25 to 80 feet against a wall 12 
feet high (890), The distance against espaliers, and as dwarfs or cones on 
dwarfing stocks, and in orchards, has been already given (902 and 908). 

11G8. The mode of hearing, pruning, and training the pear is much the 
same as for the apple, but in most of the varieties, the spurs are somewhat 
longer in being formed, being generally produced on two years' old wood, 
instead of the former year's wood. The branches of standard pears are a so 
less liable to cross each other than those of the apple, and hence pear tree 
in an orchard require, comparatively with the apple, little pruning. 



550 



THE PEAR. 



In training the pear on walls or espaliers horizontally, the ordinary dis- 
tance between the shoots is from 9 inches to 12 inches, the latter distance 
being adopted for large-leaved pears, such as the jargonelle ; but for shy- 
bearing pears, which always are most prolific on young spurs, it has been 
proposed to have the main branches at double the distance, and to lay in 




Fig. 369. A me/hod of framing shy-bearing Pears. 

laterals from them at regular intervals, as in fig. oG9. These laterals in two 
or three years will be covered with spurs and blossom-buds, and will be 
more certain of producing fruit than the spurs on the main branches. They 
can be renewed at pleasure, by cutting them off, having previously en- 
couraged young shoots to supply their place. (See an elaborate article 
on this subject in Gard. Mag. vol. ii. p. 262.) 

On walls or espaliers the pear is apt to produce a superfluity of young 
shoots, but tliis is chiefly owing to the borders being made too deep and rich, 
and to their being dug deeply and cropped, by which the roots are forced 
down to the subsoil, where they are supplied with more moisture than is 
beneficial for the fruitfulness of the tree, and which consequently expends 
itself in young shoots. The remedies are root pruning or disleafing (772), 
and mulching the border with litter instead of digging it. The summer 
shoots, whicli it is foreseen will not be wanted at the winter's pruning, should 
be stopped (768), as recommended for the apple. 

Old standard pears may be cut in, and wall or espalier trees headed down 
to within a few inclies of the graft ; or the horizontal shoots may be cut ofi^ 
wdthin a few inches of the upright stem, and a graft of a superior kind put 
on each. This has now become a very general mode of renovating old pear 
trees on walls or espaliers, that have been trained horizontally, and it afibrds 
an excellent opportunity of grafting a number of different kinds on one tree. 
On a v/all 12 feet high there will be at least twelve horizontal branches on 
each side of the main stem, which will allow of grafting twenty- four different 
sorts on one tree, with a much better chance of an equilibrium of vigour 
being maintained among the kinds, than in grafting different sorts on a tree 
trained in the fan marmer, or on a standard in the open garden, in which 
one or two robust sorts generally overcome all the rest. 

Thinning the blossoms of pear-trees, and soaking the soil well with water 
at the same time, has been found to facilitate the setting of the fruit, and the 
practice might be worth adopting in a small suburban garden, not only with 
pear-trees but with fruit trees in general. The blossoms may be cut off with 
the averruncator or the flower-gatherer (-118)^ but the most certain mode of 
benefiting by the practice of thinnmg the blossoms of any description of tree, 



THE QUINCE. 



551 



is to remove the blossom-buds the preceding autumn, or as early in spring as 
they can be distinguished from the leaf- buds. This will greatly strengthen the 
blossoms which remam, and go far to ensure the setting of the fruit. 

1169. Gathering and keeping. — Dessert pears of the summer kinds, being 
softer and more tender than apples, require greater care in handling : they 
require to be kept but a short time before being used, and should therefore 
be placed in that division of the fruit-room which is devoted to summer fruits 
(856 and 931). Those which are intended to be kept for winter and spring 
use may be laid on open shelves, and the latest keeping kinds may be 
packed in jars, as recommended for apples (1152). 

1170. The diseases, insects, and casualties, to which the pear is liable, are 
much the same as the apple ; but the pear is less subject to canker, is 
seldom affected with the w^oolly aphis, and the tree being of more vertical 
growth is also less liable to be broken by winds. 

SuBSECT. III.— r^e Quince. 

11 71. The Quince, Pyrus Cydonia, Z,.; Cydonia vulgaris, W,; (Coignassier, 
Fr. ; Quittenbaum, Ger. ; Kivepeer, Butch ; Cotogno, ItaL ; and Mem- 
brillo. Span. — Arb. Brit. vol. iii. p. 880, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, 
p. 450), is a low, much branched, crowded and distorted deciduous tree, a na- 
tive of Austria and other parts of Europe, generally in moist soil or near w^ater, 
and in a situation somewhat shady. It blossoms in May or J une, and ripens 
its fruit in October and November. The tree has been grown for its fruit 
since the time of the Romans. The fruit is not eaten raw but stewed, or 
in pies or tarts, along with apples; it is much esteemed, and it makes excel- 
lent marmalade. When apples have become flat, or have lost their flavour, 
a quince, or even a part of one, in a pie or pudding, will add sharpness, and 
communicate a flavour by many preferred to that of apples alone. The fruit 
is large, and of a golden yellow when ripe, and its appearance on the tree 
bears a nearer resemblance to the orange than any other hardy fruit ; and 
on this account, and also the beauty of its large pale-pink and white blossoms, 
the tree well deserves a place in ornamental landscape. On the borders of a 
pond it attains the highest degree of beauty, which is doubled by its reflection 
in the water. The use of the quince, as a stock for dwarfing the pear, has 
been already mentioned (1166). 

1172. Varieties. — These are the oblong, or pear quince ; the ovate, or 
apple quince ; and the Portugal quince. The Portugal quince has broad 
cordate leaves, and an oblong fruit, which is more juicy and less 
harsh than that of the other varieties, and therefore the most valuable. 
It is rather a shy bearer, but is highly esteemed for marmalade, as the 
pulp has the property of assuming a fine purple tint in the course of 
being prepared. This is also the best sort upon which to work the pear- 
tree, its wood swelling more in conformity with that of the latter, than the 
harder wood of the other sorts. 

1173. Propagation, soil, and other points of culture and management. — 
The quince is generally propagated by layers, but cuttings root without 
difficulty, and the Portugal quince is sometimes grafted on the pear quince, 
or the wild pear, or thorn. In propagating for stocks, no particular care is 
requisite in training the plants ; but for fruit-bearing trees, it is necessary to 
train the stem to a rod, till it has attained four feet or five feet in height, 
and can support itself upright. The best standards, however, are produced 



552 



THE MEDLAR AND THE TRUE SERVICE. 



by grafting at the height of five feet ■ six feet on the pear, the thorn, or 
the mountain ash. The quince is ge ly planted in the orchard, in some 
part where the soil is good and some t moist : it bears on two-years old 
wood, and requires little pruning except thinning out crossing, crowded, or 
decaying branches. Trained against an espalier, it blossoms in May or the 
beginning of June, and the fruit in October or November makes a fine 
appearance. The fruit may be kept in the same manner as the apple, on 
shelves ; or packed in sand, or kiln-dried straw. 

SuBSECT lY.— The Medlar. 

1174. TAe JfeJ/ar, Mespilus germanica, Z,. (Neflier, Fr. ; Mispelbaum, 
Ger.', Mispelboom, Dutch; Nespolo, Ital,; and Nespero, Span. — E. B. 
1523 ; Arh. Brit. vol. ii. p. 877 ; and Z'nc^c. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 414), is 
a low deciduous tree, with crooked tortuous branches, a native of Europe 
and the w^st of Asia, in bushy places and w^oods, and said to be found wild 
m Kent, Sussex, and some other parts of England. It flowers in May and 
June, and the fruit is ripe in November. It is eaten raw, in a state of 
incipient decay, when it has a peculiar flavour and acidulous taste, relished 
by some but disliked by others. 

1175. Varieties. — The Dutch medlar has the largest fruit ; the Notting- 
ham medlar has the fruit of a quicker and more poignant taste ; the stone- 
less medlar has small obovate fruit, without stones or seeds ; and the wild 
medlar has the leaves, flowers, and fniit smaller than in any of the other 
kinds except the stoneless. The first and second sorts are alone worth 
cultivating in small gardens, and as the fruit does not keep long, one 
tree of each kind will generally be found sufficient. 

1176. Propagation, soil, and other points of culture and management. — 
Grafting on its own species is considered the best mode of propagation for 
the medlar as a fruit-tree ; but it will root by layers, and, but with diffi- 
culty, by cuttings. The seeds, if sown as soon as the fruit is ripe, will come 
up the following spring, and make plants fit for grafting dwarfs in two years, 
and standards m three years. It requires a similar soil and situation to 
the quince, and the same treatment as that tree in every other respect, 
excepting that no attempt is made to keep the fruit longer than the period 
of its natural decay. It is laid on wheat straw spread on the shelves, in 
order that it may not be bruised, and is generally fit to eat about the end of 
November, and it lasts till the end of January. 

SuBSECT. V — The True Service. 

1177. The True Service, Sorbus domestica, L. ; Pyrus Sorbus Gcprt. and 
Arb. Brit., (Cornier, Fr. ; Spierlingbaum, Ger. ; Sorbenboem, Dutch ; Sorbo, 
Ital. ; and Serbal, Span. — E. B. 350 ; Arb. Brit. vol. ii., p. 921 ; and Encyc. 
of Trees and Shrubs, p. 442), is a middle-size deciduous tree, with a hand- 
some regular head, a native of France and other parts of central Europe, and 
of Barbary, in the neighbourhood of Algiers; and a solitary tree of this 
species has been found in Wyre Forest, near Bewdley in Worcestershire. 
The leaves are pinnate, and closely resemble those of the mountain ash ; 
but the fruit is much larger, and, when ripe, is of a rusty bro\Mi, tinged 
with yellow and red. It flow^ers in May, and the fruit is ripe in October. 
It is eaten like that of the medlar, but is deemed inferior. There is a pear- 
shaped variety, one apple -shaped, and a third berry-shaped; the latter 



THE CHERRY. 



553 



being the form of the fruit in the wild plant. The tree is rarely planted 
for its fruit in Britain, and is now lected on the Continent. One may be 
introduced in an orchard or a shr ry for the sake of variety. It is pro- 
pagated by layers, or by graftmg die mountain ash, or any allied species. 
It requires a good soil in order to produce abundant and large fruit ; but very 
little pruning is necessary, and we have never seen or heard of its being 
tramed against an espalier ; though wc have no doubt it would be more pro- 
lific if grafted on the common thorn, and so treated. There are fruit-bear- 
ing trees in the arboretum of Messrs. Loddiges at Hackney, and in the Hort. 
Soc. Garden. 

1178. Pyrus tormindlis (Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. 913 ; Encyc. of Trees and 
Shrubs, p. 436), the Griping-fruited Service tree, is not cultivated in gardens, 
but it grows wild in Sussex, and the fruit is sent to Covent Garden market, 
and eaten in a state of incipient decay, like that of the True Service. 

1179. Pprus A^ria^ var. cretica (^Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. 910, and Encyc. oj 
Trees and Shrubs, p. 403), the Cretan white beam tree, has a mealy, agree- 
ably-tasted fruit, which is eaten when ripe, and before it has begun to decay. 
In our opinion this is as well worth cultivating as the True Service. 

SuBSECT. VI. — The Cherry. 

1180. The Cherry (Cerasus sylvestris and C. vulgaris, Arb. Brit. ; (Ceri- 
sier, i^n ; Kirschenbaum, Ger. ; Karseboom, Dutch; Ciriego, /to/. ; and 
Cerezo, Span. — E. J5. 706 ; Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. 693, and Encyc. of Trees and 
Shrubs, pp. 277, 278) is, in its wild state, a middle-sized deciduous tree, a 
native of most parts of Europe, and of part of Asia, and cultivated for its 
fruit from the time of the Romans. It is the first hardy fruit that ripens 
in the open air in Britain, and is grown extensively in Kent and Hertford- 
shire for the London market. It is also one of the earliest of forced fruits, 
being as we have seen (1026) ripened in March, and sometimes even in 
February (1028). 

1181. Use. — The fruit, besides being highly valued for the dessert, is 
useful in pies, tarts, and other preparations in cookery and confectionery. 
Steeping cherries in brandy is said to improve its strength and flavour ; a 
wine may be made from the pulp, and from the pulp and kernel bruised and 
fermented the German spirit Kirschwasser is distilled. The mode of pre- 
paring this spirit, and various other foreign or less common uses of the 
cherry, will be found given at length in the Arboretum Britannicum. The 
fruit of the Kentish cherry may be stoned, and dried, and used like raisins. 
The gum which exudes from the tree is said to have all the properties of 
gum arable. The wood of the tree is hard and tough, and is used by the 
turner, flute-maker, and cabinet-maker : and the wild cherry, as a tree, is 
an excellent nurse for the oak on light soils, while its fruit is a great 
encourager of the thrush, blackbird, and other singing birds. 

1182. Varieties. — The Romans had eight kinds of cherry, and in England 
in the time of Parkinson there were twenty-four sorts. In France and Ger- 
many the sorts were more numerous than in England before the collection 
made by the Horticultural Society of London, From that collection the 
following very select list has been made for us by Mr. Thompson. 

11 83. Dessert cherries arranged in the order of their ripening. 
Early purple Guigne, syn. Early purple Griotte. Large, heart-shaped, 
dark purple, flesh purple, tender, rich ; beginning to the middle of June ; 
leaves with long petioles, the fruit very handsome. 

1 



THE CHERRY. 




May Duke, syn. Royale Hdtive, Fr. ; Doppelte Mai Kirsche, Ger. Large, 
roundish, dark red, flesh tender, juicy, rich; end of June; a good 
bearer, and the tree with erect branches. 

Knight's Early Black. Large, obtuse, heart-shaped, black, flesh purplish, 
rich; end of June; a good bearer, and a very handsome and excellent fruit. 

Downton. Above the middle size, roundish, heart-shaped, pale yellow 
and red, flesh pale amber, juicy, rich ; beginning to the middle of July ; a 
good bearer. 

Elton. Large, heart-shaped, pale yellow and red, 
flesh whitish, very rich and sweet ; beginning 
to the middle of J uly ; a good bearer, and esteemed 
the richest pale cherry. 

Royal Duke, syn. Royale tardive. Large, oblate, 
(see fig. 870) dark red, flesh reddish, tender, juicy, 
rich ; middle to the end of J uly ; a good bearer, and 
the habit of the tree fastigiate, like that of the May 
Duke. 

Bigarreau, syn. Graffion. Large, obtuse, heart- 
shaped, white and red, flesh whitish, firm, sweet ; 
end of July and beginning of August ; an abundant 
bearer, and a very handsome and much cultivated 
fruit, particularly for the London market. 

Florence. Large, obtuse, heart-shaped, pale 
_,. o.,A mT . . amber and red, flesh sweet and rich ; August ; a 

Fiig 370. The term oblate ^ , ' . . . , °. 

exemplified in the Royal good bearer when the tree has attained a certain age, 
Duke Cherry. j^^^ not when it is young. 

1181. Cherries for , preserving. 

Kentish, syn. Montmorency a longue queue. Middle size, oblate, bright 
red, flesh whitish, juicy, acid; middle to the end of July ; a great bearer, 
the tree with drooping shoots. The fruit of this variety is much used 
for pies. It has also the peculiar property of the stalk adhering so firmly to 
the stone that the latter may be drawn out without breaking the skin, ex- 
cepting at the base. In this state the fruit is dried in hair sieves in the sun, 
or placed in a gently heated oven, and the cherries so treated will keep a 
year, and when brought to table have the appearance of raisins. 

Morello, syn. Amarena, Ital. Large, obtuse, heart-shaped, dark red, 
flesh purplish red, juicy, acid ; August and September ; an abundant bearer, 
and chiefly on the one year old wood ; the fruit is excellent for preserving 
and for putting into brandy. 

1185. Cherries adapted for being trained against walls of different aspects. 
See p. 422. 

1186. Cherries adapted for espaliers or dwarfs. See p. 428. 

1187. Cherries adapted for being grown as standards. See p. 483. 

1188. Cheri'ies for a cottage garden. — May Duke, Late Duke, Kentish, 
and Morello. 

1189. Cherries for the north of Scotland. — May Duke, Elton, Downton, 
Tilger's Redheart, Winter's Blackheart, Lundy Gean, Kentish, Morello. 

1190. Propagation, nursery culture, and choice of plants. — Budding is 
more frequently resorted to than grafting, because the wounds made by the 
latter operation are apt to gum. Stocks raised from stones of the wild cherry, 



CULTURE OF THE CHERRY. 



555 



or the cultivated cherry, are used when free growing plants are required ; 
the Morello, when the object is plants of moderate size ; and the perfumed 
cherry (^Cerasus Mahdleb), when very dwarf trees are wanted. Standard 
cherry trees are generally budded standard high, on free stocks of three 
years' growth from the seed, which have been one year transplanted. Cherry 
stones for stocks are sown in sandy soil in autumn, immediately after they 
have been taken from the fruit ; or they are preserved in sand through the 
winter, the heap being two or three times turned over, and sown in spring. 
The plants come up the same season, and may be transplanted in autumn, 
in rows three feet apart, one foot distant in the row if for dwarfs, and 
eighteen inches if for standards. If for dwarfs, they may be budded the 
following summer; but if for standards, a third season's growth will be 
required. The dwarfs require no pruning the first year ; but the second 
spring, if not sold, or transplanted to where they are finally to remain, they 
require to be cut down, and, if intended for a wall, the shoots should be flat 
trained by means of a row of three or four stakes to each tree. Whatever 
pruning is required for the cherry should be done a little before midsummer, 
which, while it is found to prevent gumming, is also favourable for the 
healing over of the wounds the same season. The best plants for removal 
are those which have been one or two years worked ; but as the cherry 
produces abundance of fibrous roots, it may be transplanted after it has been 
three or four years trained, more especially if growing in a loamy soil. 

1191. Soil, situation, and final planting. — The cherry grows naturally in 
dry sandy soils, and in situations rather elevated than low ; but the culti- 
vated tree requires a soil rather more loamy, which, however, must be on a 
dry bottom. Almost all the varieties may be grown as standards, and there 
is no great diff'erence between them in regard to hardiness ; but the earliest 
and largest fruit is produced against walls, by which the fruit is also 
improved in flavour, while the apple and pear grown against walls are apt 
to become mealy. The distances at which cherry-trees may be planted 
against walls, espaliers, as dwarfs, and in the orchard, are given 890, 902, 
and 908. 

1192. Mode of bearing, pruning^ and training. — The fruit is generally 
produced on small spurs or studs, from half an inch to two inches in length, 
which proceed from the sides and ends of the two-3^ear, three-year, and 
occasionally from the older branches ; and as the new spurs continue being 
produced from recently formed wood, bearing branches are never shortened 
back where there is room for their extension. The cherry is not very pro- 
lific in wood, and the shoots do not often cross one another, therefore very 
little pruning is required for standards. Against walls, or espaliers, the 
horizontal mode of training is generally adopted, excepting for the Morello, 
the Kentish, and other slender- wooded kinds, for which some of the modi- 
fications of the fan method (801 to 805) may be chosen. The Morello, as 
it bears on the wood of the last year, may be trained in Mr. Seymour's 
manner, figs. 291 to 295, or in the half-fan manner, figs. 813 and 318. In 
summer-pruning strong growing cherries, most of the laterals should be 
stopped when a few inches in length ; but in the case of the Morello, a 
regular supply of young wood should be left all along the branches, as exhi- 
bited in Mr. Seymour's figures, p. 367, to succeed the shoots which are 
charged with fruit. The Morello produces a few fruit on spurs formed on 
two-year old wood, but scarcely ever on wood of the third year ; therefore 



55Q 



THE CHERRY. 



the only mode of managing this tree, to ensure a crop of fruit, is to have a 
regular succession of laterals, the growth of the last year, all along the 
shoots. In many gardens these laterals are not laid in ; and though the tree 
by this mode does not assume such a neat appearance, yet the crop of fruit 
we believe is greater. Disbudding early in spring is of as much use in 
setting the fruit of the cherry in the open garden as we have seen it to be 
in the forcing-house (1028). As in all young trees the blossoms are for a 
number of years comparatively weak, the number of blossom -buds removed 
from them in thinning should be great in proportion. Old or diseased 
cherry-trees may sometimes be renovated by cutting in or heading down, 
but in general the wounds necessarily made exude so much gum as to pre- 
vent their ever bemg entirely covered with bark, in consequence of which 
the stems and roots rot in the interior. To prevent this evil as much as 
possible the soil should always be renewed at the time of amputating. 

1193. Gathering and keeping. — The fruit can only be gathered by hand, 
and care should be taken not to pull out with the foot-stalks of the fruit 
any of the buds which are to produce the blossoms of the succeeding year ; 
unless, indeed, these buds should be so abundant that the lessening their 
number will be advantageous rather than otherwise. Where no buds can 
be spared, the stalks may be cut with scissors. For the dessert the cherry 
is never kept longer than a day or two. In gathering the fruit from 
standard trees, the orchardist's crook, fig. 835, will be found useful in 
bringing the branches within reach of the gatherer. 

1194. Diseases, insects, casualties, S^c. — The gum is almost the only 
disease to which cherry-trees are liable ; the exudation when it has once 
commenced is not easily checked, but if the tree is healthy m other respects, 
and in a suitable soil and situation, the gum will not do much injury ; in 
an unfavourable soil it commonly brings on canker. Against a wall the 
cherry is liable to the attacks of. the red spider, aphides, and some other 
insects, which may be destroyed or kept under by the usual means. 
Syringing the trees with tobacco-w^ater and soft-soap, before the blossoms 
have expanded, will destroy every insect to which the cherry is liable, and 
they may be washed with clear lime-water from the time the fruit is set till 
it has begun to colour. The greatest enemies to ripe cherries are birds, from 
which they are to be protected by netting, in the case of walls and espaliers, 
and by the use of the gun in the case of standards. Cats (370) may also 
be employed for this purpose, or some of the other modes described in 
pp. 119 and 120. 

1195. A Dutch cherry garden. — In Holland, and other parts of the con- 
tinent, it is a favourite practice with the possessors of gardens to eat the 
fruit direct from the trees or plants, and this was formerly more generally 
the case in Britain than it is at present. In the villas of the w^ealthy, a 
small garden, in some retired part of the grounds near the house, was set 
apart for this purpose, and planted with summer fruits, especially cherries, 
gooseberries, and strawberries ; and in some cases this garden was entirely 
covered with a roof of netting. One of the most complete gardens of this 
kind, in the neighbourhood of London, existed, in 1828, at Hylands, near 
Chelmsford. It was in the form of a parallelogram, twice as long as broad, 
and contained a quarter of an acre. It was surrounded by a wire fence, 
ten feet high, the texture being such as to exclude small birds ; that is, 
each mesh was two inches high by one inch broad. The principal standard 



THE CHERRY. 



557 



trees ave cherries of the best early and late kinds, one or two early apples, 
one or two early pears, and one or two early plums. The trees are planted 
in quincunx, and their branches are trained in a horizontal position so as to 
be within reach of the hand, by being tied down to stakes. All round the 
margin are, first a bed of strawberries, and next a row of plants of goose- 
berry, currant, and raspberry. A gravel walk surrounds the whole, between 
the strawberry-bed and the row of fruit shrubs, and the space among the 
standard trees is simply left unstirred, so that when dry every part of it 
may be Avalked on. The manner in which the roof of netting is fixed 
over this garden is thus : — At regulardistances, all through the area, wooden 
boxes, as sockets for posts, as at fig. 871, &, are fixed in the ground, and 
when the cherries begin to ripen, 
a net of the kind used in pil- 
chard fishing, and made at Brid- 
poi*t, in Dorsetshire, the meshes 
of which are two inches wdde, 
is drawn over the whole paralle- 
logram, fastened to the top of 
the wire fence by hooks which 
are fixed there, and supported 
above the trees by the props 
placed in the sockets. These 
props are fourteen feet high at 
the sides, and gradually rise to 

the middle of the garden, and Fig. 371. Netting for covering a Che-ny Oardeiu 

they have blunt heads, in order not to injure the netting. The netting 
necessary for covering this space, which is eighty feet by two hundred 
and twenty feet, is in two pieces, each one hundred feet by one hundred 
and fifty feet ; it is put on in the following manner ; — One piece is spread 
out immediately within the wire fence, and a number of men with poles 
carry it over the tops of the trees and posts, after it is fastened to one 
side ; then they fasten it on the other, and so on till the whole is com- 
pleted. The separate divisions are then joined together, which thus form 
one entire netted roof, giving the garden a very singular and yet new 
and agreeable appearance. During rain, or dewy evenings, the net is 
tightened or stretched to its utmost extent (fig. 871, a), and forms a grand 




Fig. 372. Section through a Cherry Garden, showing the netting tightened by rain, (o) and 
slackened by drought (6). 

vault over the whole cherry garden (fig. 871 a, and 372 a) ; during sunshine, 
or when the weather is dry, it is slackened (fig. 871, &), and forms a festooned 
^ vault, supported by posts (fig. 872, 6). It is advisable to tan the net 

every year with oak bark, which adds greatly to its durability. 
I Were the object of this cherry garden merely to protect the fruit from 
■1 birds, training the trees on espaliers and applying nets, as is done against 
walls, would be an easier and cheaper mode ; but the cherry garden at 
Hy lands is intended as a place of enjoyment where ladies and gentlemen 

o o 




558 



THE PLUM. 



may wander about and help themselves from the trees and bushes. 
(G. M. iii. p. 397.) 
Forcing the cherry. See p. 480 

ScBSECT. VII The Phim. 

1196. The plum (Prunus insititia, L. ; and P. dom§stica, L. ; Prnnier, 
Fr.; Pflaumeubaum, Ger. ; 'PvMmboom, Dutch. ; Prugno, Ital. ; and 
Ciruelo, Span. : E. B. 1783, Arh. Brit. vol. ii. p. 687, and Encyc. of Trees 
and Shrubs, p. 272 and 273) is a low irregular deciduous tree, a native 
of most parts of Europe, and also of part of Asia and Africa, and it is either 
indigenous or naturalised in North America. Its culture in gardens is as 
universal as that of the cherry, and dates from the time of the Romans. 

1197. Use. — The plum is a delicious dessert fruit, and it is also excel- 
lent in pies, tarts, conserves, sweetmeats, and in a dried state. A wine 
is made from the pulp, and a powerful spirit from the pulp and kernel fer- 
mented. Raki is made in Hungary by fermenting apples ground or crushed 
with bruised plums, and distilling the liquor. The spirit produced is said 
to be very agreeable to the taste, and, though not quite so strong, much 
more wholesome than brandy. In the south of France, an excellent spirit 
is obtained from the bruised pulp and kernels of plums, fermented with 
honey and flour, by distillation m the usual manner. Medicinally, plums 
are cooUng and laxative, especially the dried fruit called brignoles, or 
French plums. The mode of preparing these plums is detailed at length in 
the Arboretum Britannicuni, vol. ii. p. 689. The wood of the plum is used 
in turnery, cabinet-work, and in making musical instruments, and the tree 
LS valued in ornamental landscape from its being one of the earliest which 
come into blossom. 

1198. Varieties. — The Romans had a multiplicity of sorts of plums, and 
the varieties have long been very numerous in France and Italy. The 
following selections are, as usual, by Mr. Thompson. 

1199. Dessert plums arranged in the order of their ripening. 

Royale Hdtive. 3Iiddle size, roundish, purple, flesh parting from the 
stone, amber-coloured, very rich, August ; shoots very downy. 

Drap d'Or^ syn. MirabeUe grosse. Small, round, yellowish, flesh separating 
from the stone, rich and excellent, middle of August ; a good bearer, 
young shoots downy. A very excellent sort, which precedes the green 
gage in ripening, and resembles it in richness of flavour. 

Green gage, syn. Reine Claude. Middle size, round, yellowish green, 
flesh separating from the stone, richest of plums ; middle to the end of 
August ; a good bearer, extensively known and cultivated, and most deser- 
vedly so. Yoimg wood smooth. 

Kirlces. Large, roundish, purple, flesh separating from the stone, very 
rich, beginning to the middle of September ; a good bearer, the young shoots 
smooth. The fruit bears some resemblance to that of the Reine Claude 
violette. 

Washington, syn. Bolmer's Washmgton. Large, roundish, yellow, flesh 
separating, excellent, September ; downy shoots and tree very vigorous ; 
a good bearer, succeeds well as a standard. 

Reine Claude violette, sxtl. Purple gage. Middle size, roundish, purple, 
flesh separatmg, rich and sugar}-; September; a good bearer, the shoots 
smooth. The richest purple plum in cultivation. 



THE PLUM. 



559 



Coes golden drop, syn. Coe's imperial. Large, oval, yellow, flesh adher- 
ing, very rich, September and October ; a good bearer, with smooth shoots. 
A most valuable late dessert fruit, as well as for preserving. 

Ick worth Imperatrice. Middle size, obovate, purple, flesh adhering, rich, 
October ; a good bearer, smooth shoots, the fruit hangs long on the tree, 
and remains longer fresh after being gathered than any other sort. 

1200. Kitchen Plums arranged in the order of their ripening. 

Orleans, syn. Red damask. Middle size, round, purple, flesh separating, 
middle to the end of August ; a good and constant bearer, the tree hardy, 
with downy shoots. 

Shropshire Damson, syn. Prune damson. Small, obovate, purple, 
flesh adhering, smart, juicy, middle of September ; tree a great bearer, 
with downy shoots ; the best of the damsons for preserving. 

White Magnum Bonum, syn. White Mogul. Large oval, yellow, flesh 
adhering, September; a good bearer, with smooth shoots. The fruit 
excellent for sweetmeats. 

*S'^. Catherine. Middle-size, oval, yellow, flesh adhering, rich, middle to 
the end of September; a good bearer, with smooth shoots; excellent for pre- 
serving, and one of the kinds used for that purpose in Provence. 

Quetsche, syn. German prune. Middle-size, oval, purple, flesh sepa- 
rating, September ; a good bearer, and well adapted for drying, being the 
kind of which the German prunes of the shops are prepared, by slow and 
repeated drying in an oven. 

Coes Golden Brop^ and the Green Gage, given as dessert plums, are also 
equally good for cuhnary purposes, and preserving. 

1201. A selection of plums for walls of different aspects, is given in p. 422 ; 
for espaliers and dwarfs, in p. 428 ; and for an orchard, in p. 433. 

1202. Dessert and kitchen plums for a garden of limited eoctent — Royale 
Hative, Drap d'Or, green Gage, Ku^ke's, Washington, Reine Claude violette, 
Coe's golden drop, Ickworth Imperatrice, Coe's fine late red, early Orleans, 
Shropshire damson, and white Magnum Bonum. 

1208. A selection of dessert plums for a very small garden. — Royale 
Hative, green Gage, purple Gage, Coe's golden drop, and Orleans. 

1204. Dessert and kitchen plums for a cottage garden. — Royale Hative, 
green Gage, Coe's golden drop, and Reine Claude violette ; and for the 
kitchen, the Shropshire damson, winesour, and white Magnum Bonum. 

1205. Propagation, nursery culture, and choice of plants. — The plum, 
like other stone-fruit, is mostly propagated by budding, and the stocks, 
when the object is large and permanent trees, are the muscle, St. Julian, 
Magnum Bonum, or any free-growing plum, either raised from seed, or, as 
is more commonly done, from layers, (625) or suckers. The dwai^ng 
stock for the plum is the Myroboian, or Mirabelle, of the French. The 
common baking-plums, such as the damson, bullace, &c., are generally 
propagated by suckers, without being either budded or grafted. The muscle 
and St. Julian plums are extensively propagated in the nurseries, as stocks 
for the peach, nectarine, apricot, and almond. The nursery culture of the 
plum, and the choice of grafted or trained plants, are the same as for the 
cherry. 

1206. Soil, situation, and final planting. — The plum naturally does not 
grow in so light a soil as the cherry, nor in so clayey a soil as the apple ; 
and in a state of culture, a medium soil, on a dry subsoil, is found to be the 

o 0 2 



500 



THE GOOSEBERRY. 



best. Only the finer varieties are planted against walls, and none of them 
require a south aspect excepting in very cold exposed situations in the north, 
or when the object is to have an early crop. The distances adopted in final 
planting, are given in pp. 423, 429, and 431. 

1207. Mode of bearing, pruning, and training. — All the varieties produce 
their blossoms on small spurs, which are protruded along the sides of the 
shoots of one, two, or three years' growth, generally in the course of the 
second and third year. These spurs, if duly thinned, and when necessary 
cut in, will continue bearing for five or six years, or longer, in the case of 
wall-trees and espaliers ; and when the fruit becomes too small, it is easy to 
renew the branches, one at a time, by encouraging young shoots from the 
main stem. Standard trees require very little pruning, beyond that of 
occasionally thinning out the branches, and this should always be done before 
midsummer, to prevent the gum from appearing on the wounds. Plum 
trees against walls or espaliers are generally trained in the horizontal man- 
ner. Old trees may be renovated by heading in or cutting down. 

1208. Gathering, keeping, packing, S^-c. — The fruit is generally gathered by 
hand, and, with the exceptions mentioned, it cannot be kept longer than three 
or four days without losing its flavour, or shrivelling. As the bloom of the 
plum is more easily rubbed off than that of any other fruit, great care is 
requisite in gathering it, and in packing, when the fruit is to be sent to a dis- 
tance. Nettle leaves, on account of their roughness, are the best material in 
which to envelop the fruit, and it ought to be sent in suspended boxes (860) . 
As the plums brought to market are very liable to have the bloom rubbed 
oiF, some fruiterers supply an artificial bloom, by putting the fruit in an 
atmosphere charged with finely calcined magnesia, as is done in giving an 
artificial bloom to the cucumber (1081). At first sight it may appear sur- 
prising that a white powder should be employed to give a bloom to the 
green surface of the cucumber, and the purple or yellow surface of the 
plum ; but the colour of the fniit in these and all other cases, resides under 
the bloom in the skin, and the bloom is merely a number of semi-trans- 
parent colourless particles, secreted by nature for some useful purpose, 
which are very well imitated by any very fine colourless powder. 

1209. Insects, diseases, casualties, S^c. — The red spider is the common 
enemy of the plum against walls, and is to be kept under by frequent and 
abundant waterings with the syringe. The Gages and all very rich plums, 
when nearly ripe, are attacked by wasps, which may be lured away by 
vessels of honied water (357), or excluded by netting (353). The gum and 
canker are not unfrequent in the plum when it has been severely pruned, 
or when it has been planted too deep, or the roots subjected to vicissitudes of 
drought and wet (375 to 378). 

1210. The plum may be forced by the same treatment as the peach, but 
with a temperature a few degrees lower. The sorts generally preferred for 
forcing, are the precoce de Toui's, green gage, purple gage, white perdrigon, 
Orleans, early Orleans, and Morocco ; all of which will force very well in 
pots, either in the peach-house or the cherry-house. 

SuBSECT. VIII. — The Gooseberry . 

1211. The gooseberry, Ribes Grossularia, L., and R. Uva crispa, L. ; 
(Groseille a maquereau, Fr. ; Stachelbeerstrauch, G^er. ; Kruisbes, Z)« . / 
Uva-spino, Ital ; and Grosella, Span., E.B.^ 12Q2 — 2057 ; Arb. Brit. 



THE GOOSEBERRY. 



561 



vol. ii., p. 972 ; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 473,) is a deciduous 
shrub, a native of Piedmont and other Alpine regions, and long cultivated 
in British gardens. The fruit is of little worth in a wild state, and the 
shrub does not appear to have been known to the Romans, nor to have been 
much cultivated in any part of the world except in Britain. With us it is 
esteemed for pies and tarts next in value to the apple ; and as a luxury 
for the tables of the poor, it is even more valuable than that fruit, since it 
can be grown in less space, in more unfavourable circumstances, and brought 
sooner into a state of full bearing. At the tables of the wealthy it contributes 
to the dessert fi-om the end of July to the end of September, and longer by 
matting up or otherwise covering the bushes. 

1212. Use. — Before being ripe it is much used for tarts, pies, sauces, and 
creams, and when mature it is esteemed in the dessert. Unripe gooseberries 
are preserved in bottles, and the ripe fruit in sugar. Bruised and fermented, 
wines and brandies are made from the green fruit, and gooseberry Cham- 
pagne is often substituted for that of the grape. In the G. M. for 1838, p. 180 
tol82, and p. ool, will be found a variety of receipts for preparing gooseberry 
wines and spirits, with figures of the apparatus for crushing the fruit, fer- 
menting and distilling the liquor, &c. 

1213. Varieties. — Parkinson enumerates only eight sorts, but there are 
now some hundreds of kinds in British nurseries, most of them raised from 
seed in Lancashire and Cheshire, where the weight of the berry has been 
raised from ten pennyweights, the usual weight of the old sorts of red and 
green gooseberries, to thirty-two pennyweights and upwards, the weight of 
the largest modern kinds that have gained prizes. The following selections 
are by Mr. Thompson : — 

1214. A selection of gooseberries for a suburban garden. — Red gooseberries : 
red Champagne ; red Warrington ; Keens' seedling ; W arrington ; rough 
red, used for preserving ; red Turkey ; Rob Roy ; ironmonger. 

Yelhw gooseberries : Yellow Champagne ; early Sulphur ; Rumbullion. 
The last much used for bottling. 

Green gooseberries : Early green Hairy ; Pitmaston Greengage ; green 
Walnut; Parkinsons Laurel; Massey's Heart of Oak; Edwards's Jolly 
Tar. 

White gooseberries : White Champagne ; early White ; Woodward's 
Whitesmith ; Taylor's Bright Venus ; Cook's White Eagle ; White Honey. 
A more extensive selection is given in p. 429. 

1215. The largest prize gooseberries in cultivation by the growers in 
Lancashire, in 1840 and 1841, with their respective weights, were as follow: 
Red: Young Wonderful, 82 dwts. 16grs.; London, 32 dwts. ; Companion, 
28dwts. Yellow: Pilot, 27 dwts. 5 grs. ; Leader, 27 dwts. j Teaser, 25 dwts. 
Green: Thumper, 28 dwts. 7grs. ; Peacock, 20 dwts. 10 grs. ; Invincible, 
26 dwts. 4 grs. WhAte : a Seedling, 24 dwts. 12 grs. ; Eagle, 24dwts. 9 grs. ; 
Miss Hammond, 24 dwts. 6 grs. These varieties are all great bearers and 
of good flavour ; the flavour of Peacock is said to resemble that of the Green 
Gage Plum.— ikf. S. G. 

1216. Gooseberries for cottage garden, — Red Champagne and red War- 
rington ; yellow Champagne and early Sulphur ; Pitmaston Green Gage ; 
Massey's Heart of Oak, and early green Hairy ; Woodward's Whitesmith ; 
Taylor's Bright Venus, and Crystal. 



562 



THE GOOSEBERRY. 



1217. Large Lancashire Gooseberries adapted for a cottage gardens- 
Bed : ^ Prince Regent, Wonderful, ^ Top Sawyer, * Huntsman, Companion, 
Lion, Lancaster Lad. Yellow : * Rockwood, * Sovereign, * Smuggler. 
Green : * Niger, * Greenwood, * No Bribery, Peacock. White : * Wel- 
lington's Glory, * Whitesmith, * Queen Charlotte, Eagle, Fleur de lis. — 
(J Townsman in Gard, Chron. 1841, p. 84.) 

The most valuable red gooseberry in cultivation is perhaps the red Cham- 
pagne, generally called the Ironmonger in Scotland, the fruit of which is of 
superior flavour, is well adapted for all the purposes to which gooseberries 
are applied, and by matting it may be preserved on the bush till December. 
The branches of this variety grow more upright than those of any other 
gooseberry, and hence the plants occupy less space, and are in no danger of 
having the fruit soiled by being too near the ground. They are also parti- 
cularly well adapted for training in the upright manner on espaliers. The 
fruit of the Pitmaston green gage will hang on the branches till it shrivels 
and almost candies. The red Warrington is an excellent gooseberry, either 
for the table or wine-making, but it is of pendulous growth, and part of the 
fruit is apt to be rotted in wet seasons. There is a general prejudice against 
the large Lancashire kinds, which, it is alleged, are deficient in flavour; but 
this is not the case with many of them ; for example, those recommended 
(1217) for a cottage garden ; and from our own experience we can assert 
that it is not the case with the sorts marked * in the above selection. 

1218. Propagation, nursery culture, and choice of plants. — The common 
mode of propagation is by cuttings, which should be formed from shoots 
taken from healthy vigorous plants in autumn, as long and straight as they 
can be got. The point of the shoot should be shortened two or three 
inches, to where the wood is firm, and the buds mature ; and the cutting, 
which should, if possible, be twelve or fifteen inches in length, should after- 
wards be treated as directed in p. 2G0. They should be planted in sandy 
loam, in a moist situation, shaded from the direct influence of the sun, but 
not covered or confined by the branches of large trees. Some of the Lan- 
cashire growers tie a little moss round the lower part of the catting, which 
is said to cause it to strike stronger roots. In loamy moist soil they need 
not be planted above three inches deep, but in ordinary garden soil six inches 
will be safer; in either case the cutting must be made quite firm at its lower 
extremity. Cuttings of the growing wood will succeed under a hand-glass, 
but it can seldom be necessary to take so much trouble. Where there is 
only one plant of a rare kind, the most certain and rapid mode of propa- 
gation is by laying down the branches along the surface of the ground, as 
practised by the stock-growers in propagating plum and Paradise stocks 
(625). Suckers are occasionally resorted to, but as they generally contain a 
greater number of adventitious buds at the lower extremities than shoots 
from the branches, they are apt to throw up more suckers than them. 
Gooseberries seldom remain longer in the nursery than two years, being 
transplanted into rows two feet by one foot the autumn of the same season 
in which they are struck. No other pruning is requisite than removing 
suckers or shoots from the stem, so as to leave three, or at most four, 
divergent shoots to form the head. 

1219. — *S'oi7, situation, and final planting. — The best soil is a cool marl}'- 
loam, warm, deep, well manured, and kept moderately moist ; either by the 



THE GOOSEBERRY. 



563 



situation and subsoil, or by the surface being covered by the branches of the 
bushes, so as greatly to lessen evaporation. The situation should be open, 
and by no means shaded witli standard fruit trees, the gooseberries grown 
under which are almost always bitter. In general gooseberries and all fruit 
shrubs should be cultivated m plantations by themselves (904) ; but in small 
gardens they may be placed in rows along the borders, either as dwarfs or 
espaliers : plants one, or at most two years' from the cutting, are most 
suitable, and the distances in both cases have been already given (904 
and 906). 

1220. — Mode of bearing^ pruning^ and training. — The fruit is produced on 
the shoots of the preceding year, and on spurs from shoots of three or more 
years' growth. The largest fruit is always produced on the wood of the 
preceding year, and as the spurs grow old, and increase in size, the fruit 
becomes smaller, though it increases in quantity ; which, indeed, is the 
case with all fruit grown on spurs. The gooseberry requires to be pruned 
in early summer, because in general it produces more shoots than can be 
allowed to remain, without depriving the fruit-bearing branches of a due 
share of light and air. All superfluous shoots, therefore, should be stopped 
with the finger and thumb when they are between one inch and two inches 
in length, and again stopped at the second joint, when they have made a 
second growth. A common fault in gardens is to allow the shoots of goose- 
berries and currants to grow nearly their full length before they are thinned 
out, in consequence of which the fruit is deprived of its due share of 
nourishment, light, and air, and more strength is communicated to the 
root than is required for the due adjustment of the root and top. Hence, 
in almost all gardens, we find the gooseberry and currant bushes far too 
luxuriant. All the training the gooseberry, treated as a bush, requires, is 
to stop or prune it in such a manner as to keep the bush rather open in the 
centre, and the branches all radiating outwards from the stem, or from the 
main branches ; crossing one another as little as possible, and when they do 
cross, never touching. On espaliers they should be trained in the perpen- 
dicular manner (808 and 906), or at an angle of 45°, or half that angle; and if 
only two upright shoots are trained from every plant, the trellis or espalier 
rail w^ill be the sooner covered. Where plants are in abundance, which they 
may in many cases be by raising them from cuttings at home, only one upright 
shoot may be trained from each cutting, and these being planted at one 
foot apart, the trellis or rail, if not more than five feet high, will be com- 
pletely covered in three years. If the champagne or ironmonger is planted, 
and the plants, when cuttings, allowed to make only one vertical shoot 
from the terminal bud, then after they have made two years' growth 
against the espalier rail, they will have reached its summit, and may 

V be spurred in afterwards from within a foot of the ground to the top of 
the rail. If a double espalier rail, such as we figured in the Suburban Land- 
scape Gardener, fig. 69, p. 232, is used, a very handsome gooseberry hedge 
will thus be formed, which will bear abundance of fruit of the best flavour, 
because freely exposed to the light and air, for twelve or fifteen years. 

1221. The growers of gooseberries for prizes necessarily take much more 
pains in pruning and training than the gardeners of private gentlemen. The 
plants are raised from cuttings in the usual manner, and in the autumn of 
the first year they are transplanted to the soil and situation where they are 
to produce their fruit. This is, if possible, a deep warm, rich, marly loam, 



564 



THE GOOSEBERRY. 



Fig. 373. Hooked 
stick for training prize 
gooseberry bushes; length 
two feet. 

These are applied 



Fig. 374. Forkea 
stick for training prize 
goo!>eberry bushes; length 
two feet. 



moderatel}^ moist, at the bottom of such a slope as shall at once prodiic 
shelter from the highest winds of 
the locality, and ensure a certain 
degree of coolness, and supply of 
moisture, from what may be termed 
the insensible escape of the rain 
which has sunk into the soil in 
the upper part of the declivity. 
Being planted, the next step is 
to prepare for pruning and train- 
ing, by procuring a few hooked 
sticks, (fig. 373) and forked sticks 
(fig. 374); the fomier to hold 
down the branches that are in- 
clined to grow upwards, and 
the latter to support those which 
are inclined to grow downwards, 
to the plant in the manner shown in fig. 375, in 
which, also, the roots appear regularly 
spread out in every direction. In the 
autumn of the second year these three 
shoots will have produced a number of 
side-shoots, most of which may be 
shortened to one eye, and the others 
reduced to one-half of their length. 
No shoots should be left either at the 
origin or the extremities of the branches, 
but only at the sides ; the fewer the 
number of shoots, and the younger the 
tree, the larger will be the fruit. Thus 
the plant, when pruned in the Novem- 
ber of the second year, will consist of 
three principal shoots, each bearing two young shoots, shortened to about 
seven inches of their length. These last, in the pruning of the third year, 
are to be left with two shoots only of new wood ; these shoots being placed 
in such a manner as to preserve the symmetry of the plant, without crowd- 
ing it in any part. The same system of pruning and thinning is continued 
in future years — cutting out the old wood occasionally, so as to preserve a 
moderate and constant suppl}^ of strong, healthy young shoots, from which 
alone large and fine fruit can be expected. Whenever the extremities of 
the branches grow more than from twenty inches to two feet from the main 
stem, they must be cut back ; for large fruit will never be produced at the 
extremities of long branches. The roots of the plants must also be attended 
to, by cutting a trench round the plant at the distance to which the branches 
are limited, so as to shorten all the main roots to that length, smoothing 
their extremities with the knife, and filling up the trench with fresh marly 
loam, enriched with cow-dung. Some growers even carry the system of 
root-pruning so far as to lay bare the whole of the roots, and thin out and 
shorten the larger ones in the same manner as is done with the branches, 
re-covering the roots with fresh soil. The fruit after being set is 
thinned out, as well as the branches, and not more than one or two berries 




Fig. 375. A trained prize Gooseberry-bush, 
(wo years' growth from the cutting. 



THE GOOSEBERRY. 



are allowed to a branch when the object is prize fruit ; we have, indeed, seen 
not more than two berries to an entire bush, the shoot being pegged down 
to within a few inches of the ground, and a saucer of water placed under 
each berry, in order, by its evaporation, to keep its surface moist and 
promote its swelling. The berries intended for prizes are protected from 
heavy rains by a cap of oiled paper, or by a bell-glass, or any other suit- 
able contrivance ; because should a slight shower fall on them at the time 
they are ripening, the}' are very apt to burst. These caps, however, 
must not be put on except when rain is expected, in order not to deprive 
the leaves of sun and air. Prize gooseberry bushes are thought to be at their 
best when five or six years old from seed, and four or five years from cuttings. 

1222. Gathering and keeping. — Unripe goosebenies for tarts are in a fit 
state for that purpose by the end of April, and they may be thinned out 
from those that are to remain for ripening till the middle of July. If two- 
thirds of the produce of every plant is thinned out in a green state, it will 
add considerably to the size of those which remain. Ripe gooseberries 
should be gathered the day in which they are sent to table, but both these 
and unripe fruit may, when necessary, be kept a week or more, by being 
placed in the icehouse-room, or in the fruit-cellar. Gooseberries may be 
preserved on the trees, either by matting-up each bush separately ; by cover- 
ing with canvas, or matting both sides of an espalier or gooseberry-hedge ; or 
by inclosing a square of bushes by pales or canvas frames six feet high ; con- 
structing the framework of a roof over this space, and covering it with can- 
vas. This will exclude bu'ds and insects, and also, in a great measure, light, 
by which the decay of the fruit will be retarded for several weeks ; more 
especially if the covering has been put on a few days before the fruit is 
thoroughly ripe. 

1223. Insects^ diseases, and casualties. — No pest is more common in gar- 
dens than the gooseberry caterpillar, by which is meant the larva of several 
kinds of moths, saw-flies, and some butterflies. They are all hatched on 
the leaves, and the great art of preventing them from injuring the plants is 
to watch for the appearance of the eggs, and as soon as any are seen commence 
syringing the plants powerfully with lime-water, using an inverted rose on 
the syringe, so as to throw the water against the under-sides of the leaves, 
as it is there that the eggs are deposited. Wq feel confident that lime- 
water, when properly prepared (202) and applied, will destroy, at all events 
in its young state, the larva of every insect that lives on the leaves of plants ; 
but to those who find it insufficient, we would recommend, first, to moisten 
the leaves by the syringe or watering-pot, and then to dust them, either with 
powdered quick-lime, coarse tobacco powder, or the powder of white helle- 
bore (Veratrum album) ; or if either of the two last plants be used, the 
powder may be mixed with soapsuds, and the plants watered or syringed 
with it ; but in this case the skin of the fruit will not escape, being covered 
with the liquor. Lime-water, therefore, is in our opinion the only unex- 
ceptionable application. Unfortunately in many gardens the caterpillars are 
not observed until they have attained a considerable size, and done great 
part of the mischief, when they are also more difficult to destroy. Hand 
picking is recommended in such cases, but the mischief being already done, 
this only prevents the insect from attaining maturity, which, no doubt, 
is an advantage, by lessening the number of females for producing future 
broods. See the section on insects, p. 99. 



566 



THE RED AND WHITE CURRANT. 



1224. Forcing. — The gooseberry may be forced in pots, and this is fre- 
quently done in the north of Germany and Russia, especially where there 
are Scotch gardeners. The temperature is never allowed to be high, and 
abundance of air is given during sunshine. Mr. Hay, at Bristol, plants 
gooseberries and currants in pots in November, removes them to the peach- 
house in January, and sends the plants to table, with ripe fruit on them, by 
the end of April. Ribes divaricatum and R. niveum {E. of Tr. and Sh.., pp. 470 
and 471), produce rich perfumed fruit well adapted for tarts, and for im- 
proving, by cross fecundation, the common gooseberry. 

SuBSECT. IX. — The Red and White Currant. 

1225. The Red and White Currant — Ribes rubrum. L. and R. r. 
var. album, (Groseiller commun, Fr. ; Gemeine Johannisbeere, Ger. ; 
Aalbesseboom, Dutch ; Ribes rosso, Ital. ; Grosella, Spayi. ; — E. B. 1289, 
Arh. Brit., vol. iii., p. 977 ; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs., p. 477) — are 
deciduous shrubs, the red variety indigenous in England and other parts of 
Europe, and the white variety produced from it by culture. The fruit in 
a wild state is small and very acid, but in gardens it has been increased in 
size and greatly improved in flavour. It contributes to the dessert from the 
beginning of July to September, and by matting up (1222) the fruit will 
hang on the trees till November or December. 

1226. Use. — The appearance of large red cui'rants at table is brilliant, 
and contrasts well with dishes of white currants, and with green fruit, such 
as apples, pears, and plums. The taste cannot be called rich, but it is 
agreeably subacid and cooling. The red currant is much used for jellies, 
jams, wines, to acidulate punch, and for tarts ; and continues longer in season, 
both for the table and the kitchen, than any other summer fruit. 

1227. Varieties. — The best are the White Dutch, red Dutch, Knight's 
Sweet red, which is less acid than the red Dutch, and Knight's large red. 
No selection can be better for a cottage garden, or for a garden in the coldest 
part of the country ; but for display the Champagne currant may be added, 
which is large and of a very pale red. 

1228. The propagation and future treatment of the red and white cur- 
rant scarcely differs from that of the gooseberry. When the fruit is 
required to be large, only a limited number of bunches ought to be allowed 
to remain on the branches, and the greater part of the summer shoots ought 
to be stopt and stopt again in order to throw strength into the fruit ; admit 
the sun and air to give it colour and flavour, and also to ripen the wood. 
Even in general cultivation, stopping the shoots in the end of June ought 
to be performed, as, by so doing, the buds at the base are enlarged. The 
currant is very frequently trained against a north wall, because there it 
ripens later, and is thought to hang longer on the tree ; but its flavour in 
such a situation is inferior to what it is when grown in the open garden, 
either as a bush, or on an espalier. The fruit should be gathered in a dry 
state, and it should not be heaped up on a dish till it is al)Out to be sent to 
table. Late in the season it is sometimes disfigured by cobwebs, dust, and 
particles of decayed leaves, in which case it should be washed and dried on a 
sieve, or by hanging up in the fruit-room before it is presented at the dessert. 
The currant, like the gooseberry, is attacked by the larvas of moths, by a 
species of aphis, by a coccus, and when the fruit is ripe it is sometimes 
devoured by earwigs. The latter may be lured into bundles of bean-stalks 



THE RASPBERRY. 



567 



or reeds, and shaken out of them into hot water or lime-water ; and the 
former may be destroyed by the usual means. See 1223 and 855. The 
red and white currant may be forced in the same manner as the gooseberry, 
and the fruit will ripen in the same period. 

SuBSECT. X. — The Black Currant. 

1229. The Black Currant, Ribes nigrum, (Cassis and Poivrier, jpr. ; 
schwartze Johannisbeere, Ger. ; Ribes nero, Ital. ; — E. B. 1821. Arh. 
Brit., vol. ii., p. 983, and Ency. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 480), is a deciduous 
shrub, common in woods throughout great part of Russia and Siberia, and 
occasionally found apparently wild in Britain. It is sometimes brought to 
the dessert, but its use is more frequently to make jams, jellies, wines, and 
to flavour punch, or as a gargle for sore throats. In Scotland the berries 
are eaten in puddings and tarts ; and in Russia, and also in Ireland, they are 
put into spirits, as cherries are in England. The Russians also ferment the 
juice with honey, and thus form a strong and agreeable liquor. The dry 
leaves form such an excellent substitute for green tea, that few persons can 
detect the difference. By far the best variety is the black Naples, which is 
easily known from the other varieties by coming earlier into leaf ; and next 
the black grape. Cuttings strike readily, and other points of treatment are 
the same as for the red currant, excepting that the fruit of the black currant 
is produced chiefly on the shoots of the preceding year, though partly also 
from spurs or blossom-buds at the base of these shoots. The plant is less 
subject to insects than either the red currant or the gooseberry. It forces 
well, and in Russia this is practised for the sake of the young foliage. Ribes 
aiireum has fruit resembling the black currant, and, with other species of the 
genus, might doubtless be made to contribute to the varieties, or improvement, 
of our gooseberries and currants. 

SuBSECT. XI. — The Raspberry. 

1230. The Raspberry, Riibus Idceus, Z. (Framboisier, i^r. y Himbeere- 
strauch, Ger.; Framboos, Dutch; Rova ideo, Ital.; and Frambueso, 
Span. ; E. B. 244, Arh. Brit., vol. ii. p. 737, and Encyc. of Topees and 
Shrubs, p. 313), is a suffruticose deciduous plant, with biennial stems, a 
native of Britain and other parts of Europe in moist woods, and cultivated in 
gardens from an unknown period, though it is doubtful whether it was 
known to the Romans. Even in a wild state the fruit is grateful to most 
palates, and it has been enlarged in size and greatly improved in flavour by 
cultivation. The shoots which are produced from the stock during one 
summer produce fruit the next, and afterwards die. Technically the shoots 
are called canes, from the straight smooth cane-like appearance of the shoots 
of some of the varieties, more especially the Barnet. The fruit ranks in the 
dessert with the gooseberry and strawberry, but its principal uses are for 
jams, tarts, sauces, sweetmeats, and ices ; and it is employed on a large 
scale in preparing cordial spirituous liquors, and cooling syrups. Raspber- 
ries are reckoned next in efficiency to the strawberry in dissolving the tartar 
of the teethj and as like that fruit, and the fruit of the bramble, it does not 
undergo the acetous fermentation in the stomach, it is recommended to gouty 
and rheumatic patients. 

1231. Varieties. — Above a dozen are in cultivation, but those the best 
worth cultivating are the following : the Red Antwerp, Yellow Antwerp, 
Barnet, which is the tallest growing kmd, Cornish, and Red Globe. For a 



568 



THE RASPBERRY. 



small garden the red and yellow Antwerp and the twice-bearing red are 
recommended ; and for a cold and late situation the early prolific, Barnet, 
red Antwerp and yellow Antwerp. 

1232. Propagation,, soil^ and other points of culture. — The only mode of 
propagation is by suckers, except by seeds, which is only resorted to when 
new varieties are wanted. Seedlings carefully treated will produce fruit the 
second year. The suckers are separated in autumn, either by taking up the 
whole plant and dividing it, or by slipping them off from the sides and roots 
of the main stock. They may be planted at once where they are finally to 
remain in a compartment by themselves, in rows from north to south, four 
feet apart every way. They will grow in any good garden soil, and if on the 
lower part of a slope towards the north, east^ or west, the soil will be kept 
moderately moist by its position, and the situation will not be so much 
exposed to light and heat as if it sloped to the south. The raspberry groM's 
naturally in soft, peaty, or vegetable soil, shaded by woods, and always 
moist ; but it is most prolific in fruit, and the fruit is better flavoured, in the 
more substantial and drier soil, and opener situation, of the garden. In 
making a plantation three or more suckers are allowed to each stool, and 
planted in a triangle at six inches apart. The plants will produce fruit the 
first year, but if this fruit, or even a third part of it, can be dispensed wdth, 
the suckers for the succeeding year will be greatly strengthened by cutting 
the stems of the newly-planted plants down to within six inches of the 
ground. The plantation being established, the future treatment consists in 
going over the stools every year early in May, and selecting six or seven of 
the strongest suckers from each stool for next year's bearing wood, and 
destroying all the rest, unless they are wanted for a new plantation. In 
autumn, as soon as the fruit is gathered, the stems which have borne it 
should be cut down to the ground to give light and air to the suckers ; but 
as these are sometimes liable to be injured by frost, they should not be 
pruned till the following March. They may then be shortened to two- 
thirds or three-fourths of their length, by cutting ofi" the weak w^ood at the 
extremities of the shoots. If large fruit is wanted, but few stems (canes) 
should be left to each stool, and these should be tied singly to stakes placed 
round the stool in a circle, at about a foot distance from it, so that the canes 
when tied to the stakes shall be bent outwards ; which position at once 
facilitates the development of the buds all along the canes, exposes the fruit 
more freely to the sun and air, and allows room for the suckers to rise 
upright from the stool without shading the fruit-bearing canes. Some- 
times, instead of a circle of stakes round each plant, a line of rails or of 
iron-wire, or long rods with the bark on, is placed between every alternate 
two rows of raspberries, supported at about three feet from the ground by 
stakes ; and to these rails, wires, or rods, the canes from the adjoining plants 
are bent over and fastened by ties of matting or willow-twigs. In this way 
every alternate space between the rows is covered by the bearing canes 
which are bent over it, and the other spaces are left open for gathering the 
fruit. Where a large crop of fruit is wanted, without regard to the size of 
the berries, half the number of the canes on each plant may be bent over, so 
as to meet the half of those of the adjoining plant, and a foot or more of the 
points of the canes of each plant may be interwoven and made fast by 
matting. A row of raspberries thus treated will present a series of arches 
of fruit-bearing branches, alternately with columns of suckers ; the bending 



THE RASPBERRY. 



5()9 



of the bearing canes will cause every bud to break, the fruit-bearing laterals 
will be exposed to the sun and air without being crowded by the suckers, and 
the latter have more room for their foliage, and hence grow stronger, and 
ripen their wood better. This being the easiest and most economical mode 
of training the canes, is that most generally adopted in gardens. AVhere 
very large fruit is required, the whole or the greater part of the suckers may 
be destroyed as fast as they appear, and the blossoms may be thinned ; but 
this practice, by destroying the plant, requires a double plantation, — one for 
producing suckers, and another for producing fruit ; and hence it should 
only be adopted in gardens where there is abundance of room. To obtain 
a successional crop late in the season, the canes of the red and yellow Ant- 
werp, and of the twice-bearing varieties, may be cut down to the ground in 
spring, and the suckers, which will be produced with more than usual vi- 
gour, may be stopped in the beginning of June, which will cause the buds to 
break and produce fruit late in the season ; generally, till it is destroyed by 
frost. The suckers of the twice-bearing raspberry naturally produce a 
second crop, —that is, they produce fruit the first year as well as the second. 
The ground between the rows should be manured and dug every year, but 
no attempt should be made to grow a crop between the rows after the first 
year. A new plantation may be made every six or seven years, or oftener, 
if the plants should show any symptoms of degeneracy ; or if their tra- 
velling roots should grow out of bounds, which they are very apt to do from 
the outside suckers always being the strongest, and consequently selected for 
bearing in preference to the inside suckers. The doctrine of the excretions 
of the roots of plants (917), has also been alleged as a reason for renew- 
ing a plantation of raspberries more frequently than is done in the case of 
most other plants, (see G. M. vol. x. p. 14), but general experience does 
not appear to us to justify any treatment in respect to the raspberry not 
equally applicable to other plants with travelling roots, which remain 
several years on the same spot. 

1233. Gathering. — The fruit begins to ripen in the end of June, and con- 
tinues being produced till October. It should be gathered immediately after 
it becomes ripe, which is known by every part of it being equally high- 
coloured, and by the pulpy part separating readily from the conical recep- 
tacle. If allowed to remain ripe on the plant for two days, the eggs of a 
beetle, By turns tomentosus, which had been deposited in it when in flower, 
become maggots, and render it unfit to be used. If gathered and kept two 
or three days, the same effect takes place ; or the fruit becomes mouldy and 
unfit for use. 

1234. Forcing. — The raspberry forces equally well with the gooseberry and 
currant, either in pots or planted in the free soil of a cherry -house ; or it may 
be planted in pits, and trained under the glass, which is the practice in 
Holland. 

1235. The Cloudberry, Rubus Chamaemorus, L., the fruit of which is 
superior in flavour to that of the raspberry, grows on mountains in the High- 
lands of Scotland and Sweden, in moist, peaty places, but it is cultivated 
with great difficulty in gardens. The crimson bramble, R. arcticus, has 
also a high-flavoured fruit, and it may be grown even in the neighbourhood 
of London, in beds of moist peat. The dewberry, R. casius, the stone 
bramble, R. saxatilis, the upright bramble, R. suberectus, and the common 
bramble, R. fruticosus, may all be cultivated in gardens, by the amateur 



570 



THE STKAWBERRY. 



of leisure, who by cross fecuudation, with skill, care, and perseyerance, might 
raise some new varieties worthy of a permanent place among cultivated 
fruits. 

1236. The Nootka Raspberry. R. Nutkanus, Arh. Brit.^ vol. ii., p. 745, 
and Encyc. of Tree^ and Shrubs, p. 818, produces large red fruit, which is 
found to make excellent tarts. If the same care were bestowed on this spe- 
cies which has been given to the raspbeny, we have no doubt it would be- 
come one of our standard fruit shrubs. R. odoratus, a closely allied species, or 
perhaps, only a variety, with fragrant foliage, is said to produce yellow 
fruit of a large size, and a very fine flavour, {ibid.) 

SuBSECi. XII. — The Strawberry. 
1257. The Strawberry. Fragaria, L. (Fraisier, Fr. ; Erdbeerpflanze, 
Ger. ; Aadbezie, Dutch; Pianta di fragola, Ital. ; and Fresa, Span.:) is 
an herbaceous stoloniferous plant, of which there are several species, natives 
of Europe, the temperate parts of Asia, and North America. The fruit has 
received its name from the practice, more common in former times than at 
present, of laying straw or litter between the rows. The fr-uit of the Euro- 
pean strawberry in a wild state, gathered from the woods, has long been 
esteemed by the rich as well as the poor, but little or no improvement took 
place in its culture till the introduction of the Virginian Strawberry or 
Scarlet, the Pine or Surinam Strawberry, and the Cliili Strawbeny, which 
are considered by botanists as distinct species. All these sorts will breed 
together indiscriminately, and thus have been produced some hundreds of 
sorts, many of very great excellence, and chiefly by British gardeners ; for 
till within these few years, no other strawberry- was cultivated on the Conti- 
nent than the small sort common in the woods, "\TTiat renders the straw- 
berry of particular value in our eyes is, that like the gooseberry, it can be 
gro^vn in as great perfection in the ground plot of the cottager, as in the 
finest walled garden of the extensive landed proprietor. 

1238. Use. — The fr-uit is much valued in the dessert, of which, without 
the aid of glass, it may foi-m a part from the beginning of June to November, 
and by the aid of the forcing-pit from ]\Iarch till ]\Iay. It is of very 
general use in confectionery, and is recommended medicinally in cases where 
acid fiTiits are injurious. It dissolves the tartareous incrustations of the 
teeth, promotes perspiration, and has many other good qualities. In short, 
it is one of the most inoff^ensive fruits, even when eaten to excess. 

1239. Varieties. — These have been classed by ]\Ir. Thompson as under : 

1. Scarlet strawberries. — Fruit mostly small, colour bright, and flavour 
acid, with slight perfume. 1. The old scarlet, syn. scarlet, ^'irginian, S:c. ; 
middle size, globular, of a uniform light scarlet ; flesh firm, pale scarlet, 
and liigh flavoured. A great bearer, and from its colour and flavour the best 
of all strawberries for the confectioner. 2. The Grove End scarlet, syn. 
Atkinson's scarlet. Ripens after the preceding, and is a more abundant 
bearer. 3. Roseberry, sjn. Rose, Scotch scarlet, Aberdeen seedling, and 
prolific pine ; an excellent bearer, and well adapted for forcing. 4. GarU' 
stone scarlet. 5. Black roseberry. 6. American scarlet; rich sugary flavour, 
and a good bearer, ripening late ; and 7. Coul late scarlet. 

2. Black strawberries. — Fruit conical, with a neck, flavour rich, and 
highly perfumed. 1. Downton, syn.. Knight's seedling : a good beai-er, 
ripening late ; the fruit preserves well, and makes excellent sweetmeats. 



THE STRAWBERRY. 



Tlie plants, when the fruit is setting and swelling, require to be liberally 
supplied with water. 2. The Pitmaston black ; and 3. The sweet cone, are 
both very high-flavoured, but too delicate for general cultivation. 4. Elton 
seedling, syn. Elton. A great bearer, ripening late. 

3. Pine strawberries. Fruit large, varying from nearly white to almost 
purple ; flavour sweet, and often perfumed. 1. Keens' Seedling, syn. Keens' 
Black Pine : a great bearer, ripening early in the season ; the best straw- 
berry for general purposes, and for forcing. 2. Old Pine, syn. Carolma, 
and twenty other names. Fruit large, conical, with a neck ; flesh, pale 
scarlet, firm and juicy, with a rich grateful flavour ; a good bearer in strong 
loamy soil, in an open, airy situation, but not in a light soil, or when much 
sheltered or shaded. The leaves are of a darker green than those of any 
other strawberry. 3. Myatt's Pine ; high flavoured, but a shy bearer. 4. 
Myatt's British Queen. A larger fruit than that of Keens' Seedling, and 
having more flavoui- ; an abundant bearer, and a very free grower. 5. 
Swainstone Seedling ; fruit large, bearing considerable resemblance to Keens'" 
Seedling, but with a brisker flavour, and may be distinguished further by 
its scabrous leaf-stalks ; a great bearer in the usual strawbeiTy season, and 
it also produces an abundant late succession. 

4. Chile Strawberries. Fruit large, seeds prominent, flesh more or less 
insipid. 1= Wilmot's Superb. Fruit very large, roundish, sometimes cock's- 
comb-shaped, pale scarlet, flavour indifi^erent ; ripens rather late ; attains a 
large size in strong, rich soil, but has no other recommendation. 

5. Hautbois strawberries. — Scapes tall and strong, fruit middle-sized, pale 
greenish wliite, tinged with dull purple ; flesh solid and musky. 1. Prolific 
hautbois, spi. Conical hautbois, double bearing, and various other names. 
Fruit large for this class, conical, dull purple ; flesh greenish, firm, rich, 
and perfumed ; ripening in the end of J une or J uly ; an abundant bearer. 
In plantations of this variety there are commonly a number of plants found 
sterile, from the abortion of the female organs, and sometimes of the stamens, 
for which reason runners ought to be taken only from those plants that are 
prolific. 2. Large flat hautbois. syn. white hautbois, Bath hautbois, &c. 
Fruit large, roundish, reddish next the sun j flesh greenish-white, firm, 
juicy, and musky ; a great bearer, ripening rather later than the preceding 
sort, and, like it, subject to sterility. 3. Black hautbois ; darker coloured 
and higher flavoured than the two preceding varieties, but not so prolific. 

6. Green strawberries, comprehending the Fragaria collina and F. viridis 
of botanists. 1. Green strawberry, syn. green pine, pine-apple, green 
alpine, &c. Fruit tolerably large, roundish, of a powdery green, tmged 
with brownish red next the sun ; flesh solid, greenish, very juicy, with a 
somewhat pine-apple flavour : ripe in July, and an abundant bearer, at least 
in the Hort. Soc. Garden. 

7. Alpine and wood strawberries, comprehending the Fragaria semperflo- 
reus, and F. vesca of botanists. The alpine and the wood-strawberry dififer 
chiefly in the form of the fruit, which in the aipines is conical, and in the 
wood varieties, roundish. 1. Red alpine, syn. scarlet alpine, Des Alpes a 
fruit rouge, Des Alpes de tous les mois a fruit rouge, Des Alpes de quatre 
saisons a fruit rouge. Fruit the largest of its class, conical, red ; flesh rich, 
and high flavoured ; bears abundantly in light, sandy, rich soils, especially 
when liberally supplied with water in dry hot weather, and continues pro- 
ducing from June to November : the only strawberry generally cultivated 



572 



THE STRAWBERRY. 



in French gardens. 2. WJiite alpine, syn. Des Alpes a fruit blanc, &c., only 
differs from the preceding sort in having the fruit white, and the flavour 
somewhat more delicate. 3. Red wood, syn. Rouge commun, Des bois a fruit 
rouge, &c., resembles the preceding in colour and flavour ; but the fruit is 
smaller, and the plants do not bear so long in succession. 4. White wood, 
only differs from the preceding in having the fruit white. 

1240. Selection of strawberries from the above classes in the order of their 
ripening. — 1. Old Scarlet, first or second week in June; 2. Grove-end 
scarlet ; 3. Keens' seedling ; 4. Roseberry ; 5. Swainstone Seedling ; 6. Old 
pine ; 7. Black roseberry ; 8. Prolific, or conical hautbois ; 9. Large flat 
hautbois ; 10. Myatt's British Queen ; 11. Downton ; 12. American scar- 
let ; 13. Elton seedling ; 14. Coul late scarlet. To these are to be added, 
15. The green strawberry ; 16. The red alpine ; and, 17. The white alpine, 
which commence bearing in J uly, and if properly treated produce fruit till 
they are destroyed by frost. 

1241. A selection for a small garden may consist of — ]. The Swainstone 
seedling ; 2. Keens' seedling ; 3. Old pine ; 4. Prolific hautbois ; 5. Down- 
ton ; 6. Coul late scarlet ; 7. Elton ; and 8. Red alpine. To these the old 
scarlet may be added for confectionery. 

1242. A selection for a cottage garden, — Swainstone Seedling, Keens' 
Seedling, and Red Alpine. 

1243. A selection for a confined, shady situation, or for growing in an 
orchard shaded by standard fruit-trees. The alpines, woods, and greens. 

1244. Propagation, soil, S)'C. — All the sorts are propagated by runners, 
but the green strawberry and the alpines are sometimes also increased by 
division and by seeds. The runner plants are taken off when their roots are 
two or three inches in length, which is generally the case in the last week of 
July, or early ua August. By some they are planted where they are finally 
to remain, which is the best mode when there is abundance of ground, and 
a scarcity of hands ; and by others they are planted in nursery beds, a foot 
apart every way, where they remain till the end of February or beginning 
of March following ; and they should then be removed and planted with 
balls, by means of a hollow trowel (fig. 29 in. p. 135). When runner plants 
are to be transplanted without receiving any check, they are rooted in 
pots in the manner already described (1091). The soil for all the 
varieties, except the greens and alpines, should be a strong loam, well en- 
riched with stable-dung ; and the best situation for all of them, is one which 
is open and fully exposed to the sun. For the greens and alpines the soil 
should be lighter, and if the situation is a walled border facing the east, and 
hence somewhat shaded from the meridian and afternoon sun, the plants, 
by being kept cooler, will tlirive with less watering. Nevertheless, alpines 
will thrive remarkably well, and their fruit will have a higher flavour, in 
the most exposed and sunny situation, provided they are abundantly supplied 
with water. This is proved by the extensive plantations in the openest part 
of the royal kitchen- garden at Versailles, where, not being able to accom- 
plish all the watering in the mornings and evenings, it is continued over- 
head, even during the hottest sunshine. (G. M., p. 387.) 

1245. Culture. — Though the strawberry, like most herbaceous peren- 
nials, excepting grasses, is found chiefly in woods and waste places not 
subjected to agriculture or the pasturage of domestic animals, yet in a state 
of culture it is found most productive of large high-flavoured fruit, when 



THE STRAWBERRY, 



grown in the open garden in plantations freely exposed to the sun and air. 
The place of the strawberry in a rotation of crops in the kitchen garden is 
given in 919 — 4. The plants are generally planted in rows, but sometimes 
in beds ; and they are occasionally planted as edgings to gravel- walks. In 
this latter mode they bear well : the gravel of the walk retaining moisture 
and its surface reflecting heat, w^hile nutriment is obtained from the border ; 
but the fruit in this situation is apt to be soiled by the gravel after heavy 
rains. In whatever way the strawberry is grown it requires to be renewed 
every third, fourth, or, at the latest, fifth year. Instances, however, are 
given of the pine grown on a strong loamy soil, which has been top dressed 
every two or three years, and producing good crops for tw^elve or twenty 
years. In some of the sorts, such as Keens' seedling, the Swainstone, and 
hautbois, the scape which bears the fruit is strong and rises above the leaves 
and keeps it clean ; but in others, as in the scarlets, the scapes are short 
and weak, and the fruit reclines on the ground ; and with all this class of 
strawberries mulching is a desirable point of culture. 

1246. Culture in rows. — In the ordinary mode of culture the runners are 
planted in rows varying in width with the kind of strawberry, and the time 
during which the plantation is wished to last. If that should be four or five 
years, the rows of the kinds belonging to the first four classes may be two 
feet six inches apart, and the plants placed at one foot six inches distant in 
the row. Next year a few good-sized early fruit will be produced from 
each plant ; a good crop the year following, and a full crop during the third 
and fourth years ; after which, owing to the large size which the stools will 
have attained, the fruit, though produced in abundance, will be smaller. As 
the ground will not be fully occupied the first year, a row of onions may be 
sown in the middle between every two rows of strawberries. A little manure 
may be dug in every year late in autumn, diminishing the quantity if the plants 
run much to leaf, and increasing it if the foliage appears deficient in vigour. 
Top dressings may also be applied in autumn or winter with great advantage ; 
and such may consist of leaves, dung, any rich compost, or even loam alone, 
and their own decayed foliage may also be included ; of the latter, therefore, 
the plants should not be deprived, by previously mowing and clearing off the 
leaves in autumn, as is often improperly done. The strawberry being a 
native of woods, is naturally covered with leaves every autumn, and hence, 
a top dressing that would smother many other kinds of plants, will prove 
beneficial to the strawberry. All the runners should be taken off, excepting 
such as are wanted for a new plantation, as soon as they appear, and more 
especially before the fruit has ripened. 

1247. Culture in beds. — The large kinds are planted in rows two feet 
apart and eighteen inches distant in the row ; each bed contains two rows, 
and an interval of three feet wide alternates with each bed, as an alley from 
which to w^ater and gather the fruit, &c. The late Mr. Keens grew his 
strawberries in this manner. The runners were first planted in a nursery 
bed, where they remained from August till March ; when they were removed 
to the fruiting beds. There they bore an excellent crop the first year, a 
very good crop the second, and a good crop the third ; after which the 
plants were dug dowTi. Another mode of growing strawberries in beds is as 
follows : a plot of ground is laid out in beds three feet wide, with alleys 
between fifteen inches wide ; and each bed is filled with plants one foot apart 



574 



THE STRxiWBERRY. 



every way, early in August. Next year, after the plants have borne their 
crop, they are dug down, with or without manure, as may be deemed neces- 
sary, and replanted. In this way strawberries are grown on the same 
ground for a number of years, no plant ever producing more than one crop. 
A third mode of growing strawberries in beds consists in having every alter- 
nate bed, not of strawberries, but of some low-growing crop ; and keeping it 
under low-growing crops for two, three, or more years. The beds are then 
prepared for the reception of strawberries, and they are filled simply by 
allowing the runners of the adjoining beds to take possession of them. This 
they will have done, in the most effectual manner, by the end of August, 
when the plants must be thinned out where too thick, and the parent beds 
all dug down and cropped with low-growing vegetables, such as turnips, 
carrots, onions, &c., for one, two, three, or four years, according as it may 
be desired to have large or small fruit. When the runners are only allowed 
to bear one crop, the fruit will be large and early, but if they are retained 
for three years, the fruit will be much smaller the third year than the first. 
This mode is attended with very little labour, and if the runners are only 
allowed to produce one crop it will be as abundant and large as by any mode 
of culture whatever. In some gardens formerly beds of runners, neither 
thinned or manured, were allowed to produce four or five crops, but the fruit, 
though abundant when the soil happened to be a strong loam, was so small 
that in the present day it would not be thought fit to send to table. Plant- 
ing in rows and renewing the plantation every three or four years for scar- 
lets, and five or six for pine sorts, or in the case of alpines every second 
year, is evidently preferable to any mode of growing on beds. 

1248. Mulching and watering. Mulching is useful both for keeping the 
fruit clean, and retaining moisture in the soil. If stable litter is used, and 
put on just before the leaves expand, it will serve also as manure ; the ani- 
mal matters which adhere to it will be washed in by the rains, and by the 
time the fruit is ripe the litter will be bleached as white as clean straw. 
Short grass may be used as a mulch, but it is too retentive of moisture, and 
the same may be said of leaves. Coarse gravel requires too much labour in 
laying down and taking off ; but flat tiles form an excellent mulch, retaining 
moisture, and reflecting heat among the leaves and fruit. Some persons 
have had tiles made of a semicircular form, each with a small semicircle, 
about three inches in diameter, cut out of it, so that two of these tiles cover 
a circular space round the plant ; but not only is this a needless refine- 
ment and waste, the tiles being unfit for anything else, but a portion 
of the ground is left unmulched ; whereas, by using common drain 
tiles the ground can be more completely covered, no extra expense 
is incurred in their manufacture, and they are as fit for roofing, and 
variety of other purposes, as if they had never been used for mulching, 
^^atering is essential to a good crop of strawberries in dry weather, and may 
be performed on a large scale by the watering barrel, fig. 825, in p. 384, or 
on ordinary occasions by the watering pot. The best time is the evening or 
early in the morning, because at these seasons least is lost by evaporation 
(826) ; and the water should always, if possible, be of a temperature some- 
what higher than that of the soih Some amateurs grow their strawberries 
in beds having small open brick channels as alleys, and these and the beds 
being formed on a perfect level, by filling the alleys with water, it penetrates 



THE STRAWBERRY. 



the soil of the beds on each side. Surface irrigation, however, appears pre- 
ferable, because the soil being warmest there, the water will carry down 
heat to the interior of the soil. 

1249. Culture of particular kinds. The strawberries from which it is 
most difficult to procure good crops are the Old Pine and Myatt's Pine. The 
Old Pine will not fruit at all unless the situation be open, and it succeeds 
best in strong loam, though the late Mr. Keens found it thrive best 
on a light soil. The j)lants should be kept from August to Mal'ch in 
a nursery, at a foot apart every way, and after being j)lanted out 
they will bear well for three years, but not longer, unless well supplied with 
top dressing. Myatt's Pine requires a rich loam, and the plants should be 
placed in rows, on a sloping surface to the S. or S.E., four feet apart, in order 
that the intervals may be trenched down as soon as the plants have fruited ; 
the runners are permitted to establish themselves on the fresh ground, and 
remain there to fruit, while the preceding year's plants are destroyed. This 
process, like that of growing strawberries on annual beds, must be repeated 
every year. The Scai-let Strawhej'ry^ when only to be grown for three 
years, may be planted in rows twenty-one inches apart, and each plant eigh- 
teen inches distant in the row. The Hautbois, grows naturally on a clayey 
loam or chalk, but it also, like the pine, thrives in light soil, which may be 
well supplied with manure, which does not produce excess of foliage in this 
variety, as it does in the old pine and some others. The rows may be two 
feet apart, and the distance between the plants eighteen inches. In all 
plantations of this variety a number of sterile plants will be found, which 
as soon as they are discovered ought to be taken up and destroyed. Many 
gardeners suppose that it is necessary to retain a number of what are termed, 
improperly, male plants, that is, those in which the stamens are perfect, but 
the receptacle and pistils imperfect, yet as the rudiments of all the parts 
are evident, the plants cannot be said to be dioecious ; but it is better 
to propagate only from hermaphrodite plants, for though some of the 
runners of these may prove sterile, yet the greater part will be pro- 
lific. This variety forces remarkably well and preserves its musky 
flavour. The Alpine strawberry may be raised from seed on a bed of 
light rich earth early in spring ; the plants will be ready to plant out in 
beds, at a foot distance every way, in July, and they w^ill come into 
bearing in two or three weeks afterwards. The plantation will last three 
j^ears. A better mode than raising the Alpine strawberry from seed, is to 
select runners from stools which have borne the largest, handsomest, and 
best-flavoured fruit. This is the mode practised in the neighbourhood of 
Paris (G. M., 1841, p. 266), where this strawberry is brought to a much 
higher degree of perfection than it is in England. Late in autumn all the 
runners and some of the lower leaves should be removed, to prevent the fruit 
from damping off. The whitfe Alpine is generally considered as having a 
more delicate flavour than the red. Both varieties are much weakened by 
runners. Both force readily, and in France, two or three year old stools 
are used for this purpose, and they are taken up and potted the autumn 
previously to forcing them. The Green strawberry, and Wood strawberry, 
should be treated exactly like the Alpine. 

1250. Retarding a crop.— This may be done to a certain extent by plant- 
ing on the north side of an east and west wall, or in any situation shaded 
from the sun, or exposed to the north ; but the most effective mode of pro- 

p p 2 



576 



THE CRANBERRY. 



curing a late crop is to remove all the blossoms that would have produced 
the first crop ; and then, after allowing the plants to receive a check from 
the dry warm weather, which usually occurs in the latter end of June, to 
supply water abundantly. The water in this and in all other cases should 
have been sufficiently long exposed in a pond or basin to acquire the tempe- 
rature of the atmosphere ; or this temperature, and a few degrees more, may 
be given to it artificiall}^ by a portable heating apparatus. Strawberry plants 
which have been early forced, when turned out into the open garden generally 
produce some fruit late in the season (1093), and this quantity may be in- 
creased in number and size by judicious watering. 

1251. Accelerating a crop in the open garden. — This may be done by 
planting a row close along the base of a wall ha^dng a south aspect. The 
best variety for tliis purpose is the Bishop's wick, which has small leaves 
and an early habit, and which, so treated by j\Ir. ^Filliams of Pitmaston, 
ripened its fruit towards the end of May. Another mode consists in planting 
on the south side of an east and west ridge of soil. The ridge may be no 
larger than to admit of a single row, or it may be four feet or five feet high, 
so as to admit of tliree or four rows on the south side for accelerating a crop, 
and an equal quantity on the north side for retarding one. If the ground 
on the south side is covered with flat tiles, bricks, flints, or pebbles, they 
will retain moisture, conduct heat to the soil, and reflect it also among the 
plants. At East Combe, near Blackheath, a ridge of this kind, the sides of 
which form an angle of 45°, ripens fruit three weeks earlier than the flat 
surface of the same garden. The common calculation is a fortnight earlier 
for the south side, and eight or ten days later for the north side ; so that 
by means of a ridge, the strawberry season in the open garden is extended 
at least three weeks. Sometimes these ridges are built of brick- work, in 
steps^ and sometimes they are formed of stones, in the maimer of a wall 
built without mortar, the plants being placed in the interstices. In which- 
ever way the ridge is formed, there ought to be a gutter of three inches or 
four inches in width along the apex, as a channel for supplying warm water 
to the roots. It would be an improvement also to cover the south side of 
the ridge during nights by mats or canvas, supported on hoops or rods at 
nine inches or one foot above the plants, to check radiation. Ridges of this 
kind require to be taken down every year after the crop is gathered, and 
replanted with the earliest runners that can be got. The ordinary slope of 
the ridge is an angle of 45°, because loose soil wdll remain stationar}' at that 
angle ; but where the ridge is to be faced with stone or brick, the slope 
may be nearly perpendicular, or at all events 70°. In the garden of a cottage 
which has been built on a platfoi-m, the sloping bank which supports the 
latter might be planted with strawberries, either with or without the addi- 
tion of stones or tiles. 

1252. Gathering the fruit should take place when it is quite dry, and they 
should be taken to table the same day. It should always be gathered with 
the calyx attached, though tliis used to be generally neglected in Scotland 
and on the Continent. 

1253. Forcing.— See 1090. 

SuBSECT. XIII. — The Cranberry/. 

1254. TJie Cranberry^ Oxycoccus, Pers, (Abelle, Fr. ; and Heidelbeere, 
Ger.^Arb. Brit., p. 1028, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 616), is a 



THE MULBERRY. 



577 



genus of low trailing shrubs ; one, O. palustris, the English cranberry, a 
native of Britain and the north of Europe in moist bogs ; and the other, O. 
macrocarpus, the American cranberry, a native of swamps in the United 
States. The fruit of both has long been gathered from the native habitats 
of the plants, and used for tarts and other purposes ; and it forms an article 
of exportation both from Sweden and North America. Both sorts may be 
cultivated in gardens in peat-soil, kept moist ; and if it is enriched with 
thoroughly rotted dung, the vigour of the plants will be greatly increased, 
and the flavour of the fruit improved. The English cranberry requires a 
more constant supply of moisture than the American ; but the fruit of both 
is better flavoured when grown with much less moisture than they experi- 
ence in their native habitats. The American cranberry has even been gro\^'^l 
in beds of dry peat-soil, and produced a plentiful crop of excellent fruit. 
The plants are readily propagated by layering the shoots, or by taking off" 
their points and striking them in sand under a hand-glass. Both species 
may be grown on the margin of a pond, among moist rockwork. 

J 255. The Scotch cranberry, Vaccinium Vitis idaea L. ; the whortle- 
berry, V. MyrtiUus L. ; the great bilberry, V. uliginosura L. ; and various 
other species of Vaccinium, bearing edible and very agreeable cooling acid 
fruit, may all be grown in dry peat. They are all described in our 
Arboretum, pp. 1078 to 1167, and in the Ency. of Trees and Shrubs, pp. 604 
to 6] o. When a garden is situated in a part of the country where peat 
soil abounds, and perhaps forms part of the garden or adjoins it, it may be 
worth while to attempt growing these fruits ; but not otherwise, as the only 
useful one, the cranberry, can be obtained from the grocers' shops in all large 
towns from December till March. 

SuBSECT. XIV. — The Mulberry. 
1256. The black or garden Mulberry, Morus nigra, L. (Murier, Fr. ; 
Maulbeerbaum, Ger, ; Moerbesseboom, Dutch ; Moro, Ital. ; and Morel, 
Span. Arb. Brit. vol. iii. p. 1342, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 705), 
is a middle-sized deciduous tree, a native of Persia, and supposed to have 
been introduced into Europe by the Romans. It has been cultivated in 
England since the middle of the 16th century, for its highly aromatic fruit, 
which ripens in August, and, like that of the strawberry, does not undergo 
the acetous fermentation in the stomach. An agreeable wine is made from 
the juice, and a syrup from the unripe berries. It is readily propagated by 
cuttings or truncheons, and will thrive as a standard in any good garden 
soil in the central districts of England ; but north of York, and in Scotland, 
it requires a south wall. As the fruit drops as soon as it is ripe, the tree is 
generally planted on a lawn or grass plot ; but the fruit attains a larger size 
when the soil round the tree is kept slightly dug and well manured ; and 
previously to its ripening the space under the branches may be sown 
thick with cress seed, which will form a close, soft cai-pet for the fruit to 
drop on. In a small garden the tree may be very conveniently grown as an 
espalier. The fruit is produced chiefly on short shoots of the same year, 
which are protruded from last year's wood, and on spurs fi-om the two-year 
old wood ; both laterals and spurs being produced mostly at the ends of the 
branches. The tree being of slow growth, very little pruning is required 
for either espaliers or standards ; though no doubt thinning out the branches 
would strengthen those that remain. The fruit should be gathered just when 



578 



THE WALNUT AND SWEET CHESTNUT. 



it is about to fall, and used the same day. The tree forces well in pots, and 
the plants for this purpose may be procured by planting entire branches, so as 
to form at once bushes two or three feet high (G. M., 1842). The branches 
should be taken from the parent trees in autumn, after the leaves have 
dropped, and after being potted they may be plunged under a north wall 
till February, when they may be transferred to a pit or forcing -house, where 
they will produce fruit the same year early in J une. The tree is remark- 
able for the great age which it attains, and its vitality; instances being com- 
mon of trees growing after remaining out of the ground for a year, or being 
transplanted in full leaf, and after remaining a year dormant. One, or at 
most two, mulberry-trees are sufficient for a suburban garden, whether large 
or small. 

SuBSECT. XY.— The Walnut. 

1257. The Walnut, Juglans regia, L. (Noyer, Fr.; Walnussbaum, 
Ger.; Walnootboom, Dutch; Nocil, Ital. ; and Nogal, Span.; Arb, Brit.^ 
vol. iii., p. 1420 ; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, 732), is a deciduous 
tree, of large size, a native of Persia and Caucasus, which has been cul- 
tivated in England as a fruit and timber tree from the middle of the 
16th century, or before. The ripe kernel is used in the dessert, and 
the fruit whole, in a green state, before the nut and its involucre, or husk, 
harden, forms an excellent pickle. The timber, being very light in propor- 
tion to its strength and elasticity, is much used for gun-stocks. The variety 
most esteemed for its fruit is the Thetford, but the large French and tender- 
shelled are also good sorts. They are propagated chiefly by budding on the 
common walnut, or by inarching ; but as there is little demand for these 
trees, most of those which are sold in the nurseries are seedlings. The tree 
thrives best in a deep sandy loam, and it is generally planted in the north 
margin of the orchard, or on a lawn, or in a paddock. Seedlings will beai 
in from five to seven years from the seed, or sooner by ringing the branches. 
The fruit is produced, as in most amentacious trees, from short shoots of the 
current year protruded from the extremities of the preceding year's shoots. 
It is gathered by hand for pickling, and too frequently beaten down with 
rods when ripe ; but as it drops of itself just before the leaves, no beating^ 
down, or gathering from the branches, is requisite. The fruit is best kept 
in dry sand, or slightly covered with straw. Little or no pruning is ever 
given to this tree, though there can be no doubt that thinning out the 
branches would throw more strength into the fruit of those which remain, 

1258. The Pacane-nut Hickory, Carya olivseformis, A.B. iii. p. 1441, and 
E. of Tr. and Sh. p. 736, some varieties of which, Michaux says, produce 
fruit which is far superior to that of the European walnut, (and of which 
Washington is said to have been so fond that during the war of independence 
he had always his pockets full of them); and the shell-bark hickory, C. alba, 
A. B. iii. p. 1446, and E. of Tr. and Sh. p. 739, may be grafted on the 
walnut, and treated in all respects like that tree. 

SuBSECT. XVI. — The Sweet Chestnut. 

1259. The Sweet Chestnut, Castanea vesca, W. (Chataignier, Fr. ; Cas- 
tainenbaum, Ger. ; Karstengeboom, Dutch ; Castagno, Ital. ; and Castano, 
Span.; E. B., 886; Arb. Brit., vol. iii. p. I7l6, and Encyc. of Trees and 
Shrubs, p. 911), is a large deciduous tree, a native of Spain and Italy, and 



THE FILBERT. 



cultivated in the South of England, more especially in Devonshire, for its 
fruit, as well as its timber. The nut is brought to table roasted, and eaten 
with salt, or with salt fish, or stewed in cream. In Spain and Italy, it is 
used as an article of food, boiled, roasted, in puddings, cakes, and bread. 
In France and Italy there are a great many varieties in cultivation, and 
upwards of twenty have been grown in the Garden of the Horticultural 
Society, of which the Downton and Prolific are among the best. For a 
small garden, the Chataigne exalade of the South of France deserves the 
preference, not only as producing the best fruit of all the varieties for the 
table, but on account of the tree being an abundant bearer, and of so small a 
size that it might be very well grown as an espalier. The varieties are pro- 
pagated by grafting on the species. The fruit is produced in the same 
manner as that of the walnut, and every other particular respecting its cul- 
ture is much the same as for that tree. 

SuBSECT. XYll.— The Filbert. 

1260. The Filbert, Corylus Avellana, L. (Noisette, Fr. ; Nussbaum, 
Ger, ; Hazelnoot, Dutch ; Avellano, Ital. Span. ; E. B. 723, Arh. Brit., 
iii. p. 2017, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 921), in a wild state is 
the hazel-nut, common in woods in many parts of Europe, on loamy 
soils. Its use in the dessert is familiar to every one. By cultivation 
several varieties have been obtained, of which the best are the red and 
white filbert, and Cosford, which ought to be in every collection ; the cob- 
nut, because its branches grow more upright than the other varieties; 
and the great cob-nut, the Downton large square nut, and the Spanish 
nut, on account of their large fruit. All these varieties are usually propa- 
gated by grafting on the common hazel-nut, or on the Spanish nut, which 
grows very fast, and differs from all the others in not sending up suckers. 

The plants should be trained to a single stem, from a foot to two feet in 
height, and then be permitted to branch into a symmetrical head, nather 
open in the middle, and not of greater height than a man can conveniently 
reach from the ground to perform the necessary operations of pruning and 
gathering." (Gard. Chron., 1841, p. 51.) The fruit is produced from the 
preceding year's wood, and in unpruned trees is always most abundant at 
the extremities of the branches, where the leaves of the preceding year have 
had abundance of light and air. Hence the importance of pruning so as to 
keep the bush open in the centre. The spring, at the time the male blos- 
soms are shedding their pollen, is the best time for pruning, as by the 
shaking of the trees the pollen is diffused. The young shoots should be 
shortened to half their length, cutting to a female blossom, and removing all 
side suckers. If a plantation is to consist of a single row, the plants may be 
placed from eight feet to ten feet apart ; but if there are to be several rows 
together, the intervals between them may be ten feet or twelve feet. The 
whole may be treated like a plantation of currants on a large scale. The 
usual situation for a plantation of filberts is the orchard, where single rows 
may be introduced, for a few years, between rows of standard fruit-trees. If 
a separate plantation of filberts is formed, currants or gooseberries may be in- 
troduced in the intervals between the plants for four or five years — care being 
taken to destroy them whenever their branches are within a foot or two of the 
filberts. A plantation of filberts will last twenty years, and if occasionally 
manured, it will produce from 20 cwt. to 30 cwt, of nuts per acre 



580 THE BERBERRY, ELDERBERRY, CORNELIAN CHERRY, 

annually. The nut weevil lays its eggs in the fruit in June, where it is 
hatched, and escapes in August. There is no practical preventive of this 
insect, and all that the gardener can do is to remove all the nuts that have 
been perforated by it. The fruit is gathered when the calyx turns brown, 
and at a time when it is quite dry, and it may be preserved through the 
winter with the husks, or in dry sand, or in air-tight vessels. Some put 
them into large garden-pots, sprinkling a little salt amongst them, which is 
said to preserve the husks from getting mouldy and rotting ; the pots are 
turned bottom upwards on boards, and covered with earth or sand to exclude 
the air. The dealers subject them to the fumes of sulphur in close vessels, 
when newly gathered and dried, in order to improve the colour of the 
calyx. 

SuBSECT. XVIII. — The Berberry, Elderberry, Cornelian Cherry, Buffalo-berry, 
and Winter Cherry. 

1261. The Berberry, Berberis vulgaris, L. (Epine vinette, Fr.; Berbe- 
ritzen, Ger.; Berberisse, Dutch; Berbero, /to/., and Berberis, Span.; E. 
B, 49, Arh. Brit. i. p. 298, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 42), is a 
deciduous shrub, a native of Britain in woods and hedges on dry soil, and 
sometimes planted in gardens for its fruit ; which is not eaten raw, but is 
excellent when preserved in sugar, in syrup, or candied. The berries are 
also made into jelly and rob, both of which are not only delicious to the 
taste but extremely wholesome, and they are pickled in vinegar when green 
as a substitute for capers. The}^ are also used instead of lemon for flavouring 
punch, for garnishing dishes, and for various other purposes, independently of 
their medicinal properties. When the fruit is to be eaten, there is a variety in 
which it is largerand less acid, B. vulgaris, var. dulcis,(£'. o/Tr. andSh., p. 43), 
of which there are plants in the Hort. Soc. Gardens, from which scions may 
be procured for budding or grafting on the common berberry. For all the 
other purposes the species may be taken, though for the curious there are 
varieties with yellow, white, purple, and black-coloured fruit ; and there is 
one also without seeds, B. v. asperma, of which the delicious confitures 
d' epine vinette, for which Rouen is so celebrated, are made. 

1262. The Magellan sweet Berberry, Berberis diilcis, D. Don, syn. B. 
buxifolia, B. rotundifolia, has round black berries about the size of those of 
the black currant, which are produced in great abundance, and used in its 
native country, both green and ripe, as we use gooseberries, for pies, tarts, 
and preserves, for which it is said to be most excellent. (See Arb. Brit. i. 
p. 301, and E. of Tr. Sh. p. 47.) The plant is evergreen, quite hardy, 
and very ornamental, flowering from March to June, and ripening its fruit 
in June and July. It has ripened fruit in the nursery of Mr. Cunning- 
ham, at Edinburgh, who says, it is as large as the Hamburgh grape, and 
equally good to eat. 

1268. The Nepal Berberry, B. aristata, Dec, syn. B. Chitria, a native of 
Nepal, and B. asiatica, Roxb., also from Nepal {Arb. Brit. i. pp. 306, 307, 
and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 49), produce purple fruit covered with a 
fine bloom, which in Nepal and other parts of India are dried in the 
sun like raisins, and, like them, brought to table. The plants are quite 
hardy and fruit abundantly in English gardens, and the amateur of 
leisure might add them and the Magellan berberry to his collection of hardy 
fruits. 



BUFFALO BERRY, AND WINTER CIJERRY. 



581 



All the species of berberry throw up numerous suckers, and become 
crowded with shoots and branches, and hence when fruit is the object they 
should be trained to single stems, for one foot or two feet in height, and all 
suckers removed ; and the branches should be kept moderately thin. All 
the species will succeed perfectly in any good soil, and in an open situation 
in the orchard. 

1264. The Elder-tree^ Sarabucus nigra, L. (Sureau, Fr.; HoUunderbaum, 
Ger.; Vlierboom, Dutch; Sambuco, ItaL, and Sanco, Span,; E. B. 476, 
Arb,Brit. ii. p. 1027, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 513), is a low 
deciduous tree, a native of most parts of Europe, and chiefly found near 
human habitations. It is highly ornamental both when in flower and in 
fruit. An infusion of the flowers is used to flavour some articles of confec- 
tionery, and a wine is made from the fruit by boiling it with spices and 
sugar. Immense quantities of fruit are grown in Kent, and other places In 
the neighbourhood of London, and sent to market for making this wine, 
which is always taken hot, and commonly after supper. The tree requires 
a good soil and an open airy situation, and should be kept free from 
suckers. 

1265. The Cornelian Cherry, Cornus Mas. L.; C. mascula, L'Herit. (Cor- 
nouiller, Fr.; Kernel Kirsche, Ger.; Kornoelje, Dutch; Corgnolo, ItaL; 
Cornejo, Span.; Arb. Brit. vol. ii. p. 1014, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, 
p. 501), is a low deciduous tree, a native of the middle and south of Europe, 
in the margins of woods, and in soils more or less calcareous ; and it has been 
cultivated in gardens, from the time of the Romans, for its fruit, which, 
however, was not much esteemed by that people. It was very general in 
ancient gardens ; its fruit being very ornamental on the tree, and also found 
excellent in tarts, robs, and preserved in various ways. As seedling plants 
of this species of Cornus bear only male blossoms for twelve or fifteen years, 
and some continue to do so always, it is desirable to procure plants which 
have been grafted, or raised by layers from fruit-bearing trees, the flowers 
of which are always hermaphrodite. Du Hamel says that there are varieties 
of cornel in France and Germany with wax-coloured fruit, white fruit, and 
fleshy round fruit. The tree should be planted in a situation open to the 
south, but sheltered from high winds. 

1266. The Buffalo berry, Shepherdia argentea, JVutt. ; Hippophse argentea, 
Pursh. (Rabbit berry, Amer., and Graisse de Buffle, Fr. ; Arb. Brit. vol. iii., 
p. 1327, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 700), is a low tree, a native 
of the banks of the Missouri, where it flowers in April and May, and 
ripens its scarlet diaphanous berries in September. These are said to be 
about the size of the red currant, much richer to the taste, and they are 
produced in such abundance as to form one continued cluster on every 
branch and twig. The tree being dioecious, care should be taken to pro- 
cure both sexes. There are plants in England, but, as far as we know, they 
have not yet ripened fruit. In an account of this fruit in the Gardener s 
Magazine for 1831, the writer considers it one of the greatest acquisitions 
of the fruit-bearing kind that has recently been brought into notice in the 
United States." 

1267. The Winter Cherry, Physalis Alkekengi, L. (Coqueret, Fr., and 
Judenkirsche, Ger.), is a herbaceous creeping rooted perennial, a native 
of the south of Europe, quite hardy, and growing freely, and producing 
fruit abundantly in common garden soil. The fruit is yellow^ and about 



582 



THE GRAPE. 



the size of a cherry, with an agreeable sweetness ; it ripens in September, 
and will hang on the plant, protected by its inflated calyx, through great 
part of the winter. It was well known to the ancients, and was cultivated 
in most gardens till late in the last century, since which it has been neg- 
lected. In the neighbourhood of New York the tomato is grown in large 
quantities, and dried, and used as a sweetmeat, in which state it is most 
excellent (G. M. 1842, p. 331). Several other hardy species, including 
P. pubescens, also produce edible fruit. 

Sect. II. — Half-hardy or Wall Fruits. 

1268. The wall-fruits of Britain include all those which in the central 
districts of England require the aid of a wall to bring them to perfection. 
These are the grape, peach, nectarine, almond, apricot, fig, pomegranate, 
love-apple, egg-plant, and Peruvian cherry. 

SuBSECT. I. — The Grape. 

1269. The Grape Vine, Vitis vinifera, L. (Vigne, Fr.; Weintrauben, Ger. ; 
Druif, Dutch ; Vigna, Ital.^ and Vina, Span. ; Arb. Brit. vol. i. p. 477, 
and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 136), is a trailing or climbing deciduous 
shrub, a native of Syria and other parts of Asia, and though enduring our 
winters in the open garden, yet only ripening its fruit under glass or against 
a wall. It has been in cultivation since the time of the Romans, both as 
a wine and a table fruit. The grape abounds in tartaric acid, which in 
general agrees with delicate persons better than any other ; and hence it is 
universally considered one of the most wholesome of fruits. Many varieties 
have been produced by different soils and situations on the Continent, in 
countries where the vine is grown for many years on the same spot for wine ; 
and by seeds in Britain, where the fruit is grown solely for the dessert. All 
the best kinds of grapes have either been fruited in the Horticultural 
Society's Garden, or exhibited at their shows ; and from these and other 
sources of knowledge, Mr. Thompson has prepared for us the following 
selections : — 

I. Grapes with round, dark, red, purple, or black berries. 

Early black July, syn. Maurillon hatif, &c. — Bunches and berries small, 
flavour sugary ; ripe against a wall in the end of August or beginning of 
September; the blossom easily injured by cold. This is the first grape 
which ripens on the open walls in the neighbourhood of Paris. In 1840 
we found it in the shops in the last week in July. 

Black Frontignan, syn. Muscat noir de Frontignan ; black Frontignac ; 
black Constantia, &c. Bunches and berries of medium size ; flavour musky, 
rich ; ripe in October. A very excellent grape. 

2. Grapes with oval, dark, red, purple, or black berries. 

Black Prince, syn. Sir Abraham Pytche's black. — Large long bunches, 
large berries, flavour sweet and pleasant ; ripe in October ; deserving a place 
in a vinery, and will also ripen on a wall. 

Black Hamburgh, syn. Frankendale, &c. — Large bunches, very large 
berries, flavour sugary and rich ; ripe in October ; a good bearer, and deserv- 
edly one of the most generally cultivated of grapes, whether under glass or 
against a wall. 

Black Morocco, syn. Raisin d'Espagne, &c. — Bunches large, berries very 



THE GRAPE. 



583 



large, flavour sweet and tolerably rich, ripening late. The blossoms require 
to be set with black Hamburgh, or some other hardy grape. 

West's St. Peter's^ syn. Raisin des Carmes. — Bunches middle size, berries 
large,, flesh firm, flavour sugary and rich ; late in ripening. A great bearer, 
and one of the very best winter grapes. 

3, Graj)es with round white berries. 

Ro'yal Muscadine^ syn. Chasselas dore, &c. — Bunches large, berries above 
the middle size, flavour rich and sweet ; ripe in September. A good bearer, 
and altogether an excellent grape. 

Chasselas musque, syn. Le Cour. — Bunches middle size, long, berries 
middle size, flavour rich, musky ; ripe in September. An excellent grape, 
combining much of the flavour of the Muscat of Alexandria. 

White Frontignan^ syn. Muscat blanc. — Bunches and berries middle size ; 
juice rich, with a highly musky flavour. A much-esteemed grape, which 
will ripen either against a hothouse or against a wall. 

4. Grapes with oval white berries. 

White Muscat of Alea^andria^ syn. Passe musque blanc, &c. — Bunches 
and berries large, flesh firm, musky-flavoured and delicious ; only ripens 
under glass. Generally esteemed the finest and richest grape in cultiva- 
tion, and particularly adapted for the hothouse and pine-stove. 

Cannon-hall Muscat. — Closely resembling the Muscat of Alexandria; 
but the flesh is firmer, and the skin yellower. The blossoms do not set 
well, unless fecundated artificially; which may be done with their own 
pollen, by means of a camel-hair pencil, or by the pollen of any other grape 
that may be in flower at the same time. 

5. Grapes with red., rose-coloured^ greyish.^ or striped berries. 

Red Frontignan^ syn. Muscat rouge. — Bunches and berries middle size, 
flavour rich, musky, and excellent. A grape of first-rate excellence. 

Grizzly Frontignan., syn. Muscat gris. — The same qualities, and equally 
excellent as the preceding variety. 

1270. A selection of grapes for early forcing. — Esperione, Black Prince, 
Cambridge Botanic Garden grape. White Muscadine, Royal Muscadine, 
White Sweetwater, White Frontignan, Grove End Sweetwater, Red Fron- 
tignan. 

1271. The selection of grapes grown at Hungerton-hall (973), so as to pro- 
duce three crops in a year in the same house. — Black Frontignan, syn. Purple 
Constantia, White Frontignan, syn. White Constantia, Grizzly Frontignan, 
Muscat of Alexandria, Stillwell's Sweetwater, West's St. Peter's, Black Da- 
mascus, Black Tripoli, Black Hamburgh, White Portugal, Syrian. 

1272. A selection of grapes of various flavours and colours, placed in the 
order of their ripening. — White and Red Muscadine, White and Red Muscats 
of Alexandria, White and Red Frontignan, Black Muscadel, White Raisin, 
White and Black Hamburgh, Black Prince, White Sweetwater, White 
Nice, and West's St. Peter's. These sorts are of fourteen diff^erent flavours ; 
there are an equal number of whites and reds ; some with large bunches 
and berries, as the Nice, and others with high-flavoured berries, as the 
Frontignan. The foliage in autumn will be alternately tinged with red and 
yellow ; and, supposing the Muscadines to be placed next the end at which 



584 



THE GRAPE. 



the flue enters, they will ripen nearly a month earlier than any of the 
other kinds. 

1273. Grapes far a late crop in a vinery. — Black Damascus, Black Fron- 
tignan, Black Hamburgh, Red Syracuse, Black Muscadel, syn. Black Raisin, 
and White Raisin, Black Prince, and "^V^est's St. Peter's. 

1274. Grapes for a house in which pines are grown. — "White Muscadine 
and Sweetwater, for early sorts ; and for a succession. Black Muscadel, 
Hamburgh, and Damascus, White Frontignan, and IVIuscat of Alexandria. 
Half of the whole number of plants should be Muscats, and half of the 
remainder Hamburghs and Frontignans. One plant of each of the other 
sorts will be enough. 

1275. Grapes with small leaves^ and hardy ; adapted for the rafters of 
a green-house. — White and Black Sweetwater, Black Cluster, syn. Black 
Morillon, Black Muscadine, Parsley-leaved Muscadine. 

1276. Grapes with small leaves, less hardy than the preceding selection^ and 
fit for the rafters of a plant-stove. — Chasselas Musque, Blue Frontignan, Blue 
Tokay, Royal ]\Iuscadine, and Parsley-leaved grape. 

1277. Grapes with small hunches and terries adapted for being grown in 
pots or boxes. — Black and White Corinth, Black Cluster, and Pitmaston 
White Cluster, Red and Grizzly Frontignan, White and Red Bur- 
gundy, &c. 

1278. Grapes for a cottage garden where the climate is not very favourable. 
— White Muscadine, Black July, Large Black Muscadine, and Pitmaston 
White Cluster. 

1279. Grapes suitable for the open wall, or for cottages in situations where 
the peach will ripen on the open wall — see Mr. Hoare's list in p. 472. If 
the peach requires a flued wall, so will the grapes in this list ; and when 
they are planted against a house, it should only be on those walls which are 
decidedly warm, from facing the south and from a fire always being kept in 
the room within, or from the wall containing a chimney-flue to a fire in 
constant use. 

1280. Propagation, see 606, 958, 968, and 981. 

1281. Culture, pruning, training, S^c, see Sect. II., pp. 452 to 472. 

1282. Pruning. — The shoots of the vine, the rose, and indeed of plants 
generally, have always on the lower part of the growing shoot two or three 
weak leaves, which soon drop oflF, and the buds in the axils of these leaves 
are generally so small as to be called by gardeners blind. They are never 
developed unless the shoot is cut down to them, and even then, if they push, 
they never produce blossoms. Hence, in shortening young wood of the vine 
in the open air, it should seldom or never be cut to one of these blind buds, 
but to a conspicuous plump bud, tlu-ee, four, or five leaves fi-om the origin 
of the shoot. The largest leaves and best buds on vines in the open garden 
wdll generally be found those produced between the middle of May and the 
middle of J une ; and such buds, if the vine is tolerably strong, will be 
certain of producing shoots with blossoms. These remarks ai'e applicable in 
a particular manner to vines grown against walls and cottages, where no 
extraordinary attention is paid to the soil; but for vines under glass or 
agamst walls, with highly enriched borders, the young wood of the vine 
may be cut off nearly close to the old wood, and the shoot that will be pro- 
duced from an embryo bud will contain blossoms, as already noticed under 
spurring-in pruning (9G3). It is necessary for the amateur vine-pruner to 



THE GRAPE. 



585 



bear these two facts constantly in mind, because otherwise he might go on 
pruning his vines for years, without ever having a single bunch of fruit. 
By pruning vines in the open garden a week or two before the fall of the 
leaf, they are put sooner to rest, and will burst their buds earlier the follow- 
ing spring. 

1283. — Thinning. The bunches ought to be reduced in number, when 
more are produced than it would be judicious to allow the plant to mature ; 
and some of the leaves ought to be removed; when they are so much crowded 
about the bunches as to prevent them from colouring. In tliinning out the 
berries of bunches, the bunch ought never to be taken hold of by the fin- 
gers, as is too frequently done, but by a small piece of hooked wire, and 
the berries ought to be taken off with a pair of small scissors. Thinning 
grapes with hands covered with perspiration, or with foul scissors, frequently 
produces the rust, an incurable disease, which greatly disfigures the berries. 
—(Gard. Chron. 1842, p. 289). 

1284. — Setting the blossom. It sometimes happens, more especially in 
early forcing, that the incipient bunches twist and shrivel up just before 
coming into bloom ; the cause appears to be the want of heat at the root, 
which may either arise from the roots being too deep, or from their being 
outside, and not properly protected by thatching, (956) or warmed by 
hot dung. The permanent remedy for this evil is obvious ; but as Mr. 
Fish judiciously observes, " it is frequently of as much, if not of more, 
importance, to know how to make the most of existing circumstances, 
though unfavourable, than to be conversant with the very circumstances 
and management that will ensure success," We will state Mr. Fish's remedy 
for this serious evil. To keep the bunches from shrivelling and twisting up, 
Mr. Fish suspended small pieces of lead, little stones, bits of clay, &c,, 
with slight strings of matting to the points of his bunches, just when they 
were coming into bloom, sometimes attaching an additional small weight 
to the shoulder of the bunch (Gard. Chron., 1842, p. 189). In this way 
the blossoms set, and the bunches came to maturity when every other 
means had failed, and this not merely in a solitary instance, or on a small 
scale, but in a house of great width in Mr. Tattersall's garden at Hyde 
Park Corner, and in several wide houses, in which the roots of the vines 
have got down into a moist clay, in the garden at Putteridgebury, the seat of 
Colonel Sowerby, near Luton. We had an opportunity of seeing these 
houses in March last, when the bunches in two of them were loaded ; the 
one house with the berries set and swelling, and the other with the blossoms 
beginning to open. As soon as the berries have fairly begun to swell, the 
weights are removed. The rationale of this system we do not pretend to 
know, unless it be the same principle of pressure which seems to facilitate 
the rooting of a cutting, and the protrusion of spongioles from the root of a 
cabbage plant, when applied to their lower extremities. 

1285. Growing grapes in pots. — The only utility of growing grapes in 
pots where there are plenty of hothouses, is to have a few to ripen in March 
and April. West's St. Peter's, or the sort cultivated by Mr. Oldaker and 
Mr. Paxton as such, (G. M., vol. ii., p. 174, and vol. xiii., p„ 96) if properly 
managed, will hang in good condition till the end of February, or, in some 
seasons, till March ; in short, as Dr. Lindley observed, when commenting 
on some grapes of this variety, exhibited by Mr. Paxton, on January l7th, 
1837, it is "decidedly the best winter grape known." Where there is 



586 



THE PEACH 



an early vinery, good grapes may be ripened in the beginning of May where 
the border is protected from frost and snow: so that a regular succes- 
sion can be had all the year round. Mr. Tillery, the Duke of Portland's 
gardener, at Welbeck, has " put a dozen pots in on the 10th of October, and 
cut on the 2nd of March ; another dozen in the beginning of November, 
and cut in April. Where grapes can be grown on the rafters, and proper 
attention paid to the borders," he observes, " it is so much time thrown 
away to attempt growing them in pots. To the amateur and gardener with, 
perhaps, only a hothouse or two, the case is different, for they are worthy of 
all his care and attention." — Gard. Chron.^ 1841, p. 830. 

1286. General treatment of the vine. — No tree or shrub will do with so 
little water, either at the root or over the leaves, as the vine, provided the 
border is sufficiently rich. Even in vineries watering may be totally dis- 
pensed wdth during the whole of a course of culture, though it will facilitate 
the breaking of the buds and the swelling of the fruit. Hence a vinery, if 
formed of a handsome shape, with the sides and roof of glass, might be 
covered inside with vines, with the floor matted or carpeted, so as to be 
used, during a part of the summer season at least, as a reading or work- 
ing room. In this case the vines should be planted outside ; or planted 
inside, close to the outside walls, so as, in either case, to allow of the floor 
being paved. The only drawback to vines so treated is the attacks which 
they, in common with all plants, are liable to from insects ; and these can 
only be got rid of by the use of water or some liquid, or by fumigation. 
The vine, however, is less subject to insects or diseases than any other fi'uit- 
bearing tree or shrub. 

1287. Growing grapes for wine-making. — Excellent wine may be made 
from unripe grapes, and these may be produced in abundance in the central 
and southern districts of England, in the open garden on espaliers. The 
plants may be trained on horizontal wires in the Thomery manner (905), 
in that of Mr. Hoare (984), or the wires of the trellis may be chiefly per- 
pendicular and two feet apart, and at each a vine cutting may be planted and 
trained upright and spurred in, as recommended for the gooseberry and cur- 
rant on an espalier (1220). After the lapse of three or four years to estab- 
lish the plants, an immense quantity of fruit would be produced in this 
manner on a small space. The best varieties for wine-making, where the grape 
will ripen, are the Miller's Burgundy, known by its woolly leaves, and the 
Claret, known by its leaves dying ofi^ of a dark claret colour; the Black 
Cluster and the Muscadine will attain as great a degree of maturity as the 
kinds mentioned, and will answer both for wine making and eating. It is 
unnecessary to observe, that the walls and roofs of cottages (986) will bring 
the grapes nearer to maturity than an espalier in the same climate. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Peach and Nectarine. 

1288. The Peach and Nectarine^ Persica vulgaris Dec. ; and P. laevis 
Dec; (Pecher, i^?'. ; Pfirschbaum, Ger. ; Persikkeboom, i)?^^cA ; Persico, 
Ital. ; and Alberchigo, Span.; Arb. Brit., vol. ii. p. 680, and Encyc. of Trees 
and Shrubs, p. 266), is a deciduous tree under the middle size, a native of 
Persia, and cultivated in gardens for its fruit from the time of the Romans. 
The nectarine (peche lisse, Fr.), is distinguished from the peach by having 
a smooth skin, while that of the peach is downy. The Almond is supposed 



AND NECTARINE. 



587 



by many to be the peach in a wild state, but for convenience in treating of 
their culture we have kept them apart, both in the Arboretum Britannicum, 
and in this work. The peach has long been cultivated extensively in 
France, from whence our best varieties have been obtained ; it is highly 
prized in India, and is common in the warmer parts of the United States as 
an orchard fruit. 

1289. Use. — The peach and nectarine are dessert fruits, next in estimation 
to the grape and the pine-apple ; they also make delicious preserves, and the 
peach, when gathered a little before it is ripe, most excellent tarts. In the 
Southern States of North America, and in some parts of France, the pulp is 
fermented, and brandy obtained from it by distillation. A few of the green 
leaves put into gin or whisky give these spirits the flavour of noyau. As 
both the leaves and the skin of the fruit contain prussic acid, the use of the 
former should not be carried to excess, and the skin of the latter should 
always be removed before the pulp is eaten. 

3290. Properties of a good peach or nectarine. — Flesh firm ; skin thin, of 
a deep or bright red colour next the sun, and of a yellowish green on the 
shady side ; pulp yellowish, full of high-flavoured juice ; the fleshy part 
thick, and the stone small. 

1291. Varieties. — These are naturally arranged into two divisions, peaches 
and nectarines : and each of these again into freestones or melters (peches, 
/r., the peach, and peches lisses, /r., for the nectarine) ; and clingstones 
(pavies, fr. for the peach, and brugnons, /r. for the nectarine) ; the flesh of 
the former parting readily from the stone, and that of the latter adhering to 
it. There are upwards of fifty kinds of peach and nectarine in nursery 
catalogues, but the few of decided excellence are included in the following 
selection by Mr. Thompson. They are all free-stones or melters ; few or no 
clingstone peaches or nectarines being thought worthy of cultivation in British 
gardens. 

1292. Select Peaches arranged in the order of their ripening* 

Gi-osse Mignonne^ syn. French Mignonne, and above thirty other syno- 
nymes. Large, flatly globose, greenish yellow and deep purplish red, 
dotted, flesh melting, yellowish white, red at the stone ; rich and vinous ; 
middle of August to the beginning of September. A very good bearer, forces 
well, and is not subject to mildew. 

Red Magdalen, syn. Madeleine de Courson, &c. Middle size, round, pale 
yellow and red, dotted, flesh melting, white, slightly tinged with red at the 
stone ; rich and vinous ; end of August to the beginning of September ; the 
tree is a good bearer, but requires a favourable situation, whether on a south 
wall or a peach- house. 

Royal George, syn. Madeleine a petites fleurs, &c. Middle size, round, 
flesh melting, whitish and dotted, deep red, rich and excellent; early in August 
and beginning of September. The tree is a good bearer, and forces well, but 
apt to mildew ; in other respects this is one of the best of peaches. 

Noblesse, syn. Vanguard, &c. Large, roundish, pale greenish yellow and 
red, clouded with darker red, flesh melting, greenish white to the stone ; 
rich and excellent ; end of August to the beginning of September. A good 
bearer and forces well. 

Malta, syn. Belle de Paris. Large, roundish, or somewhat obovate, 
pale greenish yellow, clouded with red ; flesh greenish white, rich ; end of 
August or beginning of September ; tree hardy, a good bearer ; the fruit 



588 



THE PEACH 



bears carriage well, and will keep longer after being gathered than perhaps 
any other variety. 

Barrington^ syn. Buckingham Mignonne. Large, roundish; pale yellow 
and red, flesh white, rayed with red at the stone, melting and rich ; middle 
of September ; a good bearer. 

Bellegarde, syn. Galande, &c. Large, round, deep red clouded with 
darker red, flesh melting, white, rayed with red at the stone ; excellent ; 
beginning to the middle of September. A very good bearer, forces well, and 
altogether a most excellent peach. 

Late Admirable, syn. Royal, &c. Large, roundish, greenish yellow, 
clouded with red, flesh melting, white, red at the stone ; excellent ; middle 
to the end of September. A good bearer, and the best late peach. 

1293. Select Nectarines, arranged in the order of thsir ripening. 
Elruge, syn. Claremont, &c. Middle size, somewhat oval, pale green and 

deep violet ; flesh melting, pale to the stone ; tender and delicious ; end of 
August to the beginning of September. A very good bearer, and one of the 
most valuable of nectarmes. 

Violette Hdtive, syn. Hampton Court, &c. Middle size, roundish ovate, 
pale green and dark violet, flesh melting, pale green rayed with red at the 
stone ; of highly excellent flavour ; end of August to the beginning of Sep- 
tember. The tree a very good bearer. This and the preceding sort are the 
two best nectarines in general cultivation. 

New White, syn. Flanders, &c. Large, roundish, white, tinged with red; 
flesh melting, white, tender, vinous ; end of August to the beginning of 
September. A good bearer, but being rather tender it should be budded on 
some hardy peach or nectarine. A tree of this variety at Butleigh, in 
Devonshire, completely covers a wall twelve feet high to the extent of forty- 
four feet; it is trained in Mr. Callow's manner (803 and 1297), and its 
produce, when thinned to four feet per square foot, is from one hundred and 
fifty to one hundred and eighty dozen ; a quantity not unusual for it to bear. 
(G.M., vol. X., p. 38). 

Pitmaston Orange. — Large, roundish ovate, orange yellow, and brownish 
red ; flesh melting ; orange-red close to the stone ; rich and sweet ; begin- ^ 
ning of September. A very good bearer, and a vigorous tree. 

1294. Peaches and Nectarines for a wall to come in, in succession, from 
the beginning of August to the end of September, arranged in the order of 
their ripening. Peaches : — Early Anne, t Gross mignonne, * Royal George, 

Double montagne, * Noblesse, * Malta, * Royal Charlotte, t Bellegarde, 
Barrington, t Late Admirable. Of those marked *, two or three plants 
may be planted ; and of those marked t, three or four, according to the 
extent of the wall devoted to tliis fruit. The best Nectarines for a wall 
are, the t Elruge and t Violette Hative. A more extended selection of 
Peaches and Nectarines for a wall has been already given (888). 

1295. Peaches for a cold late situation. — Acton Scot, which ripens about 
London in the end of August, and is a very hardy tree ; the Bellegarde, and 
the Malta, included in our first list (1292). 

1296. A selection of Peaches for forcing. — Bellegarde, Noblesse, Grosse 
mignonne. Royal George, Royal Charlotte, and Barrington (see 992). 

1297. Propagation and nursery culture. — Budding on plum stocks is the 
general practice ; but some of the more delicate kinds are budded on the 
almond, strong growing seedling peaches, or on the apricot. On the peach 



THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 



589 



stock they grow very vigorously at first, but do not long continue to thrive. 
For general purposes the plum stock is by far the best, as from its abundance 
of roots it transplants readily ; while the roots of the almond and peach, being 
few and very remote, they transplant with difficulty. The French gardeners 
use the almond stock for light chalky or sandy soils, and the plum stock for 
clayey or loamy soils. When the plants are not removed the first 3'ear to 
where they are finall}'' to remain, they are cut down in the nursery to three 
or four eyes, and the shoots produced trained in the fan manner, already 
described at length (801). This may either be done in the open garden 
against a row of stakes, or the plants may be removed to a wall, which is the 
best mode for ripening the wood. To ensure this result the plants should 
in no case be placed in very rich moist soil. An expeditious mode of 
covering a wall with peach or nectarine trees, where the subsoil is dry, or 
the bottom of the border paved, or rendered impervious to the roots of the 
trees by other means, is thus described by a gardener who practised it in 
Essex. Kernels of peaches, nectarines, or apricots, are planted underthe 
walls on the spots where the trees are finally to remain, in January ; and 
the plants raised are either budded with the desired sorts in the August of 
the same year, or grafted in the splice manner already described (652) in 
the following March. When budding is employed, the point of the shoot 
produced by the bud is pinched off after it has grown six inches or eight 
inches in length, and only five buds are allowed to push ; the fiA'^e shoots 
produced by these buds are shortened with the finger and thumb to five 
inches or six inches in length, and these being disbudded, so as to admit of 
only two shoots from each, a complete fan-shaped tree is produced in one 
season. These trees bear the third year, and those which are grafted bear 
the second. (G. M.^ vol. ii., p. 149.) A wall might be covered with equal 
expedition by stopping the shoots of seedlings in the same manner as the 
shoot produced by a bud ; but in this case there is the risk of some, or 
perhaps most, of the sorts, not proving so good as some of the old established 
kinds. The quickest mode of proving the quality of peaches, or of the fruit 
of other trees raised from seed, is to take a bud from them, and insert it near 
the extremity of a lateral branch of a tree of the same species (045-2), 
Budded on the Moor-park apricot, the flavour of the peach is said to be 
greatly improved ; on the mirabelle or myrobalan plum, the tree is some- 
what dwarfed (120.'3). 

1298. Soil^ situation^ S^c. — A fresh loamy soil on a dry bottom answers 
best, and care should be taken not to enrich the soil so much by manure as 
to occasion the production of longer shoots than can be properly ripened. In 
few situations should the peach border be more than eighteen inches or two 
feet in depth, and it need not be more than ten feet or twelve feet in width, 
even when the walls are fifteen feet in height. (See 886.) The peach in 
Britain is almost always planted against a south wall, but in some sheltered 
situations it will succeed on a south-east or south-west aspect. Against a 
south-west wall the blossoms are more liable to be injured by the heavy 
rains from that quarter, and the shoots are apt to grow stronger, in which 
case they ought to be laid in more horizontally than in the case of a wall 
facing the south. Mr. Glendinning recommends all peach walls to be covered 
with horizontal copper wires, extended longitudinally at six inches or seven 
inches' distance, and fastened to cast-iron eyes driven into the wall. The 
advantage is, that a man can tie two trees to the wires with bast ligaments, 



590 



THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 



in the same time that he can nail one tree to tlie bricks. When nails and 
shreds are used, he prefers the latter of a dark colour, and narrower than 
are generally used, because they look neater, and they last long enough, as 
they are never applied a second time. Where the peach is grown only for 
tarts it may be tried as an espalier. Where there is a choice of plants from 
a nursery, trees three or four years trained, if grafted on plum stocks, may be 
chosen, and the trees, if carefully removed in October or November, will 
bear a few fruit next year. " In planting never dig a pit, because, by the 
sinking of the loose soil the tree will in two or three years be much too deep; 
spread the roots carefully out on the surface of the border, and cover them 
three inches with soil." This is Mr. Glendinning's mode with the peach, and 
it would be an immense advantage to adopt it in the case of all fruit trees 
and fruit shrubs whatever, which are planted on newly-trenched ground. 
Where a wall to be covered with peaches is upwards of twelve feet high, 
riders may be planted as before recommended (889), and these should always 
be trees which have been several years trained, the object being to cover the 
walls as soon as possible. Permanent dvrarf trees may be planted at fourteen 
feet to twenty feet apart, according as the wall is twelve feet or fifteen feet 
in height. (See 890.) 

1299. Mode of bearing, pruning, <^c.— The blossom-buds in all the differ- 
ent varieties of peach, nectarine, and almond, are produced almost exclu- 
sively on the wood of the preceding year ; and that wood seldom produces 
blossom a second time. There are, however, occasional small spurs produced 
on two-year-old wood, but these cannot be reckoned on. The great art in 
pruning the peach, therefore, is to produce an annual crop of young wood 
all over the tree, which can only be done by shortening back lateral shoots 
on every part of it. In the course of the spring and summer, all the shoots 
that are not wanted to bear the following year should be disbudded (771), 
that is, entirely removed as soon as the buds begin to expand; and in the course 
of the winter pruning following, all the shoots left ought to be shortened 
according to their strength and situation, the weakest cut to one or two buds, 
the less weak to one half or more of their length, and the strongest shortened 
one-fourth or one-third of their length. According to the common mode of 
fan-training (801), Callow's mode (803), and Hay ward's mode (804), these 
shoots are left all over the tree, as equally as can be done by the eye, or as 
the shoots produced admit of ; but, according to Seymour's mode of training 
(802), they are left at regular and fixed distances, and the buds being all 
removed between these fixed points, no laterals are produced anywhere else ; 
so that the tree once fully formed on this system, nothing can be more 
regular than its future treatment. Notwithstanding these advantages, 
Seymour's system has not been adopted to such an extent as might have 
been expected ; and the same remark is applicable to Mr. Callow's system, 
which we agree, with Mr. Glendinning (see an excellent article on the cul- 
ture of the peach on open walls in the G. M. for 1841), appears a great 
improvement on the common fan mode of training. 

1300. Mr. Callows mode of training. — By the common fan manner of 
training, Mr. Callow found that the lower branches soon became weak, 
from having been laid in at a less angle than the others, which deprived them 
of their due proportion of sap. While striving to obviate this difficulty, he 
AY as struck with the form of the lower branches of some elms, which, though 
they projected ever so far horizontally, still had their extremities always ' 



THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 



591 



inclined upwards. Taking these branches for his guide, he altered his mode 
of training, and, by turning up the extremities of the branches, so as to give 
all an equal inclination and equal curvature, convex towards the horizontal 
line of the earth, he was enabled to maintain all parts of the tree in equal 
vigour. This mode of training, which he adopted about 1800, has continued 
to be his practice ever since, and under it the trees have grown to a large size, 
and have continued in a full state of health to a considerable age. By the 
adoption of this very simple and natural system of training, Mr. Glendinning, 
who adopted it extensively at Bicton in 1832, observes, various inexplicable 
failures will be avoided ; such as premature decay, an unequal quantity of 
young wood in the centre of the tree, and the constant and grievous calamity 
of losing the entire under limbs, which completely disfigures the tree for ever. 
Hay ward s mode of training is founded on the same principle as Mr. Callow's, 
viz. that the sap will always flow in the greatest quantity to the most vertical 
buds. 

1301. Shortening the young wood of the peach. — This is practised by all 
the different modes of training that are or ever have been used in Britain. 
The effect of shortening the shoots of the peach is not merely to throw more 
sap into the fruit, but to add vigour to the tree generally, by increasing the 
power of the roots relatively to the branches. The peach being a short- 
lived tree, it has been justly remarked by Mr. Thompson, were it allowed 
to expend all the power of its accumulated sap every year, it would soon 
exhaust itself, and die of old age ; as the standard peach trees do in a few 
years in the unpruned American orchards, and in those of Italy, and as the 
almond does in the neighbourhood of Lyons and Vienna. No tree is so apt, 
as the peach, to produce over-luxuriant shoots, technically water-shoots, or 
gourmands. These may alwaj'S be known by the extraordinary vigour of 
their commencement, which is almost always from latent buds after the 
regular buds of the tree have been developed. These buds ought to be 
rubbed off immediately, and as fast as they appear, in order to throw the sap 
which would have been wasted by them into the other parts of the tree ; or 
if the entire tree is too strong, the shoots may be left to grow, care being 
taken to disleaf them (772) as fast as they advance, in order that no new 
sap may be generated. Besides these over-luxuriant shoots, others will arise 
not suitably situated ; as when they come on the main stem, or on the fronts 
of the branches, technically fore-right shoots ; all of which ought to be 
rubbed off, retaining only such as are required to bear fruit the following 
year ; such as may be wanted to supply the place of a branch which has 
been or is to be cut out ; such as may be wanted for propagation, and such 
as are terminal, unless the tree has attained its utmost limits when the ter- 
minal shoots may be stopped at two or three joints. What is called the 
summer pruning of peach trees, commences as early in spring as the leaf- 
buds can be distinguished from the blossom-buds, when all that are not 
wanted of either should be rubbed off ; and it continues till the fall of the 
leaf, immediately after which the winter pruning may be performed, but 
should not be deferred later than February. In winter pruning the rule, as 
in all similar cases, is to cut to a leaf-bud, and as this sometimes is situated 
between twin blossom-buds, care must be taken not to injure the latter, as 
it is in such situations that the fruit is produced with least expense of sap 
to the tree ; the branch attracting sap to the fruit from the root, and also 
returning sap to it from the leaves. When there is only one blossom- 

Q Q 2 



592 



THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 



bud, a shoot is as necessary for it as if there had been two. In either case 
the shoot may be shortened to three or four leaves after the fruit is stoned, 
which will be quite sufficient to maintain a circulation of the sap in connec- 
tion with the fruit. 

1302. In summer-pruning the peach in cold, late situations, it is found 
that stopping the shoots, when they are an inch or two in length, facilitates 
the production of blossom-buds and the ripening of the wood. The French 
method of disbudding in spring and summer, and pinching off with the finger 
and thumb in the latter season, instead of leaving the young shoots to 
become woody, and afterwards using the knife, and also their mode of 
pinching off the blossom-buds, instead of allowing more blossoms than are 
wanted to set their fruit, and afterwards thinning it out, and of taking out 
all the leaf-buds not wanted as soon as they have swelled a little, so as to 
have very few shoots to remove, well deserves to be imitated by the British 
gardener. A French gardener seldom uses his knife to a peach-tree in the 
summer season ; and, indeed, if he were to allow as much of the strength of 
the tree to run to waste in fruits to be thinned out, and shoots to be cut away 
in winter, his bofders, which are narrow, shallow, and poor compared with 
those in British gardens, would be unable to support the tree. 

1303. Thinning the fruit must be attended to when the blossoms have 
not been thinned, or not thinned sufficiently : it should commence when the 
fruit are about the size of large peas, and be continued till the stoning season 
is over. Healthy trees may be allowed to ripen four peaches to every 
square foot. The smaller the number and the larger the size, the less will 
the tree be exhausted in proportion to the weight of fruit produced ; for, as 
we have already observed, a greater exhaustion is produced by the seed and 
stone than by their fleshy envelope. Ten dozen of peaches, weighing 12 lbs., 
will exhaust the tree nearly twice as much as five dozen amounting to the 
same weight. 

1304. Treatment of the peach border. — The peach, as well as most other 
wall-fruit trees, Mr. Errington, Mr. Glendinning, and other scientific and 
experienced gardeners, observe, is most commonly planted in borders far too 
deep and too rich. If a good loamy soil from the surface of an old pasture- 
ground can be procured, and if the border is not cropped, it will require no 
manure for several years. If the soil is either poor at first, or becomes poor, 
bone manure may be applied, as decomposing slowly ; or if the trees become 
weak, the surface may be annually mulched with stable dung. All fruit- 
tree borders, Mr. Glendinning observes, should be occasionally forked up ; 
but no spade should ever be used for this purpose, not even among goose- 
berry bushes ; for more injury is done by it than most people are aware of. 
No vegetables should ever be cultivated in fruit-tree borders, more especially 
none that require manure, Mr. Callow stirs his peach borders with the 
fork frequently during the summer months ; digs them slightly with the 
spade in winter, laying the soil up in ridges ; and he never sows or plants 
vegetables on peach borders, except a few lettuce or endive near the walk. 
Throughout the summer the peach border will require occasional watering, 
more especially when the fruit is approaching to maturity; but water ought 
to be withheld when it is stoning and when it is ripening ; as in the former 
case it is found to cause the fruit to drop. 

1305. Over luxuriant peach trees may be reduced by disleafing, root-pruning 
(776), or, what is perhaps the best mode, especially if the tree has been too 



THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 



593 



deep planted, or that effect has been produced by the sinking of the tree or 
the raising of the border, by taking up and replanting, bringing the roots 
within six inches of the surface. The operation may be performed in autumn 
immediately after the fall of the leaf ; and during next summer the surface 
of the border should be well mulched to retain moisture and encourage the 
production of fibres. 

1306. Old decaying peach trees may sometimes be renovated by cutting 
them down and renewing the soil, but in general it is far better to root them 
out and plant young trees. 

1307. Protecting peach trees during winter and spring. — Tn cold elevated 
situations some gardeners protect the branches of their peach trees from 
severe frost by tucking in among them branches of broom, birch, or beech, 
which serve to check the radiation of heat from the wall. Others, when 
the branches are frozen, water them well before sunrise, which, when the 
vegetable tissue is not too far ruptured by frost, saves the branches from 
injury by thawing them more gradually than the sun would do, as well 
as by supplying moisture for evaporation. Mr. Barron, at Elvaston Castle, 
in Derbyshire, a low moist situation, found his peaches, apricots, and plums 
very subject to the gum, and to die off by whole branches at a time. 
Suspecting that this might be owing to the effect of the frost on the imper- 
fectly ripened wood, he hung up netting made of hay ropes before the trees, 
and at about one foot distance from them, in the beginning of winter, leaving 
them on all spring, and has never since experienced these evils. The 
blossoms of peach trees are also protected by tucking in branches of spruce- 
fir, birch, or beech, which have been cut in summer, and dried and stacked 
on purpose, and which having been so treated retain their leaves ; and also 
yew branches, the leaves of which do not drop off like those of the pine and 
fir tribe. The best protection of this kind, however, is afforded by the leaves 
of common fern, tucked in along the shoots as shown in fig. 376. The 




Fig. 376. Branch of a peach-tree, with the young wood protected hy fern. 

fitalk of the leaf is introduced into a shred at the base of the lateral 
shoot which is to bear the fruit, and the point of it is brought to the point 
of the lateral ; it is there wound once or twice round the nail near the point 
of the shoot, taking care to reserve an inch or two of the point of the frond to 
be turned in between the point of the shoot and the wall, which is a sufficient 
fastening if properly done. As soon as the fruit is set the fern is removed. 

The most efficient mode, however, of protecting the peach and all other 
wall-fruit trees, is by a thin canvas covering let down from a temporary 
wooden coping, as used in the Horticultural Society's Garden (463). Another 
very good mode is that which is described as adopted by Mr. Callow. Iron 
rods are attached horizontally to the temporary coping, from which bunt-' 



594 



THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 



ing is suspended by rings ; each piece of bunting is of the size of the 
tree ; and in the day-time it is drawn from the sides to the middle, and 
fastened to the wall till near sunset, when it is spread out again. A very 
efficient mode is to cover the wall with double netting, and allow it to remain 
on till the fruit is fairly set. This mode dispenses with much daily labour, 
and, like the thin canvas, protects the blossoms from the frequently too 
powerful rays of the sun, which, striking against a south v»'all, is more than 
the peach, as a standard in its native country, has to bear at the blossoming 
period of the season. 

1808. Growing the peach on a flued wall. — When this is the case, fire 
should not be applied till after the fruit has stoned, the object being not to 
force forward the blossoming of the trees in spring, but to accelerate the 
ripening of the fruit and wood in autumn. The maturation of the wood 
may, in some cases, require the border to be thatched to throw off heavy 
rains, and lessen the flow of moisture to the shoots. 

1309. The acceleration of the ripening of a crop of peaches on a common 
-wall has been effected by covering the border, to the width of five or six feet 
from the bottom of the wall, with tiles; the reflection of the heat from 
which has been found by Mv. Barron (G. M. 1840,) to ripen the fruit 
in the lower part of the wall, a fortnight before that on the upper part. 
The retardation of a crop may be effected on the same principle, by inter- 
posing a screen of canvas, or boards, or any other convenient medium 
between the trees and the sun. It should, however, be placed merely as a 
screen, and not as a preventive against the escape of radiant heat from 
the wall and ground, a principal object in spring covering ; when retardation 
is required, the screen should be placed so as to intercept the sun's rays, 
leaving at the same time an opening at top for the escape of radiant heat. 

1310. Gathering should take place a day or two before the fruit is to be 
used, and before it is dead ripe, and it should be laid on clean paper in the 
summer fruit-room. Peaches may be gathered in the heat of the day 
without any deterioration of flavour ; in this respect they are very diff^erent 
from such northern fruits as the gooseberry, currant, and strawberry, which 
should be gathered in the morning. Provision for the dropping of ripe fruit 
should be made as already directed (998). 

1311. Diseases, Insects, S^c. — The peach and nectarine are liable to the 
honey-dew, mildew, gum, blister, and canker. The mildew may be de- 
stroyed by Avatering the leaves and dusting them with sulphur ; but little 
can be done with the other diseases, excepting taking care that the regimen 
is suitable. The blister (la cloque, Fr.) is produced by cold when the leaves 
are just expanding, and it thickens and distorts them in such a manner, as to 
prevent the proper elaboration of the sap. Nothing can be done with them but 
taking them off^,as soon as warmer w^eather favours the production of healthier 
foliage. Lifting the trees and replanting them in fresh soil, and taking care 
that the shoots are annually thoroughly ripened, will check incipient canker 
and gum, and enable trees tainted with these diseases to continue bearing for 
some years longer than they otherwise would have done. The red spider, 
the chermes, the black and green aphis, and the coccus, attack the peach. 
The last should be washed off by syringing with soft-soap and water, or 
with clear w^ater, and a hard brush. The chermes is the cause of the 
leaves rising into unsightly red blister-like tubercles, and can only be de- 
stroyed by the use of tobacco-water, which, after it has taken effect, may be 



THE ALMOND. 



595 



washed off with clear water. The curled leaves, however, bemg better than 
no leaves at all, should not be taken off till the shoot has elongated and pro- 
duced two or three perfect leaves. For the other insects mentioned, wash- 
ing abundantly with lime-water, or even with common clear water, will in 
general keep them under. In order to destroy the eggs of insects which 
may be deposited on the branches, many gardeners wash them over after the 
spring pruning with a mixture of lime-water, so thick as to act like white- 
wash, and form an incrustation on the shoots, which prevents or retards the 
hatching of the eggs by the exclusion of air ; others use a mixture of soft- 
soap, sulphur, lime, and soot, which destroys the eggs ; and some use soft- 
soap and sulphur alone. In general, however, where the trees and soil are 
in a good state, and their treatment proper, the free use of clear water will 
answer the purpose of all other washes. Woodlice, earwigs, the large blue 
fly, and wasps, attack the fruit when it is ripening, and may be collected by 
means of bundles of bean-stalks or reeds, flower-pots partially stufled with 
hay, and glasses or bottles of sugared water. See the Chapter on Insects. 

1312. The essential points of peach culture are thus given by Mr. Callow, 
already mentioned : — " Use a strong loam for the border ; never crop it ; 
add no manure ; keep the trees thin of wood by disbudding and the early 
removal of useless wood ; shorten each shoot according to its strength, at the 
spring pruning ; elevate the ends of the leading branches so that they may 
all form the same curvilinear inclination with the horizon and, what is of 
the utmost importance in the culture of the peach, at all times keep the trees 
in a clean and healthy state." — (Gard. Mag. vol. x. p. 40.) 

1313. Forcing the peach and nectarine. — See 989 to 1017. 

SuBSECT. III.— The Almond. 

1314. The Almond, Amygdalus L. (Amandier, Fr. ; Mandelbaum, Ger.; 
Amandelboom, Dutch; Mandorlo, Ital. ; and Almendro, Span.; Arb. Brit. 
vol. ii. p. 674 ; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 263), is a deciduous 
tree, a native of Persia and other Eastern countries, closely resembling the 
peach, and supposed, as we have already observed (1286), to be that fruit 
in its unimproved state. There are two kinds — the common or sweet 
almond, (A. communis, Z/.), and the bitter almond (A. c. amara, Dec.) 
Though these sorts are kept nominally distinct, yet when either are raised 
from seed, both bitter and sweet almonds are frequently found on the 
same tree ; and this is frequently the case even with grafted varieties. 
Of both the bitter and the sweet almond, the kernel of the stone is the only 
part used ; that of the sweet almond is brought to the dessert in an imper- 
fectly ripe, and also in a ripe, and in a dried state. Both kinds are culti- 
vated in the south of Europe, and in the Levant. The kernels are much 
used in cookery, confectionery, perfumery, and medicine. The varieties 
best deserving culture are, the tender-shelled, the fruit of wdiich is small ; 
the sweet, which is larger ; and the Jordan, w^hich is also large and sweet. 
These and all the other varieties are propagated by budding on the plum, and 
sometimes on seedling almonds for dry situations. The trees are commonly 
grown as standards, and as such will ripen fruit in fine seasons as far north 
as York ; but at Edinburgh they require a wall. In Britain, the tree is 
more valued for its blossoms than for its fruit ; but nevertheless, in every 
suburban garden, where there is room, there ought to be a tree or two for 
the latter purpose, as well as several for the former. 



596 



THE APRICOT. 



SuBSECT. IV. — The Apricot. 

1315. The ^/)Wco^, Armeniaca vulgaris, Zam. (Abricotier, jFV. / Apriko- 
senbaum, Ger.; Abrikoos, Dutch; Alhicocco^ Ital. ; and Albarico-gueira, 
Span. ; Arh. Brit. vol. ii. p. 682 ; and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 267), 
is a low deciduous tree, a native of Caucasus, very extensively distributed 
through the countries of the East, and cultivated in European gardens 
from the time of the Romans. In British gardens the apricot is the earliest 
wall-fruit, flowering with the sloe in March, ripening about the end of July, 
and supplying the dessert till the middle of September. Its uses are the 
same as the peach ; in addition to which it makes excellent marmalades, 
jellies and preserves, and tarts even when gathered green, and of the 
smallest size. In the Oases of Upper Egypt the fruit of a particular variety 
called the Musch-Musch, is produced in great quantities and dried, so as to 
form an article of commerce. 

1816. — Varieties. These are much less numerous than those of the peach. 
The following selection is by Mr. Thompson. 

Large early, syn. Abricot gros precoce. Large, somewhat oblong, com- 
pressed, bright orange red next the sun, elsewhere pale orange ; flesh juicy 
and rich ; ripens about the middle of July. The earliest large sort of 
apricot. 

Royal. liarge, roundish oval, resembling the Moorpark in appearance and 
equalling it in richness of flavour, but diff^ers in ripening about ten days 
earlier, and having no pervious channel along the edge from the base to the 
apex of the stone ; ripens about the end of July or beginning of August; 
a valuable sort. 

Moorpark, syn. Abricot peche, &c. Large, roundish, brownish-orange, 
intermixed with ferruginous specks ; flesh very rich and juicy ; stone pecu- 
liarly perforated, so that a pin may be introduced from the base to the apex ; 
ripens in the beginning or middle of August. 

Breda, syn. Abricot de HoUande, &c. Rather small, roundish, or ob- 
tusely four-sided, deep brownish orange ; flesh deep orange, juicy, rich, and 
high-flavoured. Ripens from the beginning to the middle of August, on 
walls, and as the tree will succeed as a standard the fruit may be obtained 
at a much later period of the season ; the fruit from standards will, of course, 
be smaller, but it will be richer, and it is excellent for preserving. As 
the tree generally bears over-abundantly in the open ground, when the 
season is favourable for the fruit setting, it requires and deserves a little 
shortening and thinning of the shoots as a winter pruning. 

1317. — Apricots for walls of different aspects. See p. .422. 

Turkey, syn. Large Turkey. Large, roundish, deep yellow, with brown- 
ish orange-red spots ; flesh pale yellow, juicy, and rich ; ripens in end of 
August or beginning of September. 

1318. Apricots for the walls of a Cottage. The best is the Moorpark, 
which in Lincolnshire, and other parts of England, bears well on the gable 
ends, and ripens early in consequence of the heat communicated to the wall 
by the flue. The fruit is thinned, and the thinnings are sent to market for 
tarts, and afterwards the ripe fruit, the whole producing twenty shillings or 
upwards. Next to the Moorpark the Breda may be taken as the hardiest, 
and the red Masculine as the earliest. 

1319. — Propagation, nursery culture, &^c. For dwarfs, the apricot is gene- 



THE APRICOT. 



597 



rally budded on the muscle plum, or on any other variety ; but the Breda, 
when intended for a standard, is budded on the St. Julian plum, which pro- 
duces a strong clean stem. The Moorpark is sometimes budded on an 
apricot stock ; and when it is wanted to have very dwarf plants, some recom- 
mend budding one variety on another that has been previously budded on a 
mirabelle plum. As the apricot is a very early plant, budding may be com- 
menced sooner than in the case of the peach. The nursery culture is the 
same as for that tree, and the plants remove equally well after being three or 
four years trained. 

1520. — Final planting^ pruning^ S^c, In the warmer parts of the country, 
an east or west aspect is preferred to the south, the heat of which brings 
forward the blossom too early, and renders the fruit mealy. Where the fruit 
is only wanted for tarts, it may be grown as a standard or as an espalier. 
It would well repay to give standards a winter pruning in order to regulate 
the branches, and moderately shorten the young shoots to prevent their 
becoming naked as they elongate, a tendency which both standard apricots 
and peaches have in this climate. The blossom is produced chiefly on the 
young shoots of the last year, but partly also upon spurs which rise on the two 
or three years old shoots. The fan method of training is generally preferred ; or 
the horizontal manner, with the branches elevated so as to form an angle of 22^" 
with the horizon. We mention 22^" rather than 20°, because experience has 
taught us that the parts into which a right angle is divided, look best when they 
are halves, quarters, or thirds. The reason seems to be that the relation of 
these divisions to a right angle is more easily ascertained by the eye. In 
almost every other respect, what has been advanced respecting the pruning, 
training, and general management of the peach, will apply to the apricot. The 
chief point of difference in the treatment required for the two trees Ls founded 
on the precocity of the apricot, which has given rise to the following re- 
marks, the scientific and experienced author of which will be readily recog- 
nised by our readers. " In consequence of the tree blossoming so early, its 
blossoms, particularly in the case of young trees, are extremely liable to 
drop off in setting. This is not to be wondered at, when it is considered that 
the ground is frequently at the time (March) in as cold a state as at any 
period of the whole season, neither the sun s heat nor the warm rains having 
reached so far below the surface as to wami the soil in contact with the 
roots ; and thus whilst the latter are in a medium perhaps a little above 
freezing, the tops, exposed to a bright sun against a wall, are at that period 
of the season occasionally in a temperature as high as 90° or 100° Fahr. 
The injurious effects of this disparity must be sufficiently obvious to every 
one, and the only remedy to be adopted is to have a very complete drainage 
below the roots, and the whole soil of the border, not retentive, but of a 
pervious nature. If it could also be kept perfectly dry previous to the com- 
mencement of vegetation, and then only allowed to receive the rain when 
warm, avoiding the cooling effects of melting snow and hail, the tree would 
thus be placed under circumstances comparatively more natural." (Penny 
Cyc, vol. X., p. 500.) Thatching the border, therefore, for the sake of the 
roots, and covering the branches with netting of hay ropes, may very pro- 
perly be adopted with the apricot, in all low, cold, moist situations (838). 
Naked stems or branches of apricot trees trained against a wall are apt to 
be scorched to death in summer, and hence limbs or whole trees are some- 
times lost. In order to prevent this, it is advisable to train shoots so as to 



598 



THE FIG. 



protect such naked parts from the direct rays of the sun ; and if some of 
these shoots should be at variance with the regular disposition of the 
branches, still the mind would find sufficient compensation for the slight breach 
of irregularity that might be apparent, in the discovery of design and utility. 
The fruit should be gathered before it is thoroughly ripe, otherwise it is apt 
to become mealy. The tree is much less subject to insects than the peach ; 
probably from the more coriaceous nature of its bark and leaves. It does 
not force well, but one or two plants of the red Masculine may be tried in the 
peach-house. 

SuBSECT. V. — The Fig, 

1321. The Fig, Ficus Carica L. (Figuier, Fr.; Feigenbaum, Ger.; Vig- 
genboom, Dutch ; Fico, Ital. ; and Higuera, Span. — Arb. Brit., vol. iii., 
p. 1865, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 712), is a low, deciduous tree, 
a native of Asia and Barbary, in situations near the sea, and naturalised in 
Italy and the south of Europe, where it has been cultivated since the time 
of the Romans, as it has been in Greece and Egypt from the earliest ages. 
In British gardens the fig is chiefly cultivated under glass ; but it will arrive 
at maturity on the open wall in warm situations, and indeed wherever the 
grape will ripen. The fruit is of no use, except in a ripe state, when it is 
much prized for the dessert by many persons, while others prefer the dried 
figs of commerce. The fig is much cultivated in the south of France and 
Italy, where the varieties are numerous. Among the best of those grown 
in British gardens are the following : — 

Brown Turkey, s^^n. Brown Italian. Fruit middle-sized, obovate ; skin 
brown; pulp very delicious; the plant equally desirable for growing against 
a wall or in pots. 

Brunswick, syn. Madonna, &c. Fruit very large ; skin pale green on 
the shaded side, next the sun of a brownish-red ; flesh pinkish, extremely 
rich, sweet, and high-flavoured ; ripe the beginning and middle of August. 
The leaves deeply and more beautifully divided than in any other variety. 
" This," says Mr. Lindley (^Guide to the Orchard, S)C.), " is one of the most 
useful of the hardy figs. In a south-eastern corner, trained against a wall, 
it ripens by the middle of August in even unfavourable seasons. In an 
ordinary summer, in the neighbourliood of London, it begins to mature by 
the beginning of that month. It is, perhaps, the largest purple fig we have, 
and the most useful variety that can be selected for a small garden." At 
Whiteknight's, near Reading, it ripens as a standard. 

Marseilles, syn. Pocock, &c. Fruit small ; the skin pale green ; flesh 
white, dry, sweet, and rich ; ripe in August ; succeeds well in the highest 
temperature of a pine-stove, in w^iich it was for many years cultivated by 
the late Mr. Knight, of Downton Castle. On the open wall it is but an 
indifferent bearer. 

Nerii. Fruit rather less than the Marseilles, and more long in shape ; 
skin pale greenish-yellow ; pulp similar in colour to that of a pomegranate ; 
much the richest fig known in Britain ; there is in its juice a slight degree 
of very delicate acid, which renders it peculiarly agreeable to most palates ; 
succeeds best under glass, in a low temperature. 

Pregussata. Fruit large ; skin reddish -purple ; pulp deep red ; remark- 
ably sweet and rich ; seeds unusually small ; ripe from August to October. 

Small brown Ischia. Fruit small ; skin brown ; pulp purple, of a very 



THE POMEGRANATE. 



599 



high flavour ; leaves less divided than most other sorts ; ripe late in Sep- 
tember. 

Yellow Ischia, syn. Cyprus. Fruit large ; skin yellow ; pulp purple and 
well-flavoured; leaves large, and not much divided; ripe in September; 
the tree grows luxuriantly, but does not produce much fruit in England. 

1322. Selections of the best figs for forcing are enumerated, p. 486 ; 
those adapted for walls of different aspects, p. 422 ; the best for a cold, late 
situation are, the brown Turkey, the small green, and black Ischia : the 
first much the best. 

1323. Propagation, culture, S^c. — The fig roots readily from cuttings of 
the ripened wood, and it may be also budded or grafted, and trained in the 
nursery like any other fruit-tree. Young plants, however, of two or three 
years' growth are preferable for removal, as the fig is then very abundantly 
furnished with fibrous roots. It requires a south wall, and a light soil tho- 
roughly drained, to which, however, water of the same temperature as the 
soil must be abundantly supplied as soon as the first leaves are expanded, 
when the fruit is setting ; for if the roots are too dry at that time, the fruit 
will drop off". The fan mode of training is most suitable ; and as the fruit 
in the open air is produced on the points of last year's shoots, a number of 
such shoots should be preserved all over the tree. See on this subject what 
has already been stated on the treatment of the fig under glass (1032). The 
ripening of the fig might be accelerated by planting it against a flued wall, 
and by protecting the wood by fern, spruce branches, or hay-rope netting, 
(1320). In some parts of the south of England the fig is grown on espaliers, 
and as a standard ; and when the winters are mild, it bears abundantly when 
so treated. It succeeds remarkably well at Tarring and Lancing in a loamy 
soil on chalk ; and in the gardens of Arundel Castle, in the same county, 
the standard fig-trees are as large as full grown apple -trees. Care should be 
taken in gathering the fruit not to destroy the bloom, nor to crush it by 
laying one above another. They will keep good only for two or three 
days. 

The culture of the fig under glass^ is given in p. 485. 

SuBSECT. VI. — The Pomegranate. 
1824. The Pomegranate, Punica Granatum, L. (Grenadier, Fr.; Grana- 
tenbaum, Ger. ; Granaatboom, Dutch ; Melagrano, Ital. ; and Granado, 
Span. — Arb. Bi'it., vol. ii., p. 939, and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 456) 
is a low, deciduous tree, in its form and mode of growth not unlike the 
common hawthorn. It is a native of the south of Europe and other warm 
countries ; and has been long cultivated in the north of France as a green- 
house tree, in the same manner as the orange, for the beauty of its fruit. 
This also was formerly the case in England, but at present the pomegranate 
is with us entirely neglected. As it is a most ornamental fruit both on the 
tree and at table ; and as it can be brought to maturity against a south wall 
in situations where the fig will ripen, we would recommend one plant to be 
tried wherever there is room. Plants of the cultivated pomegranate will be 
best obtained from Genoa, where it is propagated by layers and cuttings and 
by grafting on the common sort. It may be trained in the fan manner, 
taking care to leave a sufficient number of lateral spurs, on the points of the 
shoots proceeding from which the blossom is produced. The ripening of the 
fruit might be greatly accelerated by planting the tree against a flued wall, 



600 



THE PINE-APPLE. 



and as the tree is greatly injured by such a winter as that of 1837-8, it 
might be advisable to protect the wood during winter by hay-rope netting. 

SuBSECT. VII. — The Peruvian Cherry. 

1325. The Peruvian Cherry^ Physalis peruviana, is a biennial, a native of 
Buenos Ayres, Lima, and other parts of South America, where it grows 
from six feet to ten feet high. It is occasionally cultivated in British stoves 
and forcing-houses for its fruit, which is produced through the winter as well 
as during summer, and tastes exactly like that of the hardy species (1267). 
It is commonly trained against a trellis, on the back of an early forced vinery 
or peach-house ; but, treated like the capsicum, or love-apple, it will ripen 
its fruit in abundance, during summer, against a south wall. 

Sect. III. — Tropical or Sub-tropical Fruits. 

1326. The fruits which we include in this section are such as require to 
be grown entirely or chiefly under glass, viz. : the pine-apple, banana, the 
orange and lemon tribe, the melon and cucumber, and some fruits not in 
general cultivation, but which may be tried by the curious amateur. 

SuBSECT, I. — The Pine-apple. 

1327. The Pine-apple, Ananassa sativa, Lindl. (Ananas, Fr.; Ger.; and 
Ital.; Pijn appel, Dutch; and Pina, Span.), is a low evergreen shrub, a 
native of South America, the natural history of which having been given in 
p. 443, we have only here to describe the varieties best worth cultivating. 

1328. Pines cultivated chiefly for their high flavour. 

The Queen. One of the best varieties at present known for general cul- 
tivation. It grows freely, fruits early, and, being higher flavoured than 
many of the larger kinds, is still the most valuable for a small family. 
Exposed to a very high temperature in the months of June, July, and 
August, it is liable to become hollow near the core, but early or later in the 
season it is not subject to that defect. It is the sort generally grown by 
gardeners for the London market. The Ripley Queen, a slight variety of 
the common Queen, is probably the best ; the leaves are greener and broader, 
and it does not throw up so many suckers. 

The Moscov) Queen. An excellent variety, but rather a slow grower; the 
fruit is about the same size as the common Queen, but superior to it in 
flavour. 

The Black Jamaica. An excellent fruit at all seasons of the year, but 
particularly in the winter months, when pines rarely come to perfection ; it 
cuts firm to the core, is highly flavoured, keeps some time after it is fully 
ripe, and bears carriage better than any other variety. It is, however, rather 
a slow grower, and the fruit seldom attains a large size. 

The Brown Sugar-loaf. The best of the sugar-loaf kind ; it is a large, 
handsome, and highly-flavoured fruit, swells freely in the winter months ; its 
flesh is firm and juicy. 

The Black Antigua. An excellent and highly flavoured pine if cut when 
it begins to turn from green to yellow, but if allowed to remain on the plant 
until it is quite ripe it loses all its richness. 

1329. Pines cultivated chiefly for their large size* 
The Enville. Deserving a place in collections as one of the handsomest 



TUE BANANA. 



601 



pines in cultivation ; although it is neither rich nor highly-flavoured. The 
crowns are often cock's- comb like. 

The White Providence. May be grown to a large size, and the shape is 
very handsome, but the flavour inferior. 

The Trinidad., syn. Pitch Lake Pine. Said to be grown in the island of 
Trinidad to the weight of 26 lbs. In England it has been grown to the weight 
of 5 lbs. or 6 lbs., and of that size the flavour is good. 

1330. Culture. This is given at length in Sect. I., p. 443, and we shall here 
give a general summary. Plant in turfy, rich, but not adhesive loam, well 
enriched with rotten stable dung or old night soil ; plunge the pots in tan or 
leaves, or some other medium that will produce, or at least retain heat. At no 
period, either of winter or summer, allow the temperature of the air of the 
house to fall lower than 70°, but in summer let it rise for the Queen varieties 
as high as 80° or 85°, and for the other sorts as high as 90° or 100° ; the 
bottom heat should never be under 70°, and it may rise as high as 90° when 
the atmosphere is at or above that temperature ; in summer give air early 
in the morning, and shut up at three in the afternoon with a high temper- 
ature, syringing the plants overhead ; grow the Queen pines by themselves ; 
the Black pines by themselves, as they require a higher temperature ; and 
the large pines also by themselves, as they require larger pots and more room 
than the other kinds. Treated in this manner pines will seldom be infested 
with insects ; but if they should, the remedies have been already given (953). 
To cause a pine to show fruit give it a check by withholding water for a con- 
siderable time, till the leaves have become quite lax and almost flagging, and 
then supply w^ater and heat liberally. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Banana. 

1331. The Banana^ Musa sapientum, L. (Bananier, Fr.j and Pisang, 
G'er.), is a scitamineous plant, the natural history and culture of which has 
been already given, p. 512. Every plant throws up a single flower-stem, 
which flowers and fruits ; after which the plant dies, and is succeeded by a 
sucker. The fruit of none of the varieties contains seed, and hence these 
suckers are the only means of propagation. There are several species or 
varieties, but those best worth cultivating in Britain are the M. s. Cavendishii, 
syn., M. s. chinensis, and the M. s. dacca, both already noticed, and the M. s. 
St. Helenensis, to be afterwards described. Several other kinds have been 
fruited in the Edinburgh Botanic garden, and in the stove of Sir George 
Thomas Staunton, at Leigh Park, Hampshire, but the above three sorts are 
best worth cultivating for their fruit. (See J. M'Nab and R. Carter, in 
G. M. 1842.) 

Musa sapientum^ var. St. Helenensis, the St. Helena Banana, grows to 
the height of fourteen feet. The usual weight of each bunch of fruit is from 
60 lbs. to 80 lbs., being double the weight of the bunches produced by any 
of the other varieties that have fruited in Scotland. It was introduced from 
St. Helena to the Edinburgh Botanic Garden in 1830.— (J. M'Nab, in G. 
M., 1842.) 

M. s. var. ddcca, the dacca Banana, is considered by Mr. M'Nab as 
next in value to the St. Helena variety. Its average height of stem, in the 
Edinburgh Botanic Garden, is seven feet, producing clusters from 10 lbs. to 
20 lbs. weight. The fruit is smaller and drier than that of the St. Helena 
Banana, but perhaps rather higher flavoured. At Leigh Park, this variety, 



602 



THE MELON. 



when allowed plenty of room in a congenial climate, grows twenty feet high, 
with a stem measuring three feet in circumference at the base ; leaves ten 
feet long and three feet broad ; the bunch of fruit weighing above 50 lbs. 
The fruit is more pointed than that of M. s. Cavendishii, and of excellent 
quality. 

M. s. var. Cavendishii, syn. M. s. chinensis, the Duke of Devonshire's 
Banana, is valuable on account of its fruiting at a small size, and within a 
year from the time the suckers are taken off. The fruit is not so plump as 
that of the two preceding varieties, and it has a great tendency to smother 
one half of each cluster in the folds of the leaves, unless very great heat be 
given just at the time it is developing its flower-spike. 

1332. Culture^ S)C. Twenty plants of Musa s. Cavendishii, may be fruited 
within the year, in a pit thirty feet by fifteen feet, and the weight of fruit 
produced may be from 400 lbs. to 500 lbs. An equal weight of pine apples 
may be fruited in the same space in the same time ; but much additional 
room would be required for bringing them forward, for six months at least, 
before they were put into the fruiting-house. The summer temperature for 
the Banana is 65" min., and 85° max., or more with sun heat. Winter 
temperature, 65° min., and 75° max. The Bananas that ripen in winter 
are but little inferior to the summer fruit. For other details see R. Carter, 
in G. M., 1842. 

SuBSECT. III. — The Melon. 

1333. The Melon, Cucumis Melo L. (Melon, Fr. ; Melone, Ger. ; 
Meleon, Dutch; Mellone, Ital. ; and Melon, Span.), is a trailing or climbing 
tendrilled annual, the history and culture of which will be found in p. 487> 
and the following are the best varieties at present in cultivation. 

1334. Melons with redfle§h. 

Black rock., syn. Rock Cantaloup. Fruit very large, round, depressed at 
both extremities, covered with knobs, or carbuncles ; weight, from 8lbs. to 
14lbs. A large showy fruit, but of inferior flavour. The Dutch rock can- 
taloup is a smaller-fruited variety, weighing from 51bs. to 81bs. 

Early Cantaloup. Fruit small, nearly round, ribbed, but not warted ; 
flavour good ; weight from 21bs. to 41bs. Valuable for its earliness and for 
being a great bearer. 

Netted Cantaloup.^ syn. White-seeded Cantaloup. Fruit round, and rather 
small ; skin pale green, closely reticulated ; flesh dark reddish orange, with 
a rich sugary juice ; weight, from 21bs. to 5lbs. 

1335. Melons with green flesh. 

Franklyns Gi'een-flesh. Roundish, sometimes a little netted, skin green- 
ish-yellow when ripe, flesh exceedingly tender and rich ; weight from 31bs. 
to 41bs. One of the best melons for a general crop. Bailey'' s Green-flesh is 
an improved variety of this kind. 

Improved Green-flesh. Roundish, not ribbed like most of the other kinds 
of green-flesh ; slightly netted, skin thin, and pale yellow when ripe ; flesh 
thick, green, and of exquisite flavour ; weight, from 4lbs. to 51bs. A good 
bearer, and one of the best of cantaloup melons. 

Beechwood. Oval, greenish yellow, netted ; flesh pale-green, rich and 
sugary ; a good bearer, and one of the very best. 



THE CUCUMBER. 



603 



1336. Persian Melons. 

Keising Melon. Egg-sliaped, about eight inches long by five inches wide 
in the middle ; colour, pale yellow, netted all over ; flesh nearly white, high- 
flavoured, and texture like that of a ripe Beurre pear. 

Large Germek Melon. Shaped like a depressed sphere ; usually six inches 
deep, and varying from seven inches to nine inches in breadth ; skin sea- 
green, and closely netted ; flesh green, becoming paler toward the middle, 
firm, j.uicy, rich, and high-flavoured ; weight from 51bs. to 61bs. ; ripens 
early, and a good bearer. 

Green Hoosainee Melon. Egg-shaped ; five inches long by four inches 
broad ; skin light-green, netted ; flesh pale greenish- white, tender, full of 
pleasant, sweet juice. Hardy, and a great bearer. 

Persian Pine-apple Melon. Ovate, netted ; skin of a deep colour when 
ripe ; flesh granulated, the juice not so luscious as in some other varieties ; 
weight about 31bs. A handsome variety. 

Sweet Ispahan. Fruit ovate, from eight inches to twelve inches long ; 
skin nearly smooth, of a deep sulphur colour ; flesh white, extending about 
half way to its centre, crisp, sugary, and very rich ; weight 51bs. to 61bs. 

1337. Winter Melons. 

Winter Melons are but little cultivated in England, but they are 
common in the south of France and Spain, and annually imported by the 
fruiterers in the autumn. They are oval or oblong, netted, with white 
flesh, and a sugary flavour. The two best varieties are the Dampsha, and 
the Green Valencia. Both sorts have the valuable property of keeping till 
the winter months, if hung up by the stalks, or in nets, in a dry room. 

1338. Water Melons. 

The Water Melon is the Cucurbita citrullus, L. (Pasteque, Fr. ; 
Wassermelone, Ger. ; Water -meloen, Dutch ; Cocomero, Ital. ; and Arbusi, 
is a trailing annual, producing a large, round, smooth, dark -green 
fruit, with dark seeds. It is full of watery juice, which is refreshing, but 
almost without flavour. It is much cultivated in Italy and other parts of 
the south of Europe, but very rarely in England. The foliage is very orna- 
mental, and the shoots extend to a great length. The time for ripening 
melons to a high degree of perfection in Britain extends from about the 
middle of J une to the middle or latter end of September. Ripened before 
or after these periods the flavour is inferior, for want of sun. 

SuBSECT. IV. — The Cucumber. 
1339. The Cucumber, Cucumis sativus L. (Concombre, Fr.; Gurke, Ger.j 
Komkommer, Dutch; Citriuolo, Ital. ; and Pepino, or Cohombro, Span.) 
is a trailing or climbing tendrilled annual, of which we have already given 
the history and culture, p. 494. The varieties in cultivation are continually 
changing, but those considered the best, at the present time, are the 
following : — 

Syon House. Skin of a smooth and shining green, with few or no spines; 
usual length between eight inches and nine inches. Hardy, and a great 
bearer, and, according both to Duncan and Ayres, the best of all cucumbers 
for pot culture. 

Hort's Early Frame. Skin of a deep green, with black spines ; length 



604 



TUE PUMPKIN AND GOURD. 



from eight inches to ten inches. A very early cucumber, and well adapted 
for winter forcing. 

Duncans Victoria. Skin deep green, set tliickly with black spines; length 
from twenty-four inches to twenty-eight inches. ]\lr. Duncan, who raised 
this variety, has had fruit four inches long previous to the expansion of the 
bloom, and twenty-four inches long in nine days from the setting ! He con- 
siders it one of the finest varieties of cucumber in existence. 

Weedons Cucumber is an excellent kind for early forcing, and is a good 
bearer; but, according to Ayres, it is neither long nor finely formed. Allen's 
Victory of Suffolk Mr. Ayres considers a splendid variety ; he has grown it 
to the length of twenty-four inches in the open garden, and to thirty inches 
in pots. Snow's Horticultural Prize approximates to Mr. Ayres' criterion 
of a perfect cucumber the nearest of any he has yet met with. The Small 
Russian cucumber is considered the best for pickling, and the large white 
Bonneuil for stewing. 

SuBSECT. V — The Pumpkin and Gourd. 

13-iO. The Pumpkin, or more properly Pompion, and Gourd, Cucurbita L. 
(Courge, Fr.j Kiirbis, Ger.; Kauwoerde, Dutch; Zucca, Ital.; Calabaza, 
Span.; and Albobaro, Port.) are trailing or climbing tendrilled annuals, 
natives of tropical climates, and long in cultivation, both in the old and new 
world, for their fruit. This, in some varieties, is used in a ripe state, and in 
others before it is fully grown, in soups, stews, pies, tarts, boiled or fried, and 
as a substitute for greens or spinach. In Hungar}^ sugar has been obtained 
from the gourd at the rate of 100 lbs. to between 2000 lbs. and 8000 lbs. of 
pumpkins ; and an excellent edible oil is obtained there from the seeds, at 
the rate of 1 lb. of oil to 5 lbs. of seeds. The tender points of the shoots may 
in many cases be substituted for the fruit, or used as greens or spinach. The 
kinds in cultivation are very numerous, but the leading sorts are as follow : — 

The Pumpkin, or Pompion., C. Pepo, L. (Potiron, Fr.; Pfebenkiirbis, 
Ger,) Large, roundish, smooth, green striped or blotched with white. The 
oldest variety in cultivation in England ; tender and excellent in an unripe 
state as a substitute for greens, and mixed with apples in pies, but not near 
so good when fully ripe. 

Spanish Pumpkin., C. Pepo var. L.; Potiron d' Espagne, Fr.; Spanische 
Pfebenkiirbis, Ger. Middle size, somewhat flattened ; skin green, smooth, 
hard ; flesh firm, and of an excellent flavour. Said to be greatly preferable 
to the precedmg variety. 

The Vegetable Marrow, C. ovifera, var. L.; Courge a la moelle, Fr.; 
Markige Melonen-kiirbis, Ger. ; Succada, Ital. Under the middle size, oval, 
five inches to eight inches long ; pale yellow ; flesh tender till the fruit is 
ripe, when it becomes stringy. One of the best gourds in cultivation when 
used in a young state, and before the seeds begin to be matured. The sweet 
gourd of Brazil closely resembles this variety both in form and properties. 

The Mammoth Gourd, syn. American Gourd, C. maxima, Pepo, Dec./ 
Potiron jaune, Fr.; and Melonen-kiirbis, Ger. Very large, sometimes 
weighing 160 lbs., and one has been grown of the enormous weight of 245 lbs., 
at Luscombe, in Devonshire ; round ; skin yellow ; flesh deep yellow, solid. 
Used as a substitute for turnips, carrots, &c., in soups and broths, and for 
potatoes and other vegetables, with meat. It is only used when ripe, and 
in that state will keep several months, even though a portion should be cut 



THE PUMPKIN AND GOURD. 



605 



off for use every day. The Harrison pumpkin is a new American variety of 
the Mammoth, supposed to be tlie most productive known. 

The Squash-melon pumpkin., or bush gourd^ C. Melopepo, L. ; Courge 
melonee, i^r. ; Melonen-kiirbis, Ger. Middle size; round; skin yellow 
when ripe. Chiefly used in a green state when of the size of a hen's egg. 
Much cultivated in America as food, for men, cattle, and swine. The early 
orange squash is mentioned by Kenrick (^American Orchardist^ 1841. p. 870), 
as a new summer variety ; very early, and of superior quality. The Canada 
crook-neck, he says, is, without doubt, superior to any and all others for a 
late or main crop : the fruit, in a dry and mild temperature, will keep till 
the following summer. The seeds of these two varieties, we believe, may be 
obtained of Mr. Charlwood. 

The Turlan pumpkin., or Turk's-cap, C. Pepo, var. clypeata, L. ; Gerau- 
mon turban, or Patisson, Fr.; Pastenkiirbis, Ger.; and Zucca Gerusalemme, 
Ital.; the warted gourd, C. verrucosa, L.; the orange gourd, C. aurantia, 
L.; the bottle gourd, or false calabash, C. Lagenaria, Z., Lagenaria vul- 
garis, var. turbinata, Ser.; and various other sorts to be found in nursery- 
men's catalogues, — are cultivated chiefly as ornamental fruits. The fruit of 
the orange gourd is bitter ; and that of the bottle gourd is said by Dr. Royle 
{Botany of the Himalayas., &c., vol. i., p. 219) to be poisonous. The bottle 
gourd is at first long and cylindrical, like a cucumber, but as it ripens, it 
swells chiefly at the upper end, thus acquiring the form of a Venetian bottle. 
After being gathered, the end of the neck where it was attached to the plant 
is cut off\, the pulp and seeds carefully taken out, and the interior repeatedly 
washed, so as to remove the bitter principle which constitutes the poison. 

1341. Culture. All the sorts are propagated exclusively b}^ seeds, which^ 
being large, require to be covered with nearly an inch of soil. They may 
be sown in April, in a hotbed, under glass, or in a stove, to raise plants for 
transferring to the open garden, at the end of May, under a warm aspect ; or 
for planting out in the middle of May, on a ridge of hot dung, under a 
hand-glass or half-shelter : otherwise sow, at the beginning of May, under a 
hand-glass, without bottom heat, for transplanting into a favourable situa- 
tion ; or sow three weeks later (after the 20th) at once in the open garden, 
under a south wall, for the plants to remain. The smaller-fruited kinds do 
best trained to an upright pole or trellis. From time to time earth up the 
stems of the plants. As the runners extend five feet or more, peg down at 
a joint, and they will take root. Water copiously whenever warm weather 
without showers makes the ground arid; and thin out the shoots where they 
are crowded. With those kinds the fruit of which is gathered green, by no 
means allow any to ripen, because that would stop the production of young 
fruit ; and where the fruit is to be used ripe, or where it is allowed to ripeu 
for the production of seed, do not allow more than one, if the kind is large, 
or two or three, if it is middle-sized or small, to ripen on a plant. Where 
the walks of a garden are covered with wire trellis- work, of the kind indi- 
cated in figs. 124 and 125 in. p. 186, they may be covered with the smaller- 
fruited species, and even with cucumbers and water-melons during summer 
when shade is desirable for the walk ; while, in winter, the treUis will be 
left naked to admit the sun and air to dry the gravel or flag-stone. Nine 
different modes of dressing the tops and fruit of gourds are given by an 
eminent French cook in G. M. vol. viii. p. 184. 

R R 



000 



THE TOMATO, THE EGG-PLANT, 



SuBSECT. VI.— The Tomato, the Egg-plant, and the Capsicum. 

1342. The tomato, or love-apple, Lycop6rsicum esculentum, Dunal, (To- 
mato, Fr. ; Liebes Apfel, Ger. ; Appeltjes der liefde, Dutch ; Porno d'ovo, 
Ital. ; and Tomates, Span.), is a trailing annual, a native of South America, 
which, when raised in a hot-bed, and afterwards planted against a wall in the 
open air, will ripen its fruit in England. The fruit, which is an irregular 
red or yellow berry from one inch to four inches in diameter, is never eaten 
raw, but when ripe is used in soups and sauces, and for other purposes in con- 
fectionery and cookery ; and in a green state it is pickled. The juice is 
made into a sauce, which is considered excellent both for meat and fish. 
Various recipes for making this sauce will be found in G. M. vol. i. p. 853 ; 
and vol. vii. p. 698. The best variety is the large red-fruited. The seeds 
may be sown in a hotbed in March, and transplanted once or twice into pots, 
so as to be ready to transfer to the base of a south wall, or any other situa- 
tion where it will enjoy the full influence of reflected sun heat, about the 
middle or end of May, according to the situation and the season. The 
vacant space between fruit-trees will answer for this purpose : or a tempo- 
rary w^all of boards, five feet high, may be erected ; or, in warm situations, 
they may be trained on a steep bank, raised artificially to an angle of 45°, 
and covered with flat tiles. The plants have a very beautiful effect on an 
espalier ; but they only ripen their fruit there in the warmest summers. 
The fruit will be increased in size, and its maturity accelerated, by stopping 
every shoot after it has produced one cluster of fruit, and by judiciously 
thinning the leaves. The fruit ripens between August and October, and if 
hung up in a dry airy part of the summer fruit-room, it will continue fit for 
use till the end of November. One ripe fruit reserved for seed will contain 
enough for any garden whatever : cleanse the seeds from the pulp, dry them 
thoroughly, and preserve them in paper till next spring. 

1343. The Egg plant, Mad Apple, or Jew's Apple, Solanum Melongena 
L. (Melongene, Fr. ; Tollapfel, Ger. and Dutch ; and Melanzana, Ital.)., 
is an erect branchy annual, a native of Africa, and cultivated in British 
gardens for its fruit, partly as an ornament, and partly for its uses in cookery. 
The plant grows about two feet high ; the fruit is oval, and about the size of 
a hen's egg, or larger when cultivated with extraordinary care. There are 
two varieties, S. m. ovigerum, Poule pondeuse, ou Plante aux oeufs, Fr. in 
which the leaves are without thorns ; and S. m. esculentum, in which there 
are prickles on the stem leaves and calyx. The fruit of the first variety is 
white and shining, and, though used in Spain and Italy, is not considered so 
wholesome as that of the other. Of it there are varieties with the fruit, 
large, small, round, oval, all of a dirty violet colour, which are used in great 
quantities in Paris. It is divided lengthways, and fried in oil with pepper, 
salt, and the crumbs of toasted bread, and in various other ways which are 
detailed at length in French cookery books. In the garden the plant re- 
ceives the same treatment as the tomato, though it requires a greater degree 
of heat to ripen it, and should therefore always be trained against a south 
wall. The fruit hung up will keep through the winter, and therefore the 
seed need not be taken cut till wanted for sowing. 

1344. The Capsicum, or Bird Pepper, Capsicum L> (Piment, Fr. ; 
Spanischer PfefFer, Ger.; Spaanshe peper, Dutch; and Peberone, Ital.) 



AND THE CAPSICUM, 



607 



There are three or more species in cultivation for their fruit, natives of 
tropical climates ; the annual capsicum, the Spanish, or Guinea pepper, 
C. annuum L., a native of South America, growing in our stoves about two 
feet high, and producing pods, long or short, round, long, or cherry-shaped, 
and red or j^ellow, in the autumn of the same year in which the seed is sown; 
the bell pepper, C. grossum, W., a biennial, a native of India, producing 
large red or yellow berries, which remain on through the winter; the 
bird pepper, C. baccatum jL., and the chilies or cayenne pepper, C. 
frutescens, L. To these the French have lately added another variety, 
the tomato capsicum, Piment tomate, Fr.^ the fruit of which is round, 
yellow, furrowed, twisted like the tomato, and in a green state so mild 
as to be eaten sliced in salad. This is also the case with the bullock's- 
heart variety of the common capsicum, the C. cordiforme of Miller. In the 
native countries of these plants there are numerous varieties which are cul - 
tivated for using green, and for pickling, and for making the well-know^n cay- 
enne pepper, which is much employed in curries and other preparations. 
In Britain they are used chiefly for the two former purposes, and for putting 
into vinegar, which from the fruit being in some places called chilies, is called 
Chili vinegar. Medicinally, a small portion of the fruit put into a carious 
tooth is said to give instant relief, and Chili vinegar mixed with barley water 
forms an excellent gargle. It is also, from its pungent and digestive proper- 
ties, the most suitable condiment to all kinds of fish. The ripe fruit ground 
into powder, as cayenne pepper, is in great request as a condiment in every 
part of the world, and more especially in hot countries : both in a green 
and ripe state, it is much used as seasoning, and in the preparation of 
pickles, and it also forms an excellent pickle of itself. Fresh gathered in a 
green state, pickled, ripC;, or as cayenne pepper, taken during dinner, it pre- 
vents flatulency and assists digestion. When ripe, it may be preserved on 
the plant for several years by hanging it up in a dry and modei-ately warm 
room. In some families the green fruit is supplied daily throughout the 
year, from plants kept in the pine-stove. 

1345. Culture of the capsicum, — The seeds should be sown in March on 
a hotbed, and transplanted from one pot into another till the middle of 
June, when in warm parts of the country, the annual sorts may be trans- 
ferred to a warm situation in the open garden, where they will at least pro- 
duce fruit fit for pickling ; and if trained against a south wall, it will ripen 
in many situations when the summer proves warm. In less favourable cir- 
cumstances the plants should be kept in pots and under glass, either in a frame 
or pit, or in a greenhouse. In this state they will ripen their fruit, which 
will remain on the annual plants great part of the winter ; and that of the 
biemiial and frutescent kinds may be kept in the greenhouse in a fruit- 
bearing state for two or three years. The market-gardeners about London, 
who raise immense quantities of capsicums for pickling, transplant first on 
heat, three inches or four inches apart, and in J une plant out in rows, a foot 
I apart and six inches distant in the row. The fruit is gathered and sent to 
i the market as soon as it has attained the proper size ; and not being then 
above half that of the ripe fruit, an immense quantity of pods is produced 
during August and September. A single ripe pod will produce enough of 
seed for a small garden, and it need not be separated from it till wanted for 
sowing. 

R R 2 



60S 



THE ORANGE FAMILY. 



SuBSECT. VII. — The Orange Family. 
134G. The Orange famMy., Citrus, L., includes the sweet orange, bitter 
orange, bergamot orange, lime, shaddock, sweet lemon, true lemon, and 
citron. It is very doubtful how far the orange was known to the Romans, 
though the citron is said to have been cultivated by Palladius in the second 
century ; and it is generally thought that the golden apples of the Hesperides 
either were, or bore some allusion to this fruit. One or more of the varieties 
liave been in cultivation as ornamental trees in the royal orangeries of France 
since the commencement of the fifteenth century, and in the open air in the 
warmest part of the south of Europe for its fruit, for at least three centuries. 
In Britain, at the present time, the different species and varieties are culti- 
vated under glass chiefly as ornamental trees, but in part also for then- fi-uit, 
which from some gardens is sent regularly to table throughout the greater 
part of the year. \V''e shall arrange the different kinds after the Histoire 
Naturelle des Orangers of ISIessrs. Risso and Poiteau, as given by the latter 
author in the Bon Jardinier for 1842. 

1347. The common orange is the C. Aurantium, L. Granger, Fr. ; 
Pomeranze, Ger. ; Oranje appel, Dutch ; Arancio, Ital. ; and Naranja, 
Span. In the year 1500, there was only one orange-tree in France, which 
had been sown in 1421, at Pampeluna, then the capital of the kingdom of 
Navarre. After having been taken from Pampeluna to Chantilly, and from 
Chantilly to Fontainebleau, it was, in 1684, taken to the orangery at Ver- 
sailles, where it still remains, holding the first rank among the numerous trees 
there for its shape and beauty, under the name of the Grand Bourbon, 
Fran9ois I., Lc. From the establishment of the orangery at Versailles, the 
taste for orange-trees spread extensivel}^ in France, till about the middle of 
the eighteenth century, when it began to give way to a taste for more rare 
exotics. The oldest orange-trees in England were planted at Beddington, in 
Surrey, about the end of the sixteenth century, and here as in France it was 
the most popular tree, till it was supplanted by a taste for plants of other 
countries, and more especially the plants of the Cape. At present the taste for 
the orange tribe is reviving, both in France and England. The uses of the fruit 
of the orange in the dessert, in confectionery, and in medicine, and its flowers 
in perfumery, are universally known. The more remarkable varieties of the 
orange are the following : the China, (Arancmo, Ital.,) pear-shaped, Nice, 
tiny-fruited, fingered, blood-red, ribbed, sweet-skinned, Mandarin, and St. 
Michael's. The last two are by far the best worth cultivating for their fruit. 
Tlie Mandarin orange, C. nobilis, H. is small, oblate, with a thin rind, 
which separates of itself from the pulp, so much so, that when full}^ ripe the 
latter may be shaken about in the inside like the kernels of some nuts. It is 
originally from China, but is now cultivated in Malta. The flesh is of a deep 
orange colour, and its juice and flavour superior to those of most varieties. 
The St. Michael's orange is also small, but the skin instead of being of an 
orange colour like that of the Mandarin, is of a pale yellow ; the fruit is 
generally without seed, the rind thin, and the pulp extremely sweet. It is 
the most delicious of all the oranges, and the tree is a great bearer. It is 
in general cultivation in the Azores, from which it is shipped in large 
quantities. The Tangerine orange is strongly recommended by some. 

1348. Bigarade, Seville, or bitter orange, C. Bigaradia, Poit., Bigara- 



THE ORANGE FAMILY. 



609 



dier, Fr.; Melangolo, Ital.^ has-elliptic leaves, with a winged stalk, very 
white flowers, and middle-sized, globose, deep-yellow fruit, the pulp bittei 
and acid. This is the hardiest variety of the orange, and that which has 
the largest and most fragrant flowers, which are produced in great abun- 
dance. The fruit is chiefly used in making marmalade. The tree is that 
chiefly gro\NTi by the French gardeners for its flowers, to gather for nosegays. 
The varieties are the horned, the female, the curled-leaved, the purple, the 
double flowered, the Seville, the myrtle-leaved, and the Bizarre. The 
Curled-leaved Bigarade, le Bouquetier, Fr., Melangolo riccio, Ital. has small 
curled leaves, and thick clusters of flowers at the ends of the branches ; the 
plant is very hardy, and it is that most generally cultivated in French gar- 
dens for its flowers, and in Italy and Spain, for both its flowers and its fi-uit. 
The double-flowered Bigarade is prized on account of its fragrant double 
flowers, which last longer than those which are single. The plant requires 
a very rich soil. The Seville Bigarade, or Seville orange of the shops, has 
round dark fruit, with an extremely bitter rind. It is imported from Spain, 
and used for marmalades, bitter tinctures, candied orange-peel, and for 
flavouring Cura9oa. The myrtle-leaved Bigarade, is said to be employed by the 
Chinese gardeners as an edging to flower beds, in the same way as box is in 
this country. The Bizarre Bigarade is a lusus naturcB, with deformed 
leaves, purplish or white flowers, and fruit half Bigarades, and half lemons, 
or citrons, some having the pulp sweet, and others having it acid and bitter. 

1349. The Bergamot orange, C. Bergamia, Poit., has small flowers, and 
pear-shaped fruit, the whole plant having a peculiar fragrance, much valued 
by the perfumer, who obtains from the flowers and rind of the fruit his 
bergamot essences. The rind, first dried and then moistened, is pressed in 
moulds into small boxes for holding sweetmeats, to which they communicate 
a bergamot flavour. There are several varieties of this species in the 
Genoese nurseries. 

1350. The Lime, C. Limetta, Poit. (Limettier, Fr.), has obovate leaves 
on a wingless stalk, small white flowers, and roundish pale-yellow fruit with 
a nipple-lilie termination. The leaves and general habit of the plant 
resemble those of the lemon ; but the acid of the pulp of the fruit, instead 
of being sharp and powerful, is flat and slightly bitter. It is principally 
used in flavouring punch and in confectionery. Among the varieties are the 
Porno d'Adamo, in which Adam is supposed to have left the marks of his 
teeth. 

1351. The Shaddock, C. decumana, W. (Pampelmous, i^r.y Pumpelmuss, 
Ger.; Pumpelmoes, Dutch; and Arancio massimo, Ital.) The leaves 
are large and winged, and the flowers and fruit very large and roundish ; 
the skin of the fruit is yellow, and the rind white and spungy ; the pulp 
is juicy and sweetish. The plant forms an excellent stock for grafting other 
kinds upon. The fruit makes a splendid show at table, and is found cooling 
and refreshing. It has been grown successfully on the open wall in some 
gardens in Devonshire, with the protection of glass and mats during the 
winter months, but without artificial heat. M. Poiteau considers the "for- 
bidden fruit " of the shops to be a variety of this species, but others make it 
a variety of the lemon. 

1852. The sweet Lemon, C. Lumia, Poit. (Lumie, Fr.) The fruit has the 
leaves, the rind, and the flesh of a lemon, but with a sweet pulp. There 
are many varieties in Italy, but very few are cultivated either in France or 



610 



THE ORANGE FAMILY. 



England. The flowers differ from those of the lime in being red exter- 
nally. 

1853. The true Lemon, C. Limonum, Fott. (C. Medica, var. Limon, W.; 
Limonier or Citronnier, Fr. ; Limonier, Ger.; Citroen, Dutch; Limone, 
ItaL; and Limon, Span.) Leaves ovate-oblong, pale-green with a winged 
stalk, flowers red externally, fruit pale-yellow, with a juicy and very acid 
pulp. Unlike the other kinds of citrons, the lemon on the Continent is 
generally raised from seed, and hence the great difference in quality of the 
fruit obt-ained in the shops. 

1354. The Citrony C. Medica, L. (Cidratier, Fr.; Citronier, Ger.; 
Limoen, Dutch; Cedro or Cedrato, Ital. ; and Limon, Span.) Leaves 
oblong, flowers purple externally, and fruit yellow, large, warted, and fur- 
rowed ; rind spungy and thick, very fragrant ; pulp subacid. Supposed to 
be the Median or Persian apple of the Greeks. As an ornamental tree, it is 
one of the best of the genus Citrus. A delicate sweetmeat is prepared from 
the rind of the fruit, and the juice with sugar and water forms lemonade, and 
is used to flavour punch and negus, like that of the lemon. The Madras 
citron is the largest and best variety, and has been grown to an enormous 
size, both in England and Scotland. 

1355. Propagation and Culture. — All the kinds will root by cuttings, 
either of the young wood partially ripened, planted in sand in spring, and 
covered with a bell-glass ; or of ripe wood put in in autumn, kept cool 
through the winter, and placed on heat when they begin to grow in the 
spring. Grafting and budding, however, are the usual and the best modes 
of propagation, and the stocks may either be raised from seeds or cuttings : 
citron and shaddock stocks are esteemed the strongest, and those of the 
Seville orange the hardiest. For ornament the plants are generally grown 
in pots or boxes (see 423 and 424) ; but for fruit and also for ornament, 
when the luxuriance of the tree is an object, they will thrive best when 
planted in the free soil in a house devoted to them ; or against a flued or 
conservative wall, to be covered with glass in the winter season. At Bed- 
dington they were planted against a wall, and protected by a temporary 
structure ; and in the Duke of Argyle's garden at Whitton, where Miller 
informs us the citron was grown as large and as perfectly ripe as it is in 
Italy or Spain, the trees were trained against a south wall, flued, over 
which glass covers were put when the weather began to be cold. The finest 
oranges and lemons m Paris, some years ago, were grown by M. Fion 
against a wall like peach-trees ; and in Devonshire, at Combe Royal, Lus- 
combe, Butleigh, and other places, all the kinds are grown against the open 
garden walls, and protected during winter, not by glass, but by wooden 
shutters. In the south of Devonshire, at Luscombe, orange-trees have with- 
stood the winter in the open air upwards of a hundred years, and produced 
fruit as large and fine as any from Portugal (see G. M. ii. p. 29, vi. p. 704, 
X. p. 36). All the kinds of Citrus require a loamy soil, richly manured, 
well drained at bottom, and rendered on the surface pervious to water, by 
the soil being unsifted and mixed Avith fragments of freestone. When 
grown in pots or boxes a richer soil, better drained, is required than when the 
trees are planted in a border. Being evergreens, and the sap in consequence 
circulating during the winter (718), the soil, even in mid-winter, ought 
never to be allowed to become so dry as might be the case were the trees 
deciduous. When any of the sorts are grown for their fruit for the table, 



THE GUAVA, LO-QUAT, GRANADILLA, &C. Oil 

much the best mode is to grow them against a wall or trellis, either under 
glass throughout the year, or against a wall to which sashes can be fitted 
duruig the winter months. They may also be grown as standards in a span- 
roofed house placed in the direction of north and south ; and if the situation 
is warm and sheltered, the roof and sides of such a house may be entirely 
removed in the summer season, and the ground turfed over, so as to give 
the trees the appearance of standing on a lawn. Tall standard trees for this 
purpose may be obtained from Genoa through the Italian warehouses. The 
standard winter temperature for the orange is 48° with fire heat ; but as the 
season advances it may be 15° or 20° higher ; and in summer it may vary 
between 60° and 80°. The roots should never be kept in a temperature so 
low as 40° ; at 45 ° a gentle circulation will be maintained, sufficient to pre- 
vent the roots from perishing, as they very frequently do when, internally, 
the juices of the plant are stagnant, and externally these are surrounded by 
stagnant water, the consequence of imperfect drainage. As all the Citrus 
tribe grow naturally in woods, and many of them in islands near the sea, a 
.situation somewhat shaded is preferable to one fully exposed to the sun ; and 
a very high temperature during summer is less essential than the continuation 
of a moderate degree of heat during winter. Orange -trees will bear 
exposure to the sun if previously in good health ; but in all cases it would 
be advisable to place a thin canvas screen between them and the rays of the 
sun when the plants are first set out in summer, and especially when they 
are trained against a wall. With regard to such plants as are required to 
be brought into a flowering state, exposure to direct solar light will expe- 
dite such condition. In the management of orange-trees in large boxes and 
tubs, great care is requisite to ascertain that the water reaches the roots of the 
plants ; for the balls of soil are generally so firm and compact that the water 
will not penetrate them, but passes off between the ball and the sides of the 
box. The compactness of the ball is owing to the system formerly practised 
by gardeners of sifting to a fine mould all the soil which they used in pot- 
ting. By the present mode of using, in every case, comparatively rough, 
turfy soil, more or less mixed with fragments of stone, balls so compact as 
not to admit water poured on their surface can hardly occur. When orange- 
trees in boxes are placed in the open air in the summer season, the situation 
ought always to be thoroughly sheltered and partially shaded, more espe- 
cially, as above observed, when the trees are first exposed, otherwise the 
leaves will soon lose their deep green. Hence it is that orange-trees thrive 
better in greenhouses with opaque roofs, even when not taken out in the 
summer time, as used to be the case at Cashiobury, than any other tree, not 
even excepting the camellia. 

SuBSECT. VIII. — The Guava, Lo-quat, Granadilla, and other fruits little known in 

British gardens. 

1356. The Guava, Psidium L. — ^There are several species, but that 
which has been found to succeed best in British stoves is Cattley's Guava, 
P. Cattleyanum, Lindl., an evergreen shrub or low tree, a native of China, 
which produces abundance of fruit, about the size of gooseberries, of a purple 
colour, juicy, and flavoured somewhat like the strawbeny. It fruits very- 
well in a large pot in loamy soil, in a light airy situation, and the fruit ripens 
in autumn, or in the whiter season. On the back of the conservatory at 
Worksop, it ripens two or three dishes weekly all through the winter, and 



612 



THE GUAVA, LO-QUAT, GRANADILLA, ETC. 



the fruit is preferred to any other for the dessert. When well ripened, the 
berries become as black as sloes, and are really delicious, resembling a straw- 
berry in flavour. — Proceedings of H. S., vol. i., p. 200. 

1357. The Lo-quat or Japan Quince, Eriobotrya japonica, LindL, is an 
evergreen tree from Japan, of which there are some varieties that will stand 
the open air against a wall ; but to ripen fruit they require the heat of the 
peach-house in summer, and of the green-house in winter. Independently 
of its fruit this is one of the handsomest trees for a conservative wall, on 
account of its fine large foliage. 

1358. The Granadilla, Passiflora L. There are five species of this genus, 
the fruit of which may be eaten, viz. : the granadilla vine, P. quadran- 
gularis L. ; the apple-fruited granadilla, or sweet calabash, P. maliformis 
L. ; the laurel-leaved granadilla, or water lemon, P. laurifolia L. ; the 
flesh-coloured granadilla, P. mcarnata L. ; and the purple granadilla, P. 
edulis. The latter will ripen its fruit in a green-house, but the others 
require a stove. They are all twining shrubs, natives of South America or 
the West Indies, and require abundance of room, and to be trained close to 
the glass in the stove, excepting the P. edulis, which may be trained under the 
rafter of a greenhouse. 

1359. The Indian Fig^ or prickly pear, Opuntia vulgaris Haw., is a 
native of Barbary, naturalised in the South of Italy, and cultivated in 
Virginia. The fruit is of a purplish red, with an agreeable subacid flavour. 
It v»^as cultivated by Justice, near Edinburgh, in 1750, and by Braddick in 
the open air, in the neighbourhood of London, in 1820. It requires a dry 
soil, and the protection of glass to ripen its fruit properly ; but it would 
produce abundantly in a pit in a layer of soil on a bed of stones, which 
admitted of being occasionally heated by a flue. 

1360. The Pavjpaw, Carica Papaya, L., is a cueurbitaceous tree, a native 
of the East Indies, of rapid growth in our stoves, and soon producing a very 
showy fruit, larger than a lemon, and agreeable to the taste. It has been 
ripened and sent to table for several years at Ripley Castle {G. M, 1838, 
p. 432.) 

All the above fruits, and some of those which follow, have been ripened 
under glass in Britain, and sent to table ; more especially Cattley's Guava, 
which is cultivated in many gardens. 

1361. The Olive, Olea europsea L, is a branchy low evergreen tree which 
requires the protection of a greenhouse, and might be cultivated for the 
sake of its fruit for pickling. 

1362. Other exotic fruits which might be cultivated by the amateur, or 
which may be included in a select collection of stove plants, are as follow : 
The Great Indian Fig, Opuntia Tuna ; the Barhadoes Gooseberry, Pereskia 
aculeata; the Strav:herry Pear, Cereus triangularis ; ih.Q Akee 7Vee, Blighia 
sapida ; the Alligator Pear, or Avocado Pear, Laurus Persea ; the Anchovy 
Pear, Grias cauliflora ; the Durion, Durio zebethinus ; the Jamrosade 
Apple, or rose-apple, Eugenia Jambos ; the Malay Apple, E. malaccensis ; the 
Bastard Guava, E. Pseudo-Psldium ; the Cayenne Cherry, E. cotinifolia ; 
the Cherimoyer, Anona Cherimblia ; the Custard Apple, A. reticulata ; the 
Alligator Apple, A. palustris; the /S'lt'ee^^op, A. squamosa; the Soursop, A. 
muricata ; the Mammee apple, Mammea americana ; the Lee-chee, Euphoria 
Litchi ; the Long-yen, E. I^ongana ; the Mango Tree, Mangifera indica ; the 
Mangosteen, — or Mangustin, Garcinia Mangostana ; the Cocoa-nut, Chinos 



REMARKS APPLICABLE TO FRUIT-TREES GENERALLY. 



613 



nucifera ; the Bread-fruit, Artocarpus incisa ; the Chinese Lemon^ Triphasia 
auraiitiola ; the True Lotus, Zizyphus Lotus ; the Jujube Tree, Z. Jujuba; 
the Kaki, Diospyros Kaki. The last four will fruit in a greenhouse. To 
these various others might be added from the last edition of the Encyclopcedia 
of Gardening, and from the 1st edition of the Horticultural Society's Cata- 
logue of Fruits. 

SuBSECT. IX. — Remarks applicable to Fruit'trees, and Fruit-hearing Plants 

generally. 

13G3. Standard fruit-trees occasion less trouble in managing, and are 
more certain in bearing, than either wall-trees or espaliers ; though there 
are some trees, as the peach, which are too tender for being grown as stand- 
ards, and others, as the vine, which are unsuitable. In standard trees, the 
top will generally be adjusted to the root naturally, and hence in such 
trees very little pruning will become requisite beyond that of thinning out 
crossing or crowded branches ; but, in wall and espalier trees, as the top is 
disproportionately small to the roots, pruning, or disbudding, &C.5 as a sub- 
stitute, becomes necessary during the whole period of their existence. The 
nearest approach which a wall- tree can be made to have to a standard, is 
when in the case of north and south walls, one half of the branches are 
trained on the east side of the wall, and the other half on the west side ; 
or when one tree is made to cover both sides of a double (899) espalier. 
Pruning may be rendered almost unnecessary by disbudding, disleafing, and 
stopping ; but this will not always be the best course to pursue. When the 
root of a wall-tree is to be strengthened, more shoots should be left than are 
required for being laid in at the winter pruning ; and when the root is to be 
weakened, all or a part of the shoots produced may be left, but they must 
be disleafed or stopped as fast as they advance in growth (772) ; or the stem 
may be ringed (770); or the young shoots twisted or broken down (774) ; 
or the roots pruned (776). 

Keeping roots near the surface, and encouraging the production of surface 
roots, will have a tendency to moderate the production of wood ; and deep 
planting and stirring the surface to one foot or more in depth, will throw the 
roots down to a moister stratum, and encourage the production of wood, but 
of an inferior quality for the future production of fruit. Dry sandy 
soil, not rich, will produce moderate growth and precocity, both in the fruit 
and the ripening of the wood, and rich deep soil the contrary ; hence dry 
soil, comparatively poor, ought to be preferred for cold late situations, in 
which it is always desirable to ripen early both the fruit and the wood. By 
depriving a tree or a plant of its first crop of buds, a second crop will be 
produced the same season, but some weeks later ; and on this principle lato 
crops of leaves may be produced on all plants, and of fruit on all such trees 
and plants as have the power of formmg blossom-buds, and expanding them 
in the course of one season ; as, for example, the raspbeny, strawberry, 
grape, and all ammal and biennial fruit-bearing plants whatever. As all 
plants require a certain period of rest, by bringing on this period sooner in 
autumn, by disleafing and depriving the roots of moisture by thatching the 
ground over them, they will be predisposed to vegetate sooner in spring. Hence 
the advantage of pruning all trees, the young wood of which is not liable to 
be injured by frost, immediately after the fall of the leaf. All wood that is 
not thoroughly ripened should be protected during winter by branches, fern. 



614 REMARKS APPLICABLE TO PRTjIT-TREES GENERALLY. 

hay, netting (1820), or some other means; but as this is only applicable to 
wall trees, the soil for all others should be so adjusted to the climate as to 
ensure their wood ripening in the open garden or orchard. As the most 
exhausting part of every fruit is the seed, and as the number of seeds in 
every fruit is limited by nature, it follows that a few fruit grown to a large 
size will be less injurious to a plant than the same weight of fruit pro- 
duced in fruits of small size. As in plants in a state of seed-bearing, the 
chief energies of the plant are directed to the nourishment of the seed, so in 
those fruit-bearing plants in which the fruit is gathered green, such as 
cucumbers, gourds, capsicums, peas, beans, kidney-beans, &c. ; none of 
the fruit should be allowed to mature any seed, so long as any of it is 
gathered in an unripe state. Hence the immense importance of thinning 
out the blossom-buds of trees before they expand, and thinning out the fruit 
before the embryo of the seed begins to assume that stage which in berries 
and pomes is called setting, and in nuts and stone fruit, stoning. When a fruit 
is once set or stoned, if the embryo of the seed be destroyed by the depo- 
sition in it of the eggs of an insect, or the puncture of a needle, the fruit, if 
it does not fall off, will ripen earlier, but will be in most cases of inferior 
flavour. The same result will take place to a limited extent even with 
leaves, when they are punctured. 

Any check given to the head of a tree, such as disleafing, the attacks of 
insects, disease, overbearing, Sec, has a tendency to cause the plant to throw 
up suckers, if it is natural to the root or stock to do so. As the leaves pro- 
duced at the base of a young shoot are small and generally soon drop off, so the 
buds in the axils of such leaves are never blossom-buds till they have become 
invigorated by at least another year's growth ; and hence when young wood 
is shortened, if blossom is the immediate object it ought not to be cut farther 
back than to the first large bud. This is particularly applicable in the 
case of vines, roses, &c. In shortening such wood on spur-bearing trees, 
such as the apple and pear, only one or two of the imperfect buds are left 
at the base of the shoot (see p. 539, Winter Pruning), and these the follow- 
ing year generally become blossom- buds, if the tree is neither too weak 
nor too luxuriant. In general, winter pruning a young tree retards the 
period of its fruit-bearing, but greatly increases the vigour of the tree ; 
hence delicate trees, such as the peach, require more pruning than very 
hardy trees, such as the apple and plum. 

Summer pruning effects various objects : it exposes the fruit, where it 
exists, and also the embryo fruit-buds, and leaves connected with them, to 
the beneficial influence of light, air, and dews. This is effected by removing 
those portions of shoots which as they advance would more and more shade 
the lower parts and prevent them in a great measure from deriving advantage 
from the above important agencies as regards vegetation ; these may be termed 
mechanical effects. Physiologically considered, the progress of the sap is 
limited by summer pruning, and is directed towards the leaves and buds 
on the lower parts of shoots, which are in consequence invigorated, more 
especially as their free exposure to light, &c., enables them better to elabo- 
rate this increased supply. But although the foliage so left to act is 
increased in size and efficiency, yet the agency of this portion in producing 
roots is notwithstanding less powerful than the whole mass would be if the 
shoots were allowed to grow wild throughout the summer ; for in propor- 
tion to the mass of healthy foliage so is the increase of roots. Hence 



REMARKS APPLICABLE TO ERC IT-TREES GENERALLY. 



615 



excessive vigour is moderated by summer pruning, and this in a greater or 
less degree according to the time and manner of performing the operation. 
The longer the operation is deferred, and the less the portion cut off from 
the shoots, the greater vv^ill be the strength v^^hich the roots will derive ; and 
the earlier and shorter the shoots are cut, the less will be the quantity of 
foliage, and proportionally so the quantity of roots. Therefore, if a tree is 
too vigorous, summer pruning should commence by disbudding such shoots 
as they appear, as are not at all wanted to be retained for wood or spurs ; 
and as soon as the shoots intended to produce fruit, spurs, or buds at their 
base have become furnished with five buds, the extremity may be pinched 
off. As many as five buds are mentioned, because fewer does not complete 
one turn of the spiral, which may be traced hy following the arrangement 
of the buds on a shoot of such fruit-trees as are usually trained on walls. 
In the course of a fortnight the uppermost buds on the portion left will have 
commenced to push, and they must be allowed to go on for a longer or 
shorter time without stopping, according as there may be more or less danger 
of the buds at the base being also developed into shoots, instead of remaining 
in the character of a fruit-bud till next spring. If the roots, and, of course, 
the tree generally, require to be invigorated, the shoots will not be so nume- 
rous and may be allowed to extend till after Midsummer, and then only 
shortened for a little at first, in order that as much foliage as is consistent 
with the principles above explained may be left to act. It is a very preva- 
lent but no less erroneous notion, that, in the case of an over-vigorous tree, 
as much wood should be retained, and as many shoots allowed to grow as is 
possible, in order that its vigour may be moderated by the expenditure. 
Those who hold this opinion may rest assured that the more a young tree 
grows, the more it is capable of growing ; for growth is not a mere evolu- 
tion of parts already formed, evolved by a determinate amount of expansive 
power. If ten buds give rise to a hundred others, these last have the power 
of originating, in the same ratio, one thousand, and so on, as long as force of 
sap towards new formations is undiminished." All shoots under half an inch 
in diameter, cut from the side of a stem before Midsummer, will generally heal 
over the same season. Terminal wounds made by shortening, will not heal 
over till a shoot has been produced, the base of which will cover the wound. 
The fruit-bea,ring shoots of all trees, in a natural state, are chiefly such 
as are lateral, while the wood of the tree is chiefly increased by the 
vertical shoots ; hence some modification of lateral training will, in 
almost every case, be found preferable to training vertically. Lateral roots 
are also those which contribute most to fruit-bearing wood ; and tap or 
deep-growing roots to upright and barren wood. All restraint imposed 
on trees, whether by training, root-pruning, or ringing the branches, if 
not followed up by art, will speedily end in disfiguring the tree and rendering 
it unfruitful, till it has assumed its natural form and habit of growth ; and if 
the tree should be of a species so tender as not to ripen fruit in its natural 
form as a standard, it will by assuming that form have become useless as a 
fruit tree. In the case of all trees in a state of culture, and more especially 
such as grow in soil the surface of which is heated more than that of the 
general surface of the locality, as is the case of a border exposed to the 
reverberation of the sun's rays in front of a south wall, artificial supplies of 
water are necessary at particular seasons, and water therefore must be con- 
sidered as much an element of culture as manure. All the diseases of fruit 



616 



CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. 



trees cannot be effectually prevented or cured by judicious culture, but most 
of them may ; and all insects which, live on the surface of trees, may be 
destroyed or subdued by abundant washings with clear water by the syringe 
or engine. All fruit-bearing plants (and indeed all others), grown in pots, 
ought to be potted in soil which has not been sifted, and which, if not suffi- 
ciently coarse to keep it so open as to receive water freely, should be mixed 
with fragments of wood, bones, and stone, for that purpose, for supplying 
manure, and for retaining moisture (749). 

Most of the foregoing remarks were made when treating of particular 
trees, but we have thought it might be useful to the amateur and the young 
gardener here to recapitulate them. 



CHAPTER V. 

CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. 

1364. The culinai'y vegetables usually cultivated in British gardens are 
herbaceous plants, annuals, biennials, and perennials, with one or two suf- 
fruticose or shrubby plants. W e shall first arrange them systematically, 
and next class them jointly according to^their culture in the garden, and 
their uses in the kitchen. In the following arrangement, the names, which 
are in italics, indicate kinds which are not at all, or not much in cultivation 
at present, but which, for the greater part, have formerly been in use in 
England, and still continue to be so on the Continent, or in some other part 
of the world. 

Ranunculdcece. Nigella sativa i., the fennel-flower, formerly cultivated 
for its seeds as a substitute for pepper, and still grown for that purpose in 
France. There are very few plants in this order that are not poisonous. 

Cruciferce. Nasturtium R. Br.^ the water cress ; Barbarea R. Br.^ the 
winter cress, and the American cress ; Carddmine L., the meadow cress ; 
Peltdria L., the garlic cress ; Cochlearia Tow., the horse-radish, and the 
scurvy cress ; Thldspi Dec, the penny cress and garlic cress ; Sisymbrium 
L., the hedge cress ; Allidria Adan., the garlic cress ; Camelma barbarecB- 
folia Dec, the perennial cress ; Senebiera, Poir., the wart cress ; Lepi- 
dium the common cress ; Brassica i., the cabbage, borecole, savoy, 
turnip, &c ; Sinapis Tom., the mustard ; Moricdndia Dec, the cabbage 
mustard ; Eruca Tou., the rocket cress ; Crambe Tom., the seakale ; 
Raphanus jL., the radish ; Erucdria Gser., the Spanish mustard. The 
general properties of this order are, anti- scorbutic, stimulant and acrid, and 
there is scarcely any of the species the foliage of which may not be eaten ; 
the seeds of all of them yield oil by expression. 

CappariddcecB. Cdpparis Z/., the caper. 

Caryophyllece. Alsme L., the chickweed, which in spring may be used as 
greens. 

Malvdcece. Hibiscus esculentus Z/., the okro. 

TropcEolece. Tropseolum i., the Indian cress, and the Tropaeolum tuber. 
The plants of this order have the same properties as the CruciferaB. 

Oxaliddcece. 6ocalis Z., the wood-sorrel, and Oxalis Deppei, B. C. 



CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. 



617 



the wood -sorrel tuber. The plants of this order are intensely acid : pure 
oxalic acid is found in O. acetosella. 
Rutdcece. Ruta Tom., the rue. 

Legumindsce. Melildtus cceriilea L., the fragrant melilot for distilla- 
tion ; Glycyrrhiza i,, the liquorice ; Psordlea i., the bread-root; Cher i., 
the chick-pea; Faba Dec, the bean ; rLrvum Z,., the lentil ; Pisum iy., 
the pea; Ldthyrus i., the Spanish lentil, and the tuberous Lathyrus; 
drobus Tou., the tuberous bitter vetch ; Jpios Boer., the tuberous Apios ; 
Phaseolus Z/., the kidney-bean ; Sdja Moen., the soy-bean ; Dolichos Z., 
the Lubian bean ; Ldblab Adan., the Lablab bean, and the Nankin bean ; 
Cajdnus Dec, the pigeon pea; Arachis Jy., the American earth-nut; 
Cercis i., the Judas-tree. None of the leaves of any of the plants of this 
order are eaten by man ; but the seeds of many of the species are farina- 
ceous, the pods of some saccharine, as the sugar-pea, or nutritious as those 
of the kidney-bean ; while the flowers of the Judas-tree have an agreeable 
acidity, and are used in salads. The seeds of a number of species, as of 
the laburnum, are poisonous. 

RosdcecB. Sanguisorba Z/., the great bumet; Poteriumi., the common 
burnet ; PotentiUa anserina £,., the silver weed. 

OnagrdcecB. (Enothera X., the tree-primrose, the roots of which are 
edible, abounding in mucilage, and the tops used in salads; Epilbbium 
angustifolium Z/,, the willow herb, the tender shoots of which are eaten as 
asparagus, and the leaves as greens. 

HydrocharidecB. Trdpa i., the water chesnut. 

Portuldcece. Portuldca L., the purslane ; Claytdnia Z,., the American 
spinach. 

CrassuldcecB. Cotyledon L., the navelwort spinach ; Sedum album L-, 
the stone-crop salad. 

Ficoideoi. Tetragonia L.y the New Zealand spinach. 

UmbellifercB. Apium Zy., the celery ; Petroselinum Hofm., the parsley ; 
Carum Zy., the can-away ; Biinium L., the earth-nut ; Trdgium Spr., the 
anise ; Sium Z,., the skirret ; CEndnthe pimpinelloMes Thuil., the tuberous- 
rooted dropwort ; Ligusticum L., the lovage ; Crithmum Z/., the samphire ; 
Angelica Zy., the angelica; Anethum Zy., the fennel; Pastinaca Z/., the 
parsnep ; Cuminum Zy., the cumin ; Daucus Zy., the carrot ; Chserophyl- 
lum Zr., the chervil ; MyrrMs Z/., the myrrh ; Smyrnium Z/., Alex- 
anders ; Coridndrum Z/., the coriander. The leaves of most of the plants, 
with the exception of the parsley, samphire, the prangos, hay-plant, and 
perhaps a few others of this order, are unwholesome, and some of them are 
poisonous ; but the seed or fruit is in no case dangerous. The stalks and 
stems of the celery, the roots of the skirret, the parsnip, and the tubers 
of (Enanthe pimpinelloides, are eatable ; while the leaves and tubers of 
CEnanthe crocata are poisonous. 

Valeriandce(B. Valerianella Dufr., Lamb's lettuce. 

Compositce. Leontodon Z., the dandelion ; Picris Z,., the Ox-tongue ; 
Hypochoh'is Z/., the hawkweed ; Lactuca, Z,., the lettuce ; Sonchus Zy., the 
sow-thistle ; Scorzonera Zy., the scorzonera ; Picrldium Per., the salad Pi- 
cridium ; Tragapogon Zy., the salsify ; ^Cichorium L., the endive and succory ; 
Scolymus Z,., the Scolymus root; Arctium L., the Burdock ; Cynara Z,., 
the artichoke and cardoon ; Carthamus Z/., the saffron-flower; Tnula Zy., the 
elecampane ; Tagetes Zy., the tarragon marigold ; Spildnthes Zy., the Para 



618 



CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. 



cress, and the Brazil cress ; Heliantlius i., the Jerusalem artichoke ; 
Calendula Z*., the pot marigold; Balsamita Desf., the costmary; Tanacetum 
jL., the tansy ; Artemisia i., the tarragon, wormwood, &c. ; Anthemis X., 
the chamomile ; Achillea Z,., the tarragon milfoil. Dahlia Cav., the dahlia, 
for its petals to be used in salads. Most of the species of this order are 
wholesome, except some of the tribe Cichoracese in their wild state, such 
as Lactuca virosa jL., which is narcotic, and which is cultivated about Edin- 
burgh, for the production of opium. 

CampanulcicecB. Campanula Z/., and Fhyteiima i., the common, and the 
wild rampion. 

ConvolvuMcecs. Ipomdea L., the sweet or Spanish potato. 
Boragmece. Borago Z,., the borage. 

SolanacecB. Solanum Z., the potato ; and Nicotiana L., the tobacco, 
which is grown by gardeners for the destruction of insects. 

La^idtcB. Mentha Z., the mint and peppermint : Satureja X., the sa- 
vory ; Thymus i., the thyme ; Origanum Z*., the marjoram ; Hyssopus Z.., 
the hyssop ; Teucrium L., the germander ; Rosmarinus Z., the rosemar}^ ; 
Stdchys L., the clown s allheal ; Marrubium L., the horehound ; Lavan- 
dula Z,., the lavender ; Melissa Z., the balm; Horminum L., the clary; 
Melittis L., the bastard balm ; Salvia Z., the sage ; dcymum L., the basil. 
All the plants of this order, without exception, are wholesome, and those 
used for culinary, confectionery, or perfumery purposes, are tonic, cordial, 
stomachic, or aromatic. 

Plantagmece. Plantago X., the star cress, formerly used in salad. 

AmaranthdeecE. Amardntus Z/., the Chinese spinach. The leaves of 
most of the species of this order may be used as pot-herbs. 

ChenopodidcecB. Basella Z., the Malabar spinach ; Chenopodium Z,., the 
perennial spinach, the Quinoa, &c. ; Atriplex i., the garden orache, or 
French spinach; Beta Z., the beet; SpinaciaZ/., the spinach ; Salicornia L., 
the marsh samphire. The leaves of many of the species may be used as pot- 
herbs, and the roots of the beet, and seed of the Quinoa are wholesome 
food, but the seed and fruit of some of the species are unwholesome. 

Polygondcece. Rumex Z/., the common sorrel and Patience sorrel. Rheum 
Zy., the rhubarb. The leaves and shoots of the plants of this order are more 
or less acid. The leaf-stalks of the rhubarb are excellent in tarts ; but the 
roots are nauseous and purgative, and the whole plant somewhat astringent. 

LaurmcE. Laurus i., the Sweet Bay, for its leaves, which are used in 
flavouring confectionery. 

EuphorhideecB, Euphorhia Ldthyris i., the seeds of which are used as a 
substitute for capers. 

Urticdce^B. Hiimulus Z/., the hop ; Urtica i., the nettle. 

Scitamhiece. Zmgiher i., the ginger. 

Dioscoredcece. ^ Dioscdrea L., the yam; Tdmus L., the black bryony. 
Asphodelece. Allium Z., the onion, leek, garlic, shallot, &c. ; Asparagus 
Z/c, the asparagus; Alsiroemeria pallida, the Chili arrow-root. 
TuUpdcecB. LUium L., the Kamtschatka potato. 

Melantlidce(P. Verdtrum album L., the white hellebore. The powdered 
root is used for destroying insects. 

Cyperdcecs. Cyperus i., the rush nut, a native of the South of Europe, 
and cultivated in the warmer parts of France, for the tubers, which are 
formed on its roots. 



CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. 



619 



Gramhiece. Zea L , the Indian corn. 

Fungi. Agaricus Z/., the mushroom ; Morchella L., the morel ; Tiiber 
L., the truffle. 

It thus appears that the esculent vegetables which might be cultivated in 
British gardens belong to thirty-eight natural orders, and to above 140 
genera ; and the number might have been hacreased from Gerard's Herbal, 
and other old gardening or botanical books. All the species are either natives 
of Britain, or of analogous climates ; or they admit of being brought to 
maturity, with only one or two exceptions, in the open garden, during the 
summer season. To know the natural order to which any culinary vegetable 
belongs, is useful in two points of view : first, it suggests the idea that all the 
other plants belonging to the same order are probably endowed more or less 
with the same properties, and may be treated in the same manner^ and in 
cases of emergency used for the same purposes ; and secondly, that as every 
plant draws from the soil, not only the nourishment common to plants in 
general, such as carbon, but some particular saline principle, such as phos- 
phate of lime, &c., it suggests the propriety of not allowing plants of the 
same natural order to follow each other in the same rotation (917). For 
these reasons we might have adopted a botanical classification in treating of 
the different species and varieties ; but for the amateur and the practical hor- 
ticulturist, an arrangement founded jointly on the culture and uses of the 
plant, wUl, we think, be much more useful. At the end of each section, we 
shall enumerate, from the Natural Arrangement (1864), the plants 
which may be used as substitutes for those generally cultivated in gardens, 
and which are treated of at length. 

1365. Horticulturally and economically., therefore, the culinary plants of 
British gardens may be thus arranged : 

I. Esculents. — Plants used for their nutritious properties. 

Brassicaceous esculents, syn. cabbage tribe ; comprehending the white and 
red cabbage, cabbage colewort. Savoy, Brussels sprouts, borecoles, cauliflower, 
broccoli, Kohl Rabbi, and Chinese cabbage. 

Leguminaceous esculents ; comprehending the pea, bean, and kidney-bean. 

Radicaceous esculents, syn. esculent tubers, and roots ; comprehending the 
potato, Jerusalem artichoke, turnip, carrot, parsnep, red beet, skirret, scor- 
zonera, salsify, and radish. 

Spinaceous esculents; comprehending the garden spinach, white beet, 
orache, perennial spinach. New Zealand spinach, sorrel, and herb-patience. 

Alliaceous esculents; comprehending the onion, leek, chives, garlic, 
shallot, and rocambole. 

Asparagaceous esculents; comprehending asparagus, seakale, artichoke, 
cardoon, rampion, hop, &c. 

Acetariaceous esculents, syn. salads ; comprehending lettuce, endive, suc- 
cory, celery, mustard, rape, corn-salad, garden- cress, American-cress, 
winter-cress, water- cress, burnet ; and some of those included in other 
sections, as the sorrel, tarragon, Indian cress, &c. 

Adornaceous esculents, syn. seasonings and garnishings; comprehending 
parsley, purslane, tarragon, fennel, dill, chervil, coriander, carraway, anise, 
horse-radish, Indian-cress, marigold, borage, and some others included in 
other sections. 

Condimentaceous esculents, syn. plants used in tarts, and for preserving 



620 



CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. 



and pickling ; comprehending rhubarb, Oxalis cr enata, angelica, elecam- 
pane, the samphire, caper ; and the Indian-cress, radish, kidney-bean, onion, 
red cabbage, &c., included in other sections ; and among fruits before given, 
the cucumber, love-apple, egg-plant, capsicum, &c. 

Aromaceous esculents, syn. sweet herbs ; comprehending thyme, sage, 
clar}' mint, marjoram, savory, basil, tansy, and some of those in other sections. 

Fungaceous esculents ; comprehending the mushroom, truffle, and morel. 

II. Herbs ; plants used for their fragrance, for medicinal purposes , or as poisons 

for vermin. 

Odoraceous herbs, syn. fragrant herbs, plants used in domestic distillation ; 
comprehending lavender, rosemary, peppermint, and others included in 
preceding sections. 

Medicaceous herbs, syn. medicinal herbs, plants used in domestic medi- 
cine ; comprehending chamomile, hyssop, wormwood, horehound, balm, rue, 
liquorice, blessed thistle, blue melilot, and some others. 

Toxicaceous herbs, plants used in gardens for subduing or destroying 
insects ; comprehending the tobacco, white hellebore, foxglove, &c. 

136G. Propagation and seed-saving. — The greater number of culinary 
vegetables are annuals, or biennials, which are propagated by seeds ; but a few 
are perennials or shrubby, and these are increased by division of the root, or 
by cuttings or layers. The seeds are for the most part purchased annually 
from the seedsman, whose business it is to procure from all quarters the 
best kinds, and have them grown for him by a particular class of cultivators 
known as seed-growers. The more select varieties are frequently grown j 
by private gardeners for their own use ; but this can only be done to a i 
limited extent, on account of the liability of varieties of the same species or ! 
race, as of different kinds of cabbage or turnip, to become hybridised by 
proximity, and by their flowering at the same time. The care and labour, 
also, which are required for saving seeds on a small scale, is so disproportion- | 
ate to the produce, that it would render the seeds much more expensive 
than if they were purchased ; and hence the practice is seldom resorted to, 
except in the following cases : — to preserve a valuable variety, which 
could not with certainty be purchased true ; and to grow a large quantity \ 
of only one or two kinds for the sake of selling to, or exchanging with, the 
seedsman, for small quantities of the different kinds which may be wanted. 

1367. The selection of varieties is an important part of the gardener's care, 
and one of more difficulty than in the case of fruit trees ; because in culinary 
vegetables the kinds are continually changing, from the influence of soil, 
culture, neglect, fashion, &c. ; so that a sort of pea, onion, broccoli, or cab- 
bage, which is esteemed the best at one time, may in the course of a few 
years be almost forgotten. The number of synonymes of varieties is also 
very great, and though these were settled in most cases by the Horti- 
cultural Society some years ago, yet from the frequent introduction of new 
sorts the task would require to be undertaken almost yearly. In general, 
dwarf-growing varieties come soonest to maturity, and, consequently, they j 
remain less time on the ground ; they also resist cold and drought better, J 
from their leaves lying close on the surface of the ground ; and, for these 
reasons, are preferable to tall-growing varieties. We shall, with the ■ 
assistance of several good practical gardeners, give a selection of the 
best varieties in culture at the present time, recommending the amateur j 



CATALOGUE OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. 



621 



and young gardener to deal only with the most respectable seedsmen, and 
to be guided by them in cases where he cannot profit from the information 
contained in books. 

1868. Whether a crop which is raised from seed ought to be sown where it 
is finally to remain, or sown in a seed-bed and transplanted, is an important 
point for the gardener's consideration. His decision must be formed, partly 
on the nature of the plant, and partly on the extent of garden-ground which 
he can command. Some plants, such as the turnip, with the exception 
of the Swedish, parsnep, radish, &c., will not produce a crop when trans- 
planted ; and others, such as the beet and spinach, succeed but indifferently ; 
while for the pea and bean, the labour, except in the case of the earliest 
crops, would be disproportionately great to the advantage gained. The 
carrot is sometimes transplanted on a prepared border for an early crop ; and 
transplanting may be performed with tolerable success with the other sorts 
mentioned if done when the plants are very young, and with proper care ; 
but certainly it is only advisable to be performed except in cases of emergency. 
All the cabbage tribe — lettuce, endive, &c. transplant freely, and there isa great 
saving of ground by sowing them in seed-beds, instead of sowing them where 
they are finally to remain. For example, if the lettuce or endive plants which 
occupy a few square yards of seed-bed for a month, were at once sown 
where they are finally to remain, they would occupy, perhaps, several rods 
of ground one month longer than they otherwise would do. Thus a crop of 
peas may be coming into flower, at the time when the endive or lettuce was 
sown on the seed-bed, and when the lettuce or endive plants were ready to 
transplant, the crop of peas will have been gathered, and the crop of endive 
will follow it ; but had the crop of endive been sown where it w^as finally to 
remain, an additional piece of ground, equal to that occupied by the peas, 
would have been required. It is easy thus to see that by the transplanting 
system half the garden ground will suffice that is requisite for the sowing 
system ; and as a proof of the economy of this system generally, it may be 
observed that it is the one followed by all the market-gardeners in the 
neighbourhood of London. Another advantage attendant on the trans- 
planting system — more especially in the case of esculents, the leaves of 
which are the parts used — is, that the plants being deprived of part of their 
tap-root, throw out a greater number of lateral roots, in consequence of 
which the production of radical leaves is encouraged, and the tendency to run 
to flower is retarded, while a more succulent growth is induced, owing to 
the plants being placed in newly prepared soil. A corresponding effect, we 
have already seen (p. 615), takes place when the tap-roots of trees are 
shortened. 

1369. Soils. — Though garden plants grow naturally in soils ytvj different 
both in their chemical constituents, and mechanical properties, yet in a state 
of cultivation, there are few or none of them that will not thrive in the soil 
of a garden, w^hich is neither extremely sandy, gravelly, clayey, chalky, nor 
peaty, provided it has been well pulverised and drained, and manured with 
stable-dung. Practically, almost the only changes that can be made in garden- 
soil are, to render it richer by stable-dung, or other animal manure ; lighter, 
by the addition of leaf-mould ; more compact.^ by the addition of clay in a 
natural state ; more open by the addition of burnt clay or sand ; more cal- 
careous, by the addition of lime ; and more sandy on the surface, for the 
purpose of raising seedlings to transplant, by working in a top-dressing 

s s 



622 BRASSICACEOUS ESCULENTS, OR THE CABBAGE TRIBE. 



of sand. Of these different ingredients, animal manure, sand, and leaf- 
mould are alone universally in request in kitchen-gardens, for adding to thoir 
soils, whatever these may be. 

1370. For the proportion of each crop which under ordinary circum- 
stances require to be cultivated, the quantity of seed, plants, or sets, necessary 
for this purpose, the place of the crop in the rotation, the advantage of 
sowing or planting in rows, and various other points of general application, 
we must refer the reader back to the Chapter on the Cropping and General 
Management of a Kitchen Garden in p. 434. 

Sect. I. — Brassicaceous Esculents, or the Cabbage Tribe. 

1371. The cabbage tribe include the white and red cabbage, savoy, 
Brussels' sprouts, borecole, cauliflower, and broccoli. All these are con- 
sidered to have sprung from Brassica oleracea Z., a cruciferous biennial, 
found on the sea-shore at Dover and a few other parts of Europe, on chalky 
or calcareous soil. At Dover the plant varies considerably in its foliage and 
general appearance, and in its wild state it is there used as a culinary veget- 
able, and found of excellent flavour, (G. 31., viii. p. 54.) Improved 
varieties have been cultivated in gardens since the time of the Romans, and 
probably long before. They occupy a large space among the rotation crops 
(923) of every kitchen- garden, because there is not a day in the year in 
which one or more of the kinds is not required at table. We shall first 
enumerate the varieties, and the best sub -varieties of each, and give what is 
peculiar in their culture ; and conclude the section with the culture and 
management of the cabbage tribe generally. 

1372. The white cabbage, B. oleracea var. capitata Z)^c. (Chou pomme', or 
cabus blanc, Fr.) is perhaps the most general vegetable in cultivation intem- 
perate climates; it is in perfection from May to November, and the Scotch or 
field cabbage and the Vanack affbrd a supply through the winter ; from the 
open air, when the winter is mild, and taken up and planted under cover when 
it is severe. The properties of a good cabbage are, a small, short stem, and a 
large, compact, well-formed head of succulent leaves, surrounded with but few 
loose leaves. The best sub-varieties are, the early dwarf syn. Battersea, 
and the early York^ for earl}^ and late crops, and the Cornish and Vanack for 
main crops. The Vanack cabbage is always in season ; and as it sprouts 
freely from the stem after being cut, and the sprouts form heads as well as the 
summits of the plants, one plantation of this kind might serve the whole sum- 
mer, and actually does so in some considerable gardens in the neighbourhood 
of London. The main plantation of cabbages, to come into use in May, is made 
about the end of October, and for this the seeds are sown in the last week of 
July or first week of August. Many of the London market-gardeners are so 
particular in this respect that they sow annually on the same day, viz. — 
July 25, or as near it as circumstances will permit. The seeds are sown in 
an open, airy situation, quite thin ; and watered and shaded, if necessary. 
The ground for the plantation being prepared by deep digging and manur- 
ing, if it is not already rich, the early sorts, being small, are planted out in 
rows fifteen inches or eighteen inches apart, and about one foot distance in 
the row ; the Vanack cabbage and Cornish at two feet distajice, and eighteen 
inches in the row ; and the Scotch cabbage, a\ hich, however, is but little 
cultivated in gardens, at three feet between the rows, and two feet in the 
row. For the Scotch cabbage to attain the largest size the seed should be sown 



WHITE CABBAGE, CABBAGE COLEWORTS, RED CABBAGE, &C. 623 

in cold, stiff soil, about the middle of August, and the plants transplanted in 
the May of the following year. They will form immense heads by the middle 
of November. The plants are commonly planted in drills, because that admits 
of earthing up the stems, which, by encouraging the production of surface- 
roots, adds to the vigour of the plants, and, it may be presumed, to the 
richness and flavour of the cabbage. The routine culture consists in pulling 
up any plants that run to flower, and supplying their places with others 
left in the seed-bed on purpose ; hoeing up weeds ; stirring the soil with 
a pronged spade or hoe, and watering when the weather is very dry. For 
a late summer and autumn crop, sow in the end of February or beginning 
of March, and transplant in May, June, or July. These two seasons of 
sowing and transplanting are enough for the largest garden as well as the 
smallest. 

For a cottage garden the early York, Battersea, and Vanack are recom- 
mended by Mr. Thompson (Gard. Chron. 1841, p. 84) ; and the early York, 
Vanack, early Brompton, early Battersea, syn. nonpareil, by Mr. Paxton 
{Ibid. 1842, p. 93). With spring planted crops in cottage gardens a mazagan 
bean may be sown alternately with every cabbage plant in the same row. 

1373. The Couve Tronchuda^ syn. large-ribbed cabbage, B. oleracea cos- 
tata oblonga Dec. (Chou vert a grosses cotes, Fr. ; Tranxuda. Port.), is a 
delicious vegetable, much more tender than the common cabbage. The 
plants may be sown in the first week m August, preserved through the 
winter in frames, and transplanted in spring about the same time as the 
cauliflower ; or the seed may be sown on heat early in spring. The ribs of 
the outer and larger leaves, when divested of their green parts, and well 
boiled, make a good dish, somewhat resembling sea -kale. The heart or 
middle part of the plant is, however, the best for use ; it is peculiarly deli- 
cate, tender, and agreeably flavoured, without any of the coarseness which 
often belongs to the cabbage-tribe. There is a dwarf variety known in Por- 
tugal by the name of Murciana, which is much earlier than the other, and 
unlike it, throws out numerous suckers from the lower part of the stem. 
This, when cooked, is much more dehcate and tender than the other taller 
and coarser ribbed variety. 

1874. Cabbage colewo7'ts, are cabbages used before they have formed 
hearts, or become cabbaged. The seeds of any early variety are sown from 
the middle of June to the last week of July, and transplanted in August, 
September, and October, as ground becomes vacant by the removal of peas, 
beans, onions, &c. The plants are put in at from six inches to eight inches 
apart every way, according to the size which they are expected to attain 
before being gathered ; and they are occasionally watered if the season is 
dry, so as to forward them as much as possible before winter. They are 
gathered (or pulled up to retain the sap in them if they are to be sent to a 
distance) as wanted, late in autumn, and throughout the whole of the 
winter, and will be found far superior to the cabbage sprouts which can be 
obtained at these seasons. 

1375. Tlie Red Cabbage, B. oleracea var. capitata riibra, Dec. (Choupomme 
rouge, Fr.), is chiefly used for pickling, though sometimes for sauerkraut. 
The seed is sown in spring, and treated in all respects like the spring sown 
white cabbage. The dwarf red is esteemed the best sub-variety. 

1376. The savoy, B. oleracea var. buUata major, Dec. (Chou de Milan, 
j ou pomme frise, Fr.), has wrinkled leaves, but in every other respect it 
I ss2 



624 BRASSICACEOUS ESCULENTS, OR THE CABBAGE TRIBE. 



resembles the common cabbage, and may be cultivated in the same manner. 
As it is chie% used during winter, and after it has been mellowed by frost, 
only one sowing is necessary in March, for planting out from June to August. 
The best varieties are the large late green^ and the yellow^ which, however, 
is not so hardy as the other. 

1377. Brussels sprouts^ B. oleracea buUata gemmifera, Dec. (Chou de 
Bruxelles, or a jets, Fr.\ differs from the savoy in forming small green 
heads like miniature savoy cabbages along its stem, which often grows three 
feet or four feet high. These miniature cabbages are used as winter greens, 
or with a sauce composed of vinegar, butter, and nutmeg, poured upon them 
hot after they have been boiled. The top, or terminal cabbage, is very deli- 
cate when dressed, and quite different in flavour from the side cabbages. 
There is no particular variety, but as the plant is supposed to degenerate in 
Britain, seeds from Brussels are preferred. These are sown early in April, 
and the plants transplanted into rows, eighteen inches apart every way, 
in J une. The side leaves are sometimes taken off as the plants advance in 
height, to throw more sap into the buds which form the sprouts, or side 
cabbages ; these come into use after the first frost. 

1378. Borecole^ B. oleracea acephala sabellica. Bee. (Chou vert, or non 
pomme, Fr.^. Of this variety there are many sub- varieties, but the best are 
the dwarf green Scotch kale, syns. German greens, curlies ; and the dwarf 
purple Scotch kale, the latter being valued by cooks, on account of its boiling 
to a brighter green than the other. For very cold late situations there is 
the Jerusalem kale, syn. Ragged Jack, a dwarf sub-variety, with long ser- 
rated leaves, which, being produced close to the ground, the plants are less 
injured by the frost than those of the taller varieties. The Buda, syn. 
Russian kale, is so dwarf as scarcely to have any stem, and is ver}^ hardy. 
The sprouts of this kind may be blanched like sea-kale by turning a pot 
over the plant early in spring. As all the borecoles are only wanted during 
winter and spring to supply the place of cabbage, the seeds are sown in April, 
or later, and the plants put out, where they are finally to remain in J une ; 
or earlier or later, according to the situation, and the ground which may 
become vacant. The distance of the Scotch kale may be two feet between 
the rows, and eighteen inches in the row ; those of the Buda and Jerusalem 
kale may be a few mches less. 

1379. Cauliflower, B. oleracea Botrytis cauliflora, Dec. (Chou-fieur, Fr.), 
is the most delicate production of the cabbage tribe, both with reference to 
the table, and to its culture. The head of embryo flowers is the part used, 
and it ought to be compact, round, not broken at the edges, convex on the 
upper surface, and succulent throughout. There are only two varieties, the 
common, and the large Asiatic, the latter newly introduced. In books an 
early and a late variety are mentioned, but in the seed-shops and gardens 
they are the same, the earliness or lateness depending on the time of sowing. 
As it is desirable to have cauliflower as many months in the year as possible, 
three sowings are made at different times, viz. : between the 18tli and 24th 
of August, for plants to stand through the winter and produce the first 
crop next May and June ; in the end of February or beginning of March, on 
a moderate hot-bed for transplanting in April, to produce the second crop in 
J uly and August ; and in the beginning of April for transplanting in J une 
to produce a crop from September till the first frosts ; or later if the plants 
ean be protected where they stand, or removed and planted in a shed or 



CAULIFLOWER. 



625 



cellar. Of these three crops the heads produced by the first, if properly 
managed, will be by far the largest, on account of the great quantity of pre- 
pared sap that will be accumulated in the plants, from the prolonged period 
of their growth. 

The first crop. — When the plants have leaves one and a half inches 
broad, prick them out at three inches or four inches apart, either in the 
open garden, for transplanting in October, or under a wall, or in some other 
warm, sheltered situation, to remain through the winter, and be transplanted 
in spring. In most parts of Britain, cauliflower requires the protection of 
glass through the winter, and hence the first crop is almost always planted 
in patches of four or five plants, placed so as to be covered by a hand-glass 
or bell-glass (434, 435, 462). The glass remains over the plants through- 
out the winter, air being admitted every fine day, either by tilting up the 
glass with a brick or other prop ; by taking it off altogether ; or, if the cover 
of the glass forms a separate piece from the sides, taking it off, raising it, or 
changing its position (fig. 77, in p. 152), according to circumstances. The 
patches for being covered by hand-glasses are put out in rows, about three 
and a half feet or four feet apart, and about three feet patch from patch in 
the row ; each patch being of the size of the bottom of the hand-glass, or 
about eighteen inches square. Put three or four plants under each glass, 
to allow for deaths during the winter, and for transplanting all, except two 
or three, into the open ground in the following April. In the last week of 
April or the first of May, the glasses may be removed, and put over the 
transplanted plants till they have taken root, and afterwards used for 
cucumbers, gourds, or other purposes. The soil all round the patches 
should now be stirred, and, if not already very rich, manure may be added, 
or the plants may be frequently watered with liquid manure. By keeping 
on some of the glasses as long as the plants can be contained under them, 
a part of the crop will come in earlier ; and by frequently stirring the soil 
and supplying liquid manure, so as to retard the appearance of the flower 
and keep the plants long m a growing state, a portion of the crop will be 
later and larger. If some of the patches have been planted in sandy soil, 
not very rich, the plants will be smaller and forwarder than the others, and 
will admit of being covered by the glasses till the crop is fit to cut, which 
will give a very early supply. The same objects will be eff^ected to a certain 
extent by giving a similar treatment to plants which have stood out through 
the winter at the base of a wall, or to plants which have been sown in spring. 
Thus Mr. Falla, in Northumberland, sows in January under a hand-glass, 
pricks out into a bed of soil mixed with sand ; afterwards removes the 
plants, with balls, to soils similarly mixed, where they are finally to remain ; 
and thus he attains as early a crop as if he had sown in August, and trans- 
planted in October under hand-glasses in the usual way : with this diff*er- 
ence, however, that the heads are much smaller, the plants by the sandy 
soil being brought prematurely into flower {Gard. Chron. 1842, p. 54, and 
G. M. 1842, p. 327). 

The second crop. — Prick out the plants as soon as they admit of it into 
beds, six inches apart every way, so as to admit of their being taken up 
with balls, and planted in rows, four feet by three feet, in rich soil, in the 
end of April or the beginning of May. 

j, The third crop. — Proceed in the same manner, and transplant into rows, 

( three feet by two feet, about the middle of July. 



626 BRASSICACEOUS ESCULENTS, OR THE CABBAGE TRIBE. 

A vnnter crop may be obtained by sowing in the middle of July, in a 
warm border, or on the south side of an east and west ridge, and allowing 
the plants to come to heads without transplanting, but taking care to thin 
them to twelve inches or fourteen inches apart every way. In the course 
of November, heads will be formed from three inches to nine inches or ten 
inches across, and the plants may then be removed with balls, and planted 
in a bed of soil, to be covered by a frame and sashes ; or in a bed under 
an open shed, and farther protected by mats and dry hay. By this latter 
mode, which may be adopted where a frame cannot be had, Mr. Cockburn, 
in Sussex, has been able to send three dishes of cauliflower to table every 
week during the autumn and winter till February (^Hort. Trans, vol. v., 
p. 28J ). Cauliflowers may also be preserved by burying them entirely in 
dry soil, and thatching the ridge to keep out rain and frost, or by burying 
in dry bog earth ; in either case wrapping up the heads with the surround- 
ing leaves to keep them clean. In gathering, cut off the head with some 
inches of the stalk and a circle of surrounding leaves ; after which pull 
up the plant, as the stems do not produce sprouts, like almost all the other 
varieties of the cabbage tribe. 

1380. Broccoli^ B. oleracea Botrytis cymosa Dec. (Broccoli, i^r.), differs 
from the cauliflower in being so much hardier as to produce a supply of 
heads during the winter. There are a number of excellent varieties, which 
may be arranged as : — 

1. Purple or green-headed., of which the best variety is the early purple 
Cape, a dwarf sort, which should be sown the first and third week of May, 
and second week in J une. The late dwarf purple., which should be sown the 
second or third week in May for a crop to stand the winter. 

2. Sulphur-headed., of which the best variety is the Portsmouth, which, if 
sown about the second or third week in May, and transplanted in June, will 
produce a crop to come into use during March, April, and May following. 
The late sulphur, sown at the same time, will come into use during April and 
May. 

3. White- headed, of which the best are Grange's early cauliflower broccoli, 
which, sown about the first and third weeks of May, will come into use 
when cauliflower begins to get scarce, from the end of September till Christ- 
mas; the early white, with smaller heads than the preceding, which, sown 
at the same time as Grange's early, will come into use from November till 
February, and is the kind generally grown for the London market ; 
Knight's protecting, which is the hardiest of this class, and when sown 
about the third week in May, comes into use at the end of March fol- 
lowing and lasts till May, when the cauliflower grown under hand-glasses is 
ready ; and the spring white, syn. late dwarf Tartarian, which approaches 
nearer to the cauliflower than any other variety. The heads are quite 
delicate, and very white • and the plants seldom grow higher than a foot, and 
are very hardy. The seed should be sown between the 1st and 10th of 
April, and the heads will be in perfection in the May of the next year. 
ChappeWs new cream-coloured brocoli, is a large and excellent variety ; for 
use from autumn till spring. Sow in April for the autumnal supply, and in 
May for the spring crop. 

General culture.^Most of the sorts may be planted in rows 2|- feet by 
2 feet ; but for the dwarf varieties, such as the late dwarf purple, and the 
spring white, 1 8 inches every way will be sufficient. The routine culture 



TURNIP CABBAGE, CHINESE CABBAGE. 



627 



consists of watering when the plants are newly planted, destroying the 
weeds by hoeing, stirring the soil with a fork, and earthmg up the stems. 
The very dwarf sorts require no protection in ordinary winters ; but the taller 
growing kinds are apt to be severely injured by frost, and should either be 
protected where they stand, or by removal to an open shed, as directed for 
cauliflower. A mulching of hay, sti-aw, or leaves, or a number of branches 
w4tli the leaves on, stuck in among the tall-stemmed sorts, is frequently found 
eflPective. In gathering the heads, they should be cut while they are 
compact, or as technically expressed before the curd becomes broken, with 
about six inches of the stalk to each head, and the stems may be left to pro- 
duce sprouts. 

1381. The Turnip-cabbage, or turnip borecole, B. oleracea Caulo-rapa 
communis Dec, (Chou-rave, Fr., Kohl Rabbi, Ger.,) is a dwarf-growing 
plant, with the stem swelled out so as to resemble a turnip above ground, 
but of a delicate green colour. It is much cultivated in Germany, and even 
forced for the sake of the stem or turnip, which, taken in a young state, is 
dressed whole and eaten with sauce, or as vegetables to meat, like turnips or 
potatoes. In England it is very little used. The seed is sown in early 
spring, and the plants treated like other borecoles ; the stem or turnip 
part being gathered while it is quite succulent, and will boil tender. To 
procure a supply throughout the summer, two or three sowings would 
require to be made. 

1382. The Chinese Cabbage., B. chinensis L. (Pe-tsai, Chinese; Chou 
Chinois, Fr.), is an annual, apparently intermediate between the cabbage 
and the turnip, but with much thinner leaves than the former. It is of much 
more rapid growth than any of the varieties of the European cabbage — so 
much so, that when sown at Midsummer it will ripen seed the same season. 
It has been cultivated and used as greens by M. Vilmorin and a few other 
persons in the neighbourhood of Paris ; and there are specimens in the 
Hort. Soc. Garden, but it does not appear likely to become a general 
favourite. It requires an extremely rich, and rather moist soil. 

1383. General culture and management of the cabbage tribe. In the choice 
of sub-varieties, it will be borne in mind that the dwarf kinds come soonest 
into use, and retain heat and moisture better, by the covering which their 
leaves afford to their stems, and to the soil, than the tall-growing kinds ; 
but that owing to the shorter period at which, in most cases, they arrive at 
maturity, they require a richer soil ; while the ramose roots of the tall 
kinds extend to a greater distance, and consequently are adapted for poorer 
soil ; and in rich soils for producing larger plants. As all the varieties are 
biennials, the largest crops will be produced by autumnal plantations, by 
which longer time is given to the plants to lay up a stock of organisable 
matter. An ounce of seed of any of the varieties is the usual quantity 
ordered from seedsmen for small or middle-sized gardens, and half an ounce 
will be enough where several sub-varieties are sown ; as, for example, of 
broccoli. The seed comes up in ten days or a fortnight, according to the 
season. In early spring, when it is desirable to advance the plants as rapidly 
as possible^, the seed should be sown in light rich soil in a warm situation ; 
but in autumn, when the great object is to produce plants of firm texture 
that will resist the winter, a poor, and rather stiff" or clayey soil, is prefer- 
able. Where the plants are to be transplanted with the dibber, numerous 
fibrous roots are of little use after the plant is taken up, because they are 



628 BRASSICACEOUS ESCULENTS, OR THE CABBAGE TRIBE. 

mostly withered and rendered useless before they are restored to the soil : 
but where they are to be transplanted with balls the fibrous roots are pre- 
served, and in order that these may be produced in abundance by the seed- 
lings, the seed should be sown very thin in soil mixed with sand, or pricked 
out into such soil. As pricking out greatly strengthens the plants before 
their final removal, it should not be neglected where an abundant produce is 
the object. All the cabbage tribe that produce sprouts may be propagated 
readily by taking off these sprouts as cuttings ; and this mode is said to be 
generally adopted in Brazil, and it has been tried successfully in Suffolk. 
(G. M. vol. ix., p. 227.) The ends of the cuttings are exposed to the 
atmosphere for 20 or 30 hours to cauterise the wounfls ; and this exposure 
is also found useful, on the same principle, to very vigorous seedlings, when 
the points of the tap-roots are taken off, and the plants are to be planted with 
the dibber. In transplanting, the great art to insure success, is to make sure 
that the earth is pressed moderately close to the lower extremity of the 
root, and afterwards giving a plentiful watering, which will have the effect 
of washing down the finer particles, and thereby filling up interstices better 
than could have been done by any other means, and without bruising the 
tender fibres of the root (701), because without this closing in of the soil 
the spongiole would not be renewed there ; and that being the growing point 
of the root, it is of more consequence that it should be renewed there than 
anywhere else, since it insures vitality and circulation to all above it. In 
making every plantation, there should be a small reserve of plants retained 
in the seed-bed, or pricked out in the general reserve-ground of the garden 
(p. 418), to supply any losses that may occur from deaths or running to 
flower ; or the plants may be placed thicker in the rows, and afterwards 
thinned out. As all the kinds have the property of rooting freely from the 
stems, the plants, excepting the few that are stemless, are strengthened by 
being earthed up ; and to increase the depth of this earthing, they are 
planted in drills tv/o or three inches deep. All the varieties require 
an open, airy situation, for no one ever found the cabbage in a wild state in 
hedges or woods ; but it should be sheltered from high winds, as plants on 
the sea-shore, whether among cliffs or on the beach, generally are. The 
soil should be deep, well pulverised, and it can hardly be too rich ; unless 
the object be to hasten maturity, when it should be comparatively poor and 
sandy. It is highly probable that the plants would be benefited by a 
slight sprinkling of common sea-salt given once to each crop in an early 
stage of its progress. The soil should always be more or less calcareous ; not 
only as the plant grows naturally on limestone or chalky cliffs and shores, but 
because the finest-flavoured cabbages and broccolis in England are produced 
in gardens in Kent on the south bank of the Thames, made in old chalk- 
pits. As the leaves of all the kinds are naturally large and succulent, they 
present a large perspiring surface, and therefore, to maintain this succulency 
in long-continued droughts, the plants should be liberally supplied with water; 
and as they are all gross feeders, they may all be watered with liquid manure. 
In all the sprouting varieties, when the stem is to be preserved for this 
purpose, the leaves should be taken off, that the sap may be thrown into the 
buds ; and when these do not break freely, it will be facilitated by slitting 
the stem from an inch or two below the top to within an inch or two of the 
bottom, keeping the slit open with a bit of stick or a small stone ; or the 
same object may be effected by cutting a notch above the buds (6l7). A 



GENERAL CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT. 



629 



slit from the top downwards will also effect the same object, but it disfi- 
gures the top of the stem. The hearting or heading, and consequently the 
blanching of all the kinds^, will be promoted by loosely tying up the leaves, 
as soon as the plants show an indication of hearting, with strands of mat- 
ting ; and this may be usefully practised with the earliest spring cabbages, 
and with the borecoles when it is wished to have the leaves blanched. To 
increase the size of the flower-heads of cauliflower and broccoli, as soon as 
the flow^er appears, break down, or twist, the footstalks of all the large 
leaves, in order to throw more of the organizable matter into the flower. 
Most of the varieties, but more especially the broccolis, are subject to the 
club in the root ; an unnatural protuberance produced b}'^ the puncture of an 
insect, and the subsequent hatching of deposited eggs, and apparently pro- 
ducing a diseased habit, so that club roots are produced afterwards in the 
same plant without the intervention of an insect. When the club has once 
appeared on the roots of a plant, there is no remedy for it ; but in soils and 
situations subject to this disease, the insect may be deterred from laying its 
eggs in the root by putting a little quicklime in the hole made by the 
dibber, before inserting the plant. Incorporating burnt clay with the soil 
has also been found to check clubbing, as well as to annoy worms and slugs ; 
but the quantity necessary for these purposes, unless it was also required for 
the improvement of the soil (l74), amounts almost to a prohibition of their 
use. As the leaves, more especially of the common cabbage ui very dry 
weather, are subject to be covered by aphides, and to be eaten by the larva? or 
caterpillars of butterflies (Pontia sp.), as soon as the former or the eggs of 
the latter are observed, the plants should be liberally watered with clear 
lime-water, and the operation repeated till every egg and caterpillar is 
destroyed. Even copious supplies of clear water, poured on the plants for 
several evenings in succession, will eff'ectually destroy the caterpillar in every 
stage of its growth ; and in no variety of the cabbage tribe, excepting the 
cauliflower when it is nearly mature, will water in the slightest degree 
injure the flavour. Where lime-water or water alone cannot be supplied in 
sufficient quantities, the eggs of the butterflies ought to be collected and 
destroyed ; and indeed this may be done in connexion with watering. The 
eggs are deposited in small patches on the upper side of the leaf ; and in 
very warm w^eather they will hatch in twenty or thirty hours, and soon 
spread over the whole surface of the leaf. Slugs and earth-worms may be 
eff^ectually destroyed by lime-water ; or as a convenient substitute, where 
quicklime is not at hand, potash and water, or a decoction of foxglove, 
henbane, white hellebore, or walnut leaves. In general, the routine culture 
of the cabbage tribe consists in destroying weeds as soon as they appear, 
stirring the soil as deep as the roots will admit with a fork, or a pronged 
hoe, and supplying w^ater or liquid manure when the condition of the plants, 
or the soil, or the state of the weather, requires it. Where the stems are 
left to produce sprouts, deeply stirring the soil and manuring are of essential 
service. In gathering the crop, when sprouts are not wanted, the plants, 
after the head is cut off, should be pulled up by the roots and carried to the 
manure-heap ; or, if the stems are to be left, thf^y should be stripped of 
their leaves, and the whole of these removed to the dung-heap and mixed 
with other materials ; for nothing among vegetables is more off'ensive than 
the decaying leaves of the cabbage tribe, and indeed of the Cruciferae gene- 
rally. Coleworts are genei-ally gathered by pulling them up by the root, 



630 



LEGUMINACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



by which the sap is retained better than if the heads were cut off. If after 
gathering any of the varieties it should be suspected by the cook that the 
heads contain slugs, caterpillars, or earth-worms, by plunging them into 
salt and water for a minute or two the vermin will be driven from their 
hiding-places among the leaves and left in the water. All the kinds may 
be preserved in a growing state through the winter under an opaque roof, 
the sides being opened on the south side on fine days ; and the heading 
kinds, by burying in the soil (1379). Being gathered, none of the kinds 
will keep fresh above two or three days ; but chopped into small pieces, 
and put in a cask in layers, each layer sprinkled with salt, a liquor is 
formed, immersed in which the cabbage, turnip, and every other crucifer- 
ous plant, will keep through the winter, and thus is formed the sauerkraut 
of the Germans. To save seed of any variety, select the finest specimens, 
and take care that no other brassicaceous plant is in flower at the same time 
within a considerable distance of it (866 and 1366) ; and the more 
specimens there are planted together of any one variety for the purpose of 
seeding, the less liable they are to become adulterated. A solitary brassica- 
ceous plant can never be depended on unless many miles indeed remote from 
any other ; whereas a body of fifty or so will produce the sort generally 
true, even although not far from other varieties. The seed will keep 
four or five years ; but as after a year it is liable, in common with other 
seeds, to the attacks of the weevil, Curculio Z., it ought to be exposed every 
winter during severe frost in a thin layer for an hour or two, which will 
completely destroy vitality both in the eggs and the insects. The place of 
the cabbage tribe, in a rotation of crops, may be after or befoi'e the legu- 
minous tribe, or the Alliaceae (924). 

1384. Substitutes for the cabbage tribe are to be found in the Cruciferaa 
generally, the tender leaves of almost all of which may be used as greens, and 
the embryo heads of flowers as substitutes for broccoli. Among the best sub- 
stitutes are the leaves of the turnip when running to flower, the wild cab- 
bage, and the garlic cress or sauce-alone. Erysimum Alliaria L. (Alliaria 
Adan.) The spinaceous and acetariaceous esculents may also, in general, be 
used as greens. Nettles are a very common substitute, and an excellent one 
when gathered tender. 

Sect. 11. — Leguminaceous Esculents,. 

The leguminaceous esculents of British gardens are chiefly the pea, bean, 
and kidney-bean, all of which thrive best in a deep free soil. In every gar- 
den they occupy a larger space than any other rotation crop, but they do not 
occupy it long ; the main crops arriving at maturity in from three to four 
months. 

SoBSECT. I. — The Pea. 

1385. The pea, Pisum sativum L. (Pois, Fr.), is a tendrilled climbing 
annual, a native of the South of Europe, but arriving at maturity in the 
course of the summer in British gardens. No vegetable is more highly 
prized than green peas, and few are more nourishing when nearly ripe, or 
ripe. The seeds alone are eaten in most kinds, and they are boiled with 
mint to correct a slight tendency which they have to flatulency ; but the 
entire pod is eaten of the sugar pea, in the manner of that of the kidney- 
bean, the outside edges of the pods being stripped off^ previously to boiling. 



THE PEA. 



631 



The inner tough fihii whicli lines the pods is wanting in this variety, which 
renders it very distinct. Peas gathered when partially ripe, and dried, are 
used in soups and stews ; but it is found that after they have been kept a 
year they do not break, or fall well in the soup : it is also understood 
among dealers in peas, that those which have been grown on stiff soil, or on 
sandy soil, that has been limed or marled, will not fall in boiling, whether 
new or old. 

1886. The varieties are numerous, but the following are among the best : 
The early frame^ height three feet, and Charlton^ four feet, for the first 
crops; and the Auvergne, a very full-podded variety, (three to four feet), 
to follow ; then Knight's dwarf green marrow^ the blue Prussian (three 
to four feet), and Groom's superb dwarf blue, a very prolific variety, with 
peas like those of the blue Prussian, and so dwarf as to require no sticks. 
These will form a good selection of dwarf varieties. Among the numerous 
varieties of tall peas, none is equal in point of excellence to Knight's tall 
marrow (six to ten feet). The Mil ford marrow is, however, a distinct 
variety with very large green seeds ; it is of medium height. For the pur- 
pose of the pods being cooked in the manner of kidney-beans, the dwarf 
crooked sugar pea is to be recommended. 

In general only the small-sized peas, such as the frames and charltons, 
should be grown for the first crop, and all the other crops should be of large- 
seeded peas, such as the marrows, blue Prussians, &c. The seed is ordered by 
the pint; and of the frame and charlton, one pint will sow a row of twenty 
yards ; and of the larger sorts, a row of thirty-three yards. The seed will 
come up in a week, ten days, or a fortnight, according to the season. 

1387. Culture. — The pea, being a tendrilled climber, whenever it is to be 
cultivated to the greatest advantage, ought to be supported by pea sticks, 
which are branches of trees or shrubs well furnished with spray, and of 
lengths suited to the height to which the plants grow. These sticks are put 
in in two rows with the row of peas between them, the sticks or branches in 
one row being opposite the intervals of those in the other row. They are 
placed upright, but somewhat wider apart at top than at bottom, to allow 
room for the branching of the stems as they ascend, and for the larger space 
required for the top foliage, which is larger than that below, and for the 
pods. To facilitate the sticking, peas are always sown in rows. They are 
also always earthed up, principally for the sake of keeping the plants up- 
right, as they do not produce roots freely above the collar, like the cabbage 
tribe. When sticking peas is inconvenient, or impracticable, from the extent 
of the crop, the rows are earthed up on one side only, so as to throw the 
haulm to the opposite side, by which means the ground between the rows 
is more readily kept clean, the crop more readily gathered, and the plants 
not so liable to be blown about by high winds. Rows of peas which are not 
to be sticked may be closer together than such as are to be sticked ; because 
the tops of the plants of one row may extend to the lower parts of the plants 
of the row adjoining, without doing the plants of either row any injury. 
Hence when peas are not to be sticked, nor to be gathered green, the greatest 
amount of produce is obtained when they are sown broadcast ; but by this 
mode the soil cannot be conveniently stirred or weeded. Peas are generally 
sown in single drills, at the same distance apart as the plants grow high, with 
intervening rows of spinach, or some such secondary crop (923) whicli is 
gathered before the peas are matured ; but for all the taller growing kinds it 



632 



LEGUMINACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



is better considerably to increase the distance, so as to allow abundance of 
light and air to the peas, by which they will be much more productive, and 
a crop of a more permanent kind than spinach, such as some of the cabbage 
tribe, or roots or tubers, obtained between. A much larger crop, and a great 
saving of ground, is by this means obtained. It is well known that the 
outsides of double rows bear much more abundantly than the insides ; and if 
only two rows in one place, and two more in another, fifteen or twenty feet 
distant, were sown, there would be four outsides ; whereas, if they were all 
sown together, there would be but two outsides. Two rows in one place 
occupy three feet six inches in width, and two rows in another the same, 
making together seven feet ; but if four rows were sown together, they would 
take up eleven feet or twelve feet of ground. Here, therefore, is a saving of 
ground of nearly one half. (G. ikf., vol. iv. p. 225.) In pea culture, there 
is not a greater error than that of sowing the seeds too thick in the row. 
We would recommend, in every case except in that of the crops sown to 
stand the winter, to deposit the peas singly in the same manner as beans are 
planted. We know some gardeners who practise this mode, and they have 
always a larger produce, larger pods, and larger peas in them, than those 
who sow thick, and do not thin out. Abercrombie, who is one of the safest 
of guides in matters of this kind, recommends for the early frame, three peas 
in the space of an inch ; dwarf marrowfat, two in an inch ; blue Prussian 
and similar sorts, three in two inches ; for Knight's marrow and all similar 
dwarf sorts, a full inch apart ; and for all the tall-growing sorts, an inch and 
a half or two inches apart. For the early sorts, the seeds of which are small, 
the drills may be an inch and a half deep ; and for the larger sorts, they 
may be two inches deep. After covering the peas by putting back, with the 
hoe, the earth that came out of the drill, it should be trodden down, if the 
soil is in good condition as regards dryness ; but if from situation, or the 
state of the weather, it should be otherwise, it is better only to chop the 
soil with the teeth of the rake, holding the handle nearly upright. 

1388. The earliest crops. — In the neighbourhood of London, every 
gardener is expected to gather^ peas in the first week in June, if not 
before. To accomplish this, the early frame should be sown in a warm 
border, or along the south side of an east and west ridge in the open garden, 
in the first week of November. If the winter is mild the plants will appear 
above ground in January, or early in February, when they must be slightly 
earthed up, and during hard frosts protected by haulm, fern, litter or 
dried branches with the leaves on. Early in May they will have shown 
blossoms, and then every plant must be stopped at the first joint above the 
blossom, so as not to have more than two pods on a plant. The whole 
strength of the root being thus thrown into these pods, they will grow 
rapidly. If there is any spare space close along the bottom of a south wall, 
a row of peas may be planted there in December, protected by branches of 
yew, or spruce fir, during severe frosts, and during every night till they 
come into flower ; and instead of being sticked, the plants may be kept 
close to the wall with twine or strands of matting, and stopped at the first 
joint above the first flowers. Thus treated, the pods will be fit to gather a 
fortnight before those in the open part of the warmest border ; but if the 
wall is covered with the branches of fruit-trees to within a foot of the 
ground, these will be materially injured by the shade of the peas. A second 
sowing of the same variety on a warm border, or on the south side of a 



THE PEA. 



633 



drill, may be made after the first ; and a third sowing, which may be of 
the early Charlton, may be made in March. This will suffice for the early 
crops. The plants of the last two sowings need not be stopped, nor will 
they require protection. 

A very convenient mode of obtaining an early crop is to sow the peas 
in January in shallow pots, and protect them from frost by placing them 
close to the glass in the front of a greenhouse, or under a frame, hand- 
glasses, or hoops and mats ; and about the middle of March to turn them out 
with balls into the open air in such situations as we have mentioned. Where 
pots are scarce, the peas may be sown in rows on pieces of turf, or even 
tiles, or pieces of boards covered with soil, brought forward on a slight hot- 
bed, and afterwards deposited in the open ground ; or they may be raised 
in shallow pots, and afterwards separated and transplanted singly in rows. In 
short, there are numerous ways in which peas may be forwarded undercover, 
or in very gentle heat, in January and February, so as to be ready to transplant 
into the open ground about the middle or end of March. Peas may be 
protected in the open garden by portable covers 
such as fig. 377, which is thus formed : — Two 
long and tw^o short poles of larch, fir, or other 
straight wood, form each side ; the top piece is left 
longer, to form handles at each end, and the Fw- 377- Cover for Peas and 
sides are attached to the top with hinges, and crops. 
kept apart by two removable stretchers. The whole is then covered with 
sugar-mats, fastened on with laths. The covers are always kept on during 
nights, and mostly opened or taken off during the day.— {6r. M. 1842, 
p. 187.) 

1389. Portable walls for early crops of peas, &;c. As a substitute for a 
brick wall a portable wall might be formed of very thick boards, or of double 
boards ; the vacuity within to be filled up with charcoal, and protected from 
rain by a coping, and from dropping out by a fixed bottom. Such a wall need 
not be above three feet in height, and to render it portable, it may be made 
in lengths of six feet or eight feet, with stakes to serve as strengthening 
piers, and for readily fixing the wall to the ground. These hurdle walls, as 
they may be called, would be found useful for a variety of purposes beside 
forwarding peas ; such as ripening tomatos, capsicums, melons, &c. 

1390. The summer and autumn crops. The first sowing may be made 
in the middle of March, and where peas are in demand, which they are in 
almost every family, a sowing may be made every three weeks, till the 1st 
of August. Those sown in the latter period will not produce a crop unless 
the autumn is fine ; but if this should be the case, peas may be gathered 
till December. In solving during summer when the ground is very dry, 
after being dug and the drills drawn, the bottom of the drill ought be 
thoroughly soaked with water before the peas are sown, and firmly rolled 
after they are covered ; and throughout the whole summer, whenever there 
is a continuance of drought, water ought to be liberally supplied. All the 
late crops ought to be sown in the driest soil which the garden affords, in an 
open airy situation, and sticked ; the last operation being essential to prevent 
the plants of the late crops from rotting ; and as a preventive against this 
and mildew, the seeds should not be sown too thickly. 

Gathering. The rows should be looked over daily and all those pods 
gathered that are sufficiently advanced ; for if a single pod on a stem is 




634 



LEGUMINACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



allowed to remain, so long as to begin to ripen, the production of young 
pods will, in a great measure, cease ; whereas if they are gathered as fast as 
the peas are produced of an eatable size, the plants will continue to grow 
and to produce pods much longer than they otherwise would do. The same 
doctrine applies to cucumbers, (p. 614) kidney-bean*, and all cases where 
fruit is gathered before it is ripe. 

1391. Diseases^ vermin^ 8^c. The mildew may in general be prevented 
by abundant waterings, which indeed is a preventive to both diseases and 
insects. Birds attack peas when they appear above ground early in spring, 
eating out the growing point ; and again when the pods are beginning to 
ripen, and may be scared by some of the usual means (370.) Mice are very 
apt to eat the peas when newly sown, to prevent which some sow chopped 
furze along with them ; others rub the peas with powdered resin, and some 
cover the drills with a layer of clean sharp sand, which it is alleged drops 
into the ears of the mice, wliile they are burrowing underneath it ; but in 
our opinion the best mode is to attempt the destruction of the mice , which 
is easily effected by a covered pit, or a covered vessel of water (372.) With 
respect to birds, they are so useful in gardens in keeping down insects 
and eating snails, worms, &c., as well as so agreeable by their song, that we 
would allow them a small share of such seeds and fruits as are of easy 
growth. The reader is recommended to peruse on this subject the articles 
on birds in Waterton's Essays on Natural History. 

To save seed, allow a row or two, according to the quantity wanted, to 
ripen all their pods, previously pulling out any plants that appear to be of a 
different variety, or to have degenerated. Peas will grow the second year, 
but not often the third or fourth. 

In a rotation of garden crops, the pea alternates well with the cabbage 
tribe, with root crops, or with perennial crops. 

Forcing the pea. See 1105. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Bean. 
1892. The garden bean, Vicia Faba L. (Feve de marais, Fr.) is an 
erect annual, supposed to be a native of Egypt, and, like the pea, in cultiva- 
tion from the remotest antiquity, for its seeds. These are used in soups, or 
dressed by themselves, and are considered very nourishing, though not of so 
delicate a flavour as the pea. The best varieties are, Marshall's early dwarf 
prolific., by far the best early variety ; the early masagan, so named from a 
place in Portugal, a later growing early variety, which comes in about a 
fortnight after Marshall's ; the early longpod, a very prolific variety ; the 
broad Windsor, with the largest seeds, and best-flavoured of all the beans^, 
but not a good bearer, excepting in rich soils ; and the Dutch longpod., the 
best variety for a late crop. The seed is ordered by the pint, and for the 
small beans a pint is required for every eighty feet of row, and for the larger 
kinds two quarts for every 240 feet of row. The bean comes up in a week, 
ten days, or a fortnight, according to the season. Not less than a quart of 
seed will be required to produce a single gathering occasionally. The times 
of sowing, and the situation in the garden, for the earliest crops, are the 
same as for the pea ; but the plants do not requu'e sticking, nor, as the seeds 
are longer of coming to maturity, is it usual to sow later for an autumnal 
crop than the beginning of June. Marshall's dwarf prolific bean maybe 
planted inrowstwo feet apart, and at six inches distant in the row, and the other 



THE BEAN AND THE KIDNEY-BEAN. 



635 



sorts in rows two feet and a half to three feet apart ; or, which will insure 
a larger crop, in rows eight feet or ten feet apart, with dwarf-growing crops 
between, as recommended for the pea (1387). The seeds may be deposited 
in drills an inch and a half or two inches deep, and covered and pressed 
down like the pea. Very early crops may be brought forward under cover, 
or by other means used in obtaining an early crop of peas. The bean 
transplants remarkably well, and many gardeners adopt this mode with 
their earliest crops. 

1393. In cottage gardens^ not only in Britain but in the North of Europe 
generally, it is customary to plant beans in the same rows with cabbages, 
and also with potatoes ; a bean being planted alternately with every potato 
set, or cabbage plant. The rows of potatoes or cabbages are two feet and a 
half or three feet apart, according as they may be of small or large sorts ; 
the distances in the rows are eighteen inches, and between each two plants a 
bean (the longpod is the best variety for this purpose) is deposited. If the 
beans are transplanted they get the start of the potatoes or cabbages, and as 
they come in early they will be gathered before they can do any injury to 
the cabbage or potato crops. 

1394. All the routine culture required for a crop of beans is, destroying 
weeds, slightly earthing up the stems, stirring the soil, watering m very dry 
weather, and stopping the plants when the first opened blossoms are begin- 
ning to set. Stopping in the case of an early crop may take place as with 
the pea, at the joint above the first blossom as soon as it appears ; but this 
is only when a very early crop is more desirable than an abundant one. A 
very late crop of beans may be obtained by cutting over a summer crop, a 
few inches above the ground, as soon as the plants have come into flower. 
New stems will spring from the stools in abundance, and continue bearing 
till they are destroyed by frost. Beans for the table should be gathered 
before they arrive at maturity, which is known by their being black-eyed, 
that is black at the hilum or point of attachment to the pod. When this 
has taken place, beans are tough and strong tasted, and much inferior for 
eating as a dish ; though they are excellent in the soups of the cottager. 
The bean is sometimes attacked by the hlack aphis, which may be kept 
under by abundant syringing with lime-water. Seed of any variety may 
be saved by allowing a sufficient number of plants to bring their pods to 
maturity ; it will keep a year, and sometimes two years. 

The bean is rarely or never forced, not being held in suffieient estimation 
for this purpose by the wealthy classes of society. 

SuBSECT. III. — The Kidney-bean. 

1395. The Kidney-bean, Phaseolus L. (Haricot, Fr.), includes two spe- 
cies; the common dwarf kidney-bean, syn. French bean, P. vulgaris L. 
an annual, growing twelve or eighteen inches high, a native of India ; and 
the runner, syn. climbing kidney-bean, P. multiflorus W., a twining annual, 
attaining the height of ten or twelve feet, a native of South America. 
Though both sorts are too tender to endure our springs and autumns in the open 
air, yet so rapid is their growth during our summers, that they produce 
abundant crops of green pods in the open garden, from J une to October, and, 
by forcing, these can be obtained all the year. The unripe pods both of the 
dwarf and twining kidney-beans, form the most delicate legume in cultiva- 
tion; having no tendency to flatulency like the pea and bean, and producing 



636' LEGDMINACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



abundant crops in dry hot weather, when the pea, unless abundantly watered, 
is withered up. The green pods, also, make an excellent pickle ; and the 
ripe seeds are much used in cookery, especially in what are called haricots, 
soups and stews. The scarlet runner, one of the twining varieties, is at once 
a highly ornamental plant, and eminently proli&c in pods, from J uly till 
the plant is destroyed by frost ; and as it is of the easiest culture, it forms 
one of the most valuable plants in the catalogue for the garden of the cottager. 

139G. Varieties. — Those of the dwarf species (Haricot nain, or sans rames, 
i^r.), are very numerous ; but the kinds considered best worth cultivating 
are the early negro for an early crop ; Fulmers early, a very prolific variety 
for a succession ; and the cream-coloured for a main crop. The best variety 
of the twming species (Haricot a rames, Fr.)^ for cultivating for its pods to 
be used green, is the scarlet runner; though there is a large white runner., and 
also a variegated-blossomed runner., which produce equally good pods, but the 
blossoms are not so ornamental. The pods of the kidney-bean are smooth, and 
those of the scarlet- runnersare rough outside. The roots of the scarlet runner, if 
taken up on the approach of frost and preserved through the winter, will grow 
again next spring, like the roots of the marvel of Pein, or the Dahlia; or like 
them they may be protected where they stand ; but as notliing would be 
gained by this practice, it is never adopted. Half a pint of seed will sow a 
row eighty feet in length, the beans being placed from two inches and a half 
to three inches apart in the row ; and this length of row will be required for 
gathering a single dish at a time. The seed comes up in a week or less. 

1397. Culture of the dwarf sorts. — The first sowing in the open garden 
may be made m the beginning of April, if the situation is warm, and the 
soil dry. The second about the middle of the month, and subsequently 
sowings may be made every three or four weeks till the first week in August. 
The rows may be two feet asunder, and the beans deposited in drills from 
two inches to three inches apart, and covered to the depth of one inch, or one 
inch and a half. The routine culture consists in watering abundantly in 
very dry weather, and using lime-water, if, which is often the case, the 
plants are attacked by snails or slugs. 

1398. Culture of the twining sorts, — These being rather more tender than 
the dwarfs, are not so^vn till towards the end of April or the beginning of 
May ; a second sowing may be made about the middle of May ; and a third 
and last in the first week of June. In cottage gardens, one sowing in the 
beginning of May will produce plants which, if the soil is in good condition, 
water judiciously applied, and the green pods gathered before the seeds 
formed m them begin to swell, will continue bearing, from the middle of 
June, till the plants are destroyed by the frosts. The rows, as in every 
similar case, should be in the direction of north and south, for reasons al- 
ready given (723) ; they snould be at least four feet apart, and the beans 
should be placed in shallow drills, three mches asunder, and covered about 
two inches with soil. Where the plants come above ground they may be 
slightly earthed up ; and m another week when they begin to form runners, 
they should be sticked with branches or rods, the former being preferable, 
of six or eight feet in length, a row being placed along each side of the plants, 
as in sticking peas ; but instead of the stakes for runners being placed wider 
apart at their upper extremity, they may be made to meet there, as, contrary 
to the vegetation of the pea, the twining stems of the runner produce more 
leaves below than at their summits. In many cases, the scarlet runner may 



THE KIDNEY-BEAN. 



637 



be planted where it will not only produce excellent crops, but afford shelter or 
shade to a >valk, a seat, a grassplot, a cucumber bed, or a temporary arbour. 
Where sticks or rods are scarce, wires or even twine may be substituted, and in 
this way the scarlet runner may be trained against wooden walls, pales, or other 
fences, or made to cover the walls of a cottage. The following mode of 
arranging pack thread, or hempen lines, for the support of scarlet runners, 
is practised in the neighbourhood of St. Petersburg. Take half-inch and 
two-inch wide rods or laths, join them at top as in fig. 878, a, so as to 
leave the ends a few inches beyond the junction ; stick the lower ends 
into the ground, just within the lines of the plants. Connect these 
triangles by similar rods at the bottom, as at b, about three inches above 
the soil. Take a cord, fix it firmly to the lower bar ; carry it over the 
upper bar, which is placed in the cross formed by the long ends left, as 
shown in the figure. Make a loop a yard long, carry the cord again over the 




Fig. 378. Prop for Climbing Plants. Fig. 379. Section of the Prop for 

Climbing Plants. 



plank (that is, round it), and fix the other end to the lower rod on the other 
side. In like manner go on through the whole length, taking care to make 
the loops all of the same length. Through these loops suspend a long stick 
or bar, the section of which is shown in fig. 879 ; hang to this bar bags of 
sand, as many as may be wanted. Train the plants up the strings, and when 
j they are well grown the whole will be covered, and when in flower the ap- 
j pearance will be very ornamental. By this method, the cords being fixed 
at the lower bars will not pull the plants out of the earth, the tension and 
contraction of the cords being counteracted by the bar suspended in the loops, 
which is raised or lowered by every change of atmospheric moisture ; so 
much so, indeed, that it serves as an hygrometer. (G. M., 1841, p. 211). 
In some market gardens in the neighbourhood of London, very abundant 
crops of the scarlet runner are obtained without staking, hy merely stopping 
the plants after they begin to form pods. By this treatment they also con- 
tinue longer in bearing, when the pods are to be gathered green ; but when 
seed is to be ripened, it is found best to stake the plants. 

I 1399o Gathering. — Care should be taken not to let any of the pods ripen, 
otherwise these will attract all the strength of the plant, and prevent in a 
great measure its future growth, for the production of young pods (p. 614). 
The kidney-bean is sometimes attacked by the aphides, but its greatest ene- 
mies in the open garden are the snails and slugs. A few plants should be 

T T 



638 



RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



set aside for ripening seed early in the season, in order that tliey may be per- 
fectly matured while the weather is fine. The seed cannot be depended on 
above a year. 

Forcing the kidney-bean. See 1104. 

1400. The Lima bean^ Dolichos L., of which there are several species 
and numerous varieties, is cultivated in France and the South of Europe, 
but it is rather too tender for the open air in Britain. See the Bon Jardinier 
for 1842, p. 257. 

1401. The common lentil^ Ervum Lens L. ; the winter lentil, E. Ervilia 
L. ; the Spanish lentil^ Lathyrus sativus L. ; and the chick pea, Cicer arie- 
tinum L. ; and some other lentils, are annuals cultivated on the Continent 
as peas are in England, for their ripe seeds, which are put in soups or dressed 
as a dish in the same manner as haricots. 

1402. The white lupin^ Lupinus albus Z/., is cultivated in some parts of 
Spain and Italy for its ripe seeds, which are put in soups, or dressed like 
haricots. 

1403. Substitutes for leguminaceous esculents are few, and chiefly the field 
pea, which is a variety of the garden pea, and the sea pea, Pisum marltimum 
//,, a perennial, a native of Britain, on the sea-shore. 

Sect. III. Radicaceous Esculents. 
Ii04. The principal esculent roots cultivated in British gardens, are the 
potato, Jerusalem artichoke, turnip, carrot, parsnep, red beet, skirret, scor- 
zonera, salsify, and radish. All of these plants thrive best in deep sandy 
loam on a dry bottom, deeply trenched, and well manured, and with an 
atmosphere moist and moderately warm. The potato, turnip, and carrot 
occupy a considerable space in the garden, but not the others. In a rotation 
of crops they all answer well for succeeding leguminous or alliaceous plants, 
and some of them for following the cabbage tribe. 

SuBSECT. 1. The Potato. 
1405. The potato, Solanum tuberosum Z,. (Pomme de Terre, Fr.), is a 
solanaceous herbaceous perennial with tuber-bearing subterraneous stems, a 
native of the western coast of South America, and in cultivation in Europe, 
for its tubers, from the beginning of the sixteenth century. Its uses as a 
culinary vegetable and as a substitute for bread are known to every one. 
Potato starch, independently of its use in the laundry, when mixed with a 
small proportion of wheat flour makes a most excellent light bread ; and it 
is also manufactured into a substitute for sago, arrow-root, and tapioca ; and 
as starch is convertible into sugar by fermentation, both a wine and a spirit 
can be produced from it. The tender tops are eaten as spinach in Canada 
and Kamtschatka, in the same manner as those of the gourd ; and the unripe 
berries have been pickled and preserved, and when ripe dressed like those of 
the tomato. As potatoes, like bread, are required at table every day in the 
year, if the whole supply is grown in the garden, a large breadth will be 
required for this purpose ; but the winter supplies are chiefly obtained from 
the field or the public market, and indeed in most gardens only the early 
crops are grown. The crop is more exhausting than any other, except in 
cases where seed is ripened, as when a gardener grows his own turnip or 
onion seed. In the rotation it ought either to be accompanied with, or follow, 
a light crop which has been grown on soil in good heart. The uses of the 



THE POTATO. 



639 



potato in the management of live stock, and its field culture, being foreign 
to this work, we shall confine ourselves to a brief notice of its culture in 
gardens. 

1406. Varieties, — -Early sorts : stems without flowers, and generally from 
one foot to eighteen inches in length. Ash-leaved kidney: very early, 
prolific, and well flavoured. Fox's seedling and Early Manly : not quite so 
early, but very prolific, and of excellent quality ; the last, perhaps the most 
profitable early potato that can be grown. The Rufford kidney^ syn. 
lady's finger ; considered the earliest variety in Lancashire, and also the best 
flavoured, but not quite so prolific as the preceding kinds. Shaw's early : 
a large, comparatively coarse, sort, generally cultivated in fields for the 
London market ; very prolific, but not very mealy or high-flavoured. 

Late sorts. — Stems with flowers, those with pink, red, or purple 
tubers, blue, and of the white tubers, white ; generally between two feet and 
three feet in length. The bread-fruit : roundish, white, mealy, prolific. The 
purple eye : large, round, and mealy. The red-nosed kidney and the white 
Yorkshire kidney : both mealy fine-flavoured sorts, and the latter will keep 
till June. Kemp's seedling, a very prolific variety, of excellent quality, 
much grown in Lancashire. The late bright red, syn. Devonshire red : 
round, mealy, and by frequent turning, and, as soon as they begin to sprout, 
picking out the eyes, will keep good till J uly. Lancashire pink-eyed : 
round, large, mealy, and an excellent keeper. Purple, syn. Scotch purple : 
small, round, mealy, and keeps later than any other variety. Those who 
require a greater number of kinds may consult Chatwin's Catalogue of 
Potatoes, published in 1842, in which, about one hundred and fifty varieties 
are described. 

1407. Culture. — The potato is propagated by cuttings of the tuber, 
technically sets ; and where new sorts are wanted by seed. A quarter of a 
peck of tubers will produce from 120 to 150 sets, according to the size of the 
tuber; and as these should be planted at from six inches to nine inches 
a part in the drill, according to the kind of potato, a calculation may readily 
be made of the quantity of any particular kind wanted for sets. (See 916.) 
The result of many experiments in the culture of the potato by sets, made 
by the late Mr. Knight, the Horticultural Society, Sir G. S. Mackenzie, and 
others, is thus given by Dr. Lindley in the Gardener's Chronicle : — 

" Good sets with single eyes, taken from partially ripe tubers, or small 
tubers undivided, furnish the best means of multiplying the potato. Large 
tubers have been recommended, but it has been proved experimentally that 
no advantage is derived from employing them, while there is a great disad- 
vantage, in consequence of the large quantity required. It has been found, 
too, that if the tubers are over- ripe, that is to say, have acquired all the 
mealiness and solidity possible, they are apt to produce the curl. It is, 
therefore, the practice with some growers of potatoes to take up in the 
autumn what they want for ' seed ' before the general crop is ripe, or to 
select for sets the worst-ripened potatoes they can pick out. 

The period of planting should be as soon after the 1st of March as cir» 
cumstances will permit. ' I have uniformly found,' says Mr. Knight, ' that 

: to obtain crops of potatoes of great weight and excellence, the period of 
planting should never be later than the beginning of March.* This is in 

i order to give the potato as long a summer as possible. From experiments 
made some years ago in the garden of the Horticultural Society, it appeared 

T T 2 



640 



RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



that a crop planted in tlie first week of March exceeded that planted in tiie 
first week of April by about a ton and a quarter per acre. It must be 
obvious, however, that the propriety of planting thus early will depend upon 
the nature of the soil, and that it is too early for wet, heavy land, although 
it is the best season for light soils. In reality, land cannot be advantageously 
cropped with potatoes until all the superfluous moisture has drained away or 
evaporated. 

" In all cases the plantation should be made in open places, fully exposed to 
light. The quality of the potato depends upon the quantity of starchy 
matter (mealiness) it contains. Now this starchy matter can only be 
formed abundantly by the action of light upon the leaves, which are the natural 
laboratory in which such secretions take place, and from which they are con- 
ducted by sure, though hidden, channels to the tubers where they are stored 
up. To plant potatoes, then, in plantations or orchards, or under the shade 
of trees, is to prevent the formation of the mealiness which renders this 
plant so nutritious, and to cause the tubers to be watery and worthless. 
This is probably one reason why field potatoes are usually better than those 
raised in gardens. 

" But the potato may suffer by its own shade as much as by the shade of 
other plants. When its sets are planted too close, the branches shoot up 
and choke each other, the leaves of the one smothering the leaves of the 
other ; so that the more sets are planted, the smaller will be the crop of 
this plant. Mr. Knight was the first to point out this common error, and 
to show that there is a certain distance at which the sets of each variety of 
potato should be planted so as to insure the greatest produce. By planting too 
close, the plants smother, and so injure each other ; by planting at too great a 
distance, land is uselessly wasted. Practice and well-conducted experiments 
demonstrate what theory suggested, that the true distance at which potatoes 
should be set is to be determined by the average length of the haulm. One 
kind of potato is dwarf, and only grows six inches high ; its rows should, 
therefore, be only six inches apart. Another kmd grows three feet high, 
and its rows should be three feet asunder. The space from set to set in the 
rows appears to be immaterial ; six or eight inches are sufficient for those 
which grow two feet high. An experiment formerly conducted by the 
writer of these observations showed that, when the Early Champion, a sort 
whose stems are on an average two feet long, was planted in rows two feet 
six inches apart, the produce was 16 tons 19 cwt. 82 lbs. net per acre; while, 
by reducing the distance between the rows to two feet, the produce was 
increased to 24 tons ; but by diminishing it still further to one foot six 
inches, the produce was reduced to 22 tons 16 cwt. 102 lbs. ; and where the 
rows were only six inches apart, the produce fell to 16 tons 17 cwt. 110 lbs. 
Such an experiment seems conclusive. 

" The depth at which the potato should be planted is not ascertained 
with the same exactness, nor perhaps can it be; for much will depend 
upon the nature of the soil. In warm, dry land, we regard nine inches as 
not too deep," provided the sets are large and strong ; "in cold, stiff soil, 
four inches would be better. Six inches is a good depth for average land," 
and, indeed, may be considered the best depth in most soils. Weak sets do 
not come up well at nine inches deep ; but, on the contrary, four inches is too 
shallow, occasioning the tubers to be partially exposed to the light, and hence 
to become green. If, however, the land is so shallow as to admit of no 



THE POTATO. 



641 



greater depth, then more space must be allowed between the rows for 
earthing up. " In one of the experiments above alluded to, different 
depths were also inquired into, when the rates of produce were nearly 
as follows: — Three inches deep gave 13 tons; four inches, 14 tons; six 
inches, 14^ tons ; and nine inches, 18 tons. At so great a depth as nine 
inches, sets are apt to perish, unless the soil is dry, light, and warm. The 
deeper, however, the sets can be safely inserted, the better, for the following 
reason : — Potatoes are formed on underground branches ; the deeper the 
set, the more branches wUl be formed before the shoots emerge from the 
soil, and consequently the more ample will be the means possessed by the 
potato plant of forming tubers. The important practice of earthing up is 
to effect the same end, by compelling the potato stem to gi'ow as much as 
possible under ground. 

" The best method of increasing a crop of potatoes is to destroy all the 
flowers as they appear. The flowers and fruit of plants are formed at the 
expense of the secretions elaborated by the leaves ; if of those secretions a 
part is consumed ia the organisation of flowers and fruit, there is so much 
the less to accumulate in the tubers ; but if no such consumption is per- 
mitted, the tubers will become the depositories of all the nutritious matter 
which the plant is capable of producing." — (6r. C., 1842, p. 155.) 

A very common error in the garden culture of the potato is to plant them 
too thick, in consequence of which, for want of light to the foliage, the 
tubers never become mealy. A better mode would be to plant the rows at 
such distances as to allow room for a row of brocoli, Brussels sprouts, or 
borecole, between them, the stems of which would be sufl&ciently tall not to 
be injured by the foliage of the potato by the time it reached them in the 
autumn. We have seen a long-stemmed sort of potato grown on espaliers, 
and an immense crop produced. 

1408. For an early crop. — The sets may be planted m the first week of 
October, in a sheltered dry situation, in light sandy soil, eight inches or nine 
inches deep, and the surface of the ground afterwards covered with long dry 
litter in such a manner as to exclude the frost and throw off rain. To 
facilitate the latter object, the sets are best planted in beds, the rain being 
conducted by the litter to the alleys ; or three rows may be planted at a foot 
apart, leaving every third interval of the width of twelve feet. The plants 
will appear above ground in March, and with the usual routine culture, and 
nightly protection till all danger from frost is over, they will produce pota- 
toes fit to gather in May, or early in June. Another mode is to forward the 
sets by laying them on dry straw in a warm loft, room, or cellar, or on the 
floor of a greenhouse in January, or the beginning of February ; and when 
they have produced shoots of two inches or three inches in length, which 
will be the case about the middle or end of March, to plant them out in dry, 
warm, sheltered soil, covering them with litter at night, and exposing them 
to the sun during the day. Both these modes are practised in Lancashire 
and Cheshire, and by both young potatoes are brought to market by the 
first week of J une, and sometimes earlier. By using whole potatoes as 
sets, burning out with a red-hot u'on all the eyes except one, the abundant 
nutriment thus supplied increases the rapidity of the growth of the young 
shoots, and produces both an abundant and an early crop. Planting either 
sets, or sprouted sets, at the base of a south wall, and giving nightly pro- 
tection, will produce potatoes fit to gather about the end of May ; and sets 



642 



RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS. 





planted in pots forwarded on heat, and afterwards turned out into a warm 
border, will effect the same object. For ordinary early crops in the open 
garden the ash-leaved kidney may be planted in rows eighteen inches apart, 
and six to eight inches asunder in the row, from the middle of February to 
the middle of April. 

1409. The Lancashire practice., in planting for an early crop, is as fol- 
lows : — In the beginning of winter lay the ground up in narrow ridges, 
two feet and a-half centre from centre, fig. 380, a ; in March the surface of 

the ridges will be loose from the effects of frost, 
Iry from its position, and warmed by its ex- 
posure to the sun to the depth of two inches 
01 three inches ; collect this dr}^ mould in the 
bottom of the furrows, between the ridges, as 
at h ; then lay on a little dung, and plant as 
at c ; cover to the depth of two inches with dry 
warm mould from the top of the ridge, and 
when the plants begin to appear add two inches 
Fig, 380, The Lancashire mode of more, and again two iuchcs whcn they appear 

planting potatoes. ^ ^^^^^^^ ^.^.^^^ . ' .jf,,^.^ 

also one of the best modes of planting a main late crop, whether in 
the garden or the field, as testified by W. Falla, in Gard. Chron., 1842, 
p. 252. 

1410. The first gathering of early potatoes may be made by taking one or 
two of the largest tubers from every plant by hand, previously removing a 
portion of the soil with a small three-pronged fork, fig. 83, c, in p. 135, and 
afterwards replacing the soil. This, especially if a good watering is given, 
will throw more strength into the tubers Avhich remain ; when the lower 
leaves begin to fade the crop may be taken up as wanted, by digging up the 
plants and collecting the tubers. 

1411. Messrs. Chapman's new spring potatoes. — " The production of what 
may be termed late young potatoes, has been achieved extensively by the 
Messrs. Chapman, of Brentford. They employ principally for this purpose 
a white kidney, not a late one ; but yet none of the earliest varieties. The 
tubers are taken up in spring, and spread thinly on a hard dry surface, in 
order to prevent their springing too far before the time they require to be 
planted. The greening thus induced is to be regarded as an unavoidable 
consequence of exposure to air and light rather than an essential condition ; 
for forwardness could be otherwise easily promoted by a few days' earlier 
planting, at the warm season, at which it takes place, that is, the middle 
of July. They are then planted in the open ground in the usual way. 
The crop is taken up before frost and stored between layers of soil, whence 
the tubers, being delicately skinned, are taken only as required for use, 
forming, both as regards appearance and quality, a very fair substitute foi' 
forced new potatoes till the following spring. Any of the earlier varieties, 
such as the ash-leaved kidney, or early Manly, might be planted even later, 
and still be in time to produce tubers before frost ; and they would prove 
equally delicate when first taken up, but v»^ould not retain the quality of 
new potatoes so long after as a variety which is less disposed to attain an 
early maturity." (N. in G. M. 1842.) 

1412. For a main or late crop^ sets, containing each a single eye, are 
preferable. In cutting sets, enter the knife a little above the eye, slanting 



THE POTATO. 



643 



the section somewhat downwards : each eye will thus have a fair proportion 
of substance till the crown only is left of similar size to the other pieces ; 
but here the eyes are generally too much crowded, and therefore all the 
eyes, except one or two, should be pared off. The sets should have been 
previously cut and exposed to the air for two or three days, to dry up the 
moisture of the wound. They should be planted in rows two feet, or two 
feet and a-half wide, and from six inches to eight inches apart in the row, 
according to the richness of the soil and the vigour of the sort ; and about 
six inches deep. The best time in the climate of London is (1407) the first 
week of March, if the soil and the weather are suitable, or a week or more 
later, if they are otherwise. They may either be planted in the Lancashire 
manner (1409), in drills drawn six inches deep, or in holes made by the 
potato dibber (fig. 17, in p. 131). They require no further culture than 
stirring the soil between the rows, keeping it clear of weeds, and drawing the 
earth up to the stems to the height of three inches or four inches above the 
general surface ; not, however, in a narrow ridge, as is sometimes done, but 
in a broad rounded ridge, thereby providing soil for covering the tubers that 
may be protruded into it from the stem ; and pinching off the blossom buds 
as soon as they appear. The crop will be fit to gather when the leaves and 
the points of the shoots have begun to decay. They may either be wholly 
taken up and stored in a cellar, or m a ridge (1152), or left in the ground 
covered with litter, and taken up through the winter as wanted (857). For 
potatoes to be used before March this is an excellent mode ; but at that 
season they generally begin to grow, and then recourse must be had to such 
as have been covered, so as to retard vegetation. (See 1416.) 

1413. Young potatoes during winter are obtained by the following modes : 
In Cornwall the sets are planted in October ; they spring up a few weeks 
afterwards, are ready before the autumnal frost stops Uieir growth, and the 
soil being covered with litter, to exclude the frost, they are begun to be used 
about the end of December, and continue in use till May, when they are 
succeeded by the spring -planted crops. Of late years Covent-garden market 
has received supplies of early potatoes from Cornwall, treated in the above 
manner (G. ikT., vols. ii. v. vi.) In various parts of the country young 
potatoes for the table during winter are thus produced ; — Large potatoes 
are picked out from the winter stock of any early variety, and buried 
in dry soil to the depth of three feet. This depth, and the circum- 
stance of treading the soil firmly over the potatoes, so far exclude both 
heat and air as to prevent vegetation. About the middle of July following, 
take the tubers out of the pit, and pick out all the buds except a good one 
in the middle of the potato. Plant these potatoes in a dry border sloping to 
the south, the soil being in good condition, but not manured. Place the eye 
or bud of each potatoe uppermost, and as their growth will be rapid at this 
season, earth them up carefully, to preserve their stems from the wind. 
About the end of October the young potatoes formed by the plants will 
average the size of pigeon's eggs, and all that is now required to be done is, 
to cover them well up with long litter, to preserve them from the frost. 
During winter they may be dug up as wanted, and their delicate waxy taste 
will resemble that of new potatoes {G. ikf., vol. viii. p. 56). Mr. Knight 
procured a crop of young tubers by planting large ones in September ; not a 
single shoot from these tubers appeared above the soil, but a portion of the 
matter of the old tuber was merely transformed into young ones, as frequently 



644 



RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



happens when potatoes are laid between layers of earth in boxes. ( Ibid. 
p. 315.) The same thing has been effected by R. Taplin, who selects the 
largest potatoes he can find in spring, continues rubbing off the sprouts as 
fast as they appear till the month of August, when he prepares a bed of light 
soil, about six inches thick, in a dry, warm shed. On this bed he places 
his potatoes whole, and nearly close to each other, covering them with light 
soil, four inches deep, giving it a moderate watering, and letting the bed 
remain in that state till it is time to cover it over, in order to protect it 
from frost. On examining the bed in December, he found an abundant crop 
of potatoes, without the least appearance of haulm or outward shoot from 
the parent root. (Gard. Chron. ISttl, p. 182). See also 1101. 

1414. Selecting and preparing the sets. — As the buds at the top end of the 
tuber, like those on the points of shoots of trees, always vegetate first, these 
are chosen for sets for an early crop, and they are found in the case of the 
Rufford kidney to produce a crop nearly a fortnight earlier than sets taken 
from the root end of the tuber, where the starch being more concentrated, 
requires a longer period to be converted into mucilage (552). For a main 
crop the point of the tuber should be rejected whenever it contains a num- 
ber of small buds, because these produce an equal number of weak stems, 
which, as shown above (1306), are far inferior in productiveness to one good 
stem ; and the root end ought to be rejected, because the buds there, espe- 
cially when the potato is over-ripened, sometimes do not vegetate. Early 
potatoes intended for being cut into sets are found to keep better and sprout 
earlier when they are taken up before they are ripe, just when the outer 
skin peels off, and before the stalk or stem begins to wither, and exposed to 
the direct influence of the sun in any dry surface, till they become green. 
This will require a month or six weeks, when they become quite green 
and soft, as if frosted, and often much shrivelled. They are then put 
away in a cellar or pit, where they remain dry and cool till February, 
when they will be found sprouted and fit to cut into sets, and plant at 
once. 

1415. Greening potatoes for sets, is practised as above (1414), stated with 
a view towards forwarding the crop ; but " why it does so, appears to be imper- 
fectly understood, even by those who practise it. It is well known that 
tubers are not solely formed on the underground part of the stem ; they 
are also formed upon the stem above ground in many varieties, and these 
formations are of course green. Though formed at the same time as those 
below, or later, yet they sprout directly, in the same manner, even in the 
case of late varieties, the underground tubers of which do not vegetate till 
the following spring. When, however, an underground tuber is exposed to 
light, it becomes green, and thereby is assimilated to the nature of the tuber 
produced above ground, and like it disposed to sprout earlier than those not 
subjected to the influence of light. It is not, however, necessary to green 
the sets for a general crop, for if planted in time they come up early enough 
to be safe from spring frosts without previous exposure, for the purpose of 
greening ; but in the case of early plantations (1408), with protection if 
necessary, greening may be of some advantage ; and in the method of 
retarding the sets so as only to plant them in July for a late young crop, it 
is unavoidable, for the tubers would either grow too much or rot, if they 
were not spread out in a dry cool situation, and consequently one unfavour- 
able for growth, Instead of greening the tubers when taken up, and 



THE POTATO. 



645 



afterwards pitting them till spring, it would most probably answer better 
not to expose them to the process till more immediately before planting, 
in order that the excitement to growth might go on without an intermediate 
check.— (iV. in G. M. 18i2.) 

1416. Taking up and preserving a crop. — The art of keeping potatoes, 
whether for culinary purposes or propagation by sets, is founded on the 
following principles: — "Potatoes may be viewed as tuberous stems, edible 
only when in a blanched state ; for exposure to light is injurious to their 
nutritive qualities, more especially if vegetation is excited. The latter may 
be checked, it is true, by various means ; but nothing can prevent the tubers 
from becoming green if long exposed to direct light. That this affects them 
even in winter, in some degree, there is no doubt ; but as the heat of the 
season advances, the influence of light becomes much more evident ; and 
when some time exposed to light, instead of being wholesome, they ultimately 
become, to a certain extent, poisonous. Potatoes ought, therefore, to be 
kept as much as possible in the dark. They ought not to be exposed to 
light a single day after they are dug up ; they are even deteriorated in qua- 
lity by spreading out to dry previously to storing up. The less they are 
dried the better, for drying injures the skin. If the skin, and perhaps a 
portion of the substance immediately below it, is made to part with its 
natural juices by drying, it is not at the same time rendered incapable of 
absorbing moisture if presented to it; but the natural juices, although 
watery, are yet not water ; and, therefore, the latter substance being foreign, 
must, when introduced into the tuber, prove injurious to it. Fermentation 
is sometimes brought on by putting moist potatoes together in large masses 
in a warm situation, and of course changes the whole substance, and anni- 
hilates the vegetative principle. It should, therefore, be carefully guarded 
against, by not throwing the potatoes into too large heaps, but rather laying 
them up in long ridges, with divisions of earth at intervals corresponding 
with the quantity of potatoes that are intended to be taken out at once. If 
potatoes are dried unavoidably, they should not be again wetted till such 
time as they are about to be cooked. No good judge of the nature of 
potatoes would choose to purchase out of the washed heaps exposed in towns 
in preference to such as are unwashed. It is not well to use straw next 
potatoes, for it becomes decomposed by the moisture, and, by its decomposi- 
tion, carburetted hydrogen is formed. The colour of the flesh of the white 
kidney potatoe has been known to be changed from white to yellow when 
boiled, in consequence of a straw covering having been placed next them in 
the ridge, and at the same time a bad flavour communicated. If the above 
observations are attended to, failures to any extent worth noticing in the 
vegetation of the sets will not occur. Potatoes have been known to have 
been taken up in a very wet state indeed, and buried in small quantities in 
moderately dry soil ; but no failure in the sets resulted from such practice." 
{N. in G. M.^ 1842.) Potatoes intended for seed, as we have seen 
(1407), should be taken up before they are ripe ; but those for keeping 
should be mature. The greatest care is necessary, in both cases, not 
to make the slightest wound on the rind of the tuber, which, if done, 
is certain of sooner or later bringing on decay. They may be preserved in 
cellars which are out of the reach of frosts, in pits in dry sandy soil, or in 
ridges above the surface, five feet wide, and of any convenient length, 
first covered with tui-f, if it can be had, placing the grassy side uppermost, 



646 



RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



not next the potatoes ; then with a coat of six inches or eight inches of 
soil, and, lastly, with such a thick coating of thatch as shall as effectually 
exclude both rain and heat, as if ice w^ere to be kept instead of potatoes. If 
the potatoes are covered up in this manner, when they and the soil beneath 
them are of a temperature not much above the freezing point, they will 
keep without sprouting, for any required period ; provided the same care be 
taken in opening and covering them, when any are wanted for use, as is done 
in taking ice from an ice-house. To lessen this care, as many as will serve 
a week may be taken at a time. As ice may be preserved from thawing in 
an underground cellar, so may potatoes be fi-om sprouting. Whenever 
potatoes are preserved in a situation that admits of such a rise of temperature 
as to occasion their sprouting, they ought to be turned over as often as the 
sprouts have grown to half an inch in length ; otherwise their quality will 
become greatly deteriorated by the increase of fibrous matter in the tuber, in 
consequence of the action of the sprouts. Indeed, the best mode is to scoop 
out the eyes with the point of a knife or gouge (418), or to sear those of the 
potatoes which are to be kept longest with a hot iron, or to scald or destroy 
vitality, by putting them for a short time in boiling water, or in a heated 
oven. Kiln-dryiug potatoes is a practice not uncommon in some parts of 
Scotland ; but they should not be afterwards wetted till they are being 
prepared for use. Every one who knows the difference in the eating of the 
potato that has, and one that has not sprouted, will admit the importance of 
this subject. 

1417. Diseases, insects, S^x. — The potato is subject to the curl in the 
leaves, which, when it has once taken place, cannot be remedied, but which 
may, in general, be prevented by using healthy sets from the middle or top 
end of the tuber, and by good culture in well pulverised soil, dry at bottom. 
The heating and fennentiug of sets, after they have been cut, often produces 
the curl and other diseases ; and some particular soils and manures seem to 
be the cause of the scab in the tuber. These diseases, however, are more 
common in fields than in gardens. A change of variety, or of sets of the 
same variety from a different locality, is frequently resorted to, more espe- 
cially in field culture, as a general preventive of disease in the potato. 

Forcing the Potato, see 1100. 

The sweet potato, ConvdivTilus Batatas, L., has already been treated of in 
the Chapter on Forcing (1102). 

SuBSECT. II. — The Jerusalem Artichoke, 

1418. The Jerusalem Artichoke, Helianthus tuberosusZ/. (Poire de Terre, 
Fr.) is a corymbiferous tuberous-rooted perennial, a native of Brazil, but 
sufficiently hardy to thrive in the open air in Britain. Before the potato 
was known, the tubers of this plant were much esteemed, but they are now 
comparatively neglected, though m our opinion the Jerusalem Artichoke is 
as deserving of culture as the common artichoke. The tubers are whole- 
some, nutritious, and in stews boiled and mashed with butter, or baked in 
pies with spices, they have an excellent flavour, resembling that of the com- 
mon artichoke. Two or three rows of a few yards in length are sufficient 
to afford a small family an occasional dish through the autumn and winter. 
Propagation is effected by division of the tuber, or by small tubers planted 
in March: the soU ought to be light, sandy and rich, and the situation open. 
As the stems grow from four feet to eight feet in height, the rows maybe three 



THE TURNIP. 



647 



feet or four feet apart, and the plants a foot distant in the row. The tubeis 
may either he taken from the plants as wanted, or the crop dug up and 
housed in the manner of potatoes. No plant in the whole catalogue of 
culinary vegetables requires less care in its culture. It very seldom flowers, 
but by destroying the tubers as they appear, it might doubtless be made to 
produce seed, by means of which some improved varieties might possibly be 
obtained. 

SuBSECT. III. — The Turnip. 

1419. The Turnip, Brassica Rapa i., is a cruciferous biennial, a native 
of Britain, of no value in its wild state, but so greatly changed by culture 
as to become one of our most useful culinary and agricultural vegetables. 
It was cultivated by the Romans, but was little known about London till 
the beginning of the l7th century. The use of the root in broths, soups, 
stews, and entire or mashed, is general in all temperate climates, and also 
the use of the tender radical and stem leaves, and the points of the shoots, 
when the plant is coming into flower, as greens. The seedling plants, 
when the rough leaf is beginning to appear, like those of all others of the 
Brassica family, are used in small saladhig. The earliest crop of turnips 
comes into use about the end of May, or beginning of June, and a succession 
is kept up throughout the summer by subsequent sowings ; and turnips may 
be had through the winter, partly from the open garden and partly from 
roots stored up, in the manner of potatoes. Hence a large portion of the 
kitchen-garden is devoted to this crop. A well-grown turnip has a large, 
smooth, symmetrical bulb, a small neck, and a small root or tail, with few 
fibres, except near its lower extremity. In the rotation the turnip follows 
the potato, the leguminous family, or any crop not cruciferous. 

1420. Varieties. — The early Dutch, white, small, and if sown towards 
the end of March or the beginning of April, will be fit for use towards the 
end of May ; the Stone, white, larger, and adapted for successional crops till 
winter. Scotch yellow, syn. garden yellow, excellent for winter use ; the 
Swedish, syn. Rutabaga, greenish- yellow, of excellent flavour, but requires 
a great deal of boiling ; it will keep either in the open garden till March, 
when its tops will make excellent greens, or in the root- cellar, or buried 
in a thatched ridge till turnips come again. This variety differs from all 
the other kinds of turnip in admitting of being transplanted, and yet bulbing 
nearly as well as if sown where it is finally to remain. The other varieties 
may be transplanted, provided the very extremity of the tap root is pre- 
served uninjured, which is done by using a transplanter (fig. 32, in p. 185), 
or by having part of a row of plants sown over a layer of compact rotten 
dung. The point of the tap root stops at the dung, and branches into it, 
and the plant can thus be taken up along with the dung without injury . 
The Maltese, syns. yellow Maltese, golden Maltese, is a very good, small, 
yellow, much flattened, winter turnip. The Teltow, syn. French turnip ; 
yellow, small, long-rooted like a large radish, but of most excellent flavour, 
always used with the rind on, in which the flavour resides ; neither fit to be 
eaten boiled alone or raw ; but two or three of them in seasoning will give 
a higher flavour than a dozen of other turnips. This variety is raucli 
cultivated on the Continent, though neglected in England ; but in our ophiion 
it ought to be in every suburban garden. 

1421. Culture. — The turnip, with the exception of the Rutabaga, can only 



648 



RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



be propagated by seed, and for a bed four and a half feet by twenty-four 
feet, the plants to remain being thinned to seven inches' distance every 
way, the quantity required is half an ounce. The seed comes up in ten 
days or a fortnight, according to the season. The soil should be in good heart, 
and well pulverised. If sown in raised drills, the}' do better than on level 
ground, more especially on soils inclined to be tenacious. Sown broadcast 
on such soils, they do no good. A sowing should be made once in March, and 
twice in April, for the earliest crops ; and afterwards at intervals of four or five 
weeks, till the middle of August;, for a winter crop or for plants to stand 
through the winter to shoot up and supply greens in February, March, and 
April. The main crops of white, yellow, and French turnips, should be- 
so wn in the latter end of June. All the sorts should be sown in drills, as 
admitting of stirring the soil among the plants with less labour. The earliest 
and latest crops should be of the early Dutch, as coming into use sooner in 
autumn, and sendmg up sprouts soonest in spring. They may be in rows a 
foot apart, and the plants tliimied out to six inches' distance in the row, and 
this width will also answer for the French turnip ; but the stone and the 
yellow may be sown in rows eighteen inches apart, and the Swedish at two 
feet ; the distance in the rows being proportionately increased. The routine 
culture consists in weeding, thinning, stirring the soil, and supplying water 
abundantly in ver}- dry weather, to prevent the roots from becoming tough 
and stringy ; taking great care, when stirring the soil, not to earth up the 
roots, which will prevent their swelling. 

1422. In gathering the root the entire plant is necessarily pulled up, 
and the tops and tails taken at once to the rot heap. Choose the largest, 
and take them from the most crowded parts of the rows, to make more 
room for the growth of those w^hich remain. In gathering the tops in 
spring, the tenderest leaves only are taken, whether from the crown of 
plants that have not yet run, or from the flower-stems. Some also gather 
the points of the stems, which, however, are much less delicate than the 
leaves, but excellent to salt beef. The leaves and tops are equall}' good 
from all the vai'ieties ; but most acrid from the French turnip, and least so 
from the Swedish. 

1423. Preserving turnips through the winter. In ordinary winters neither 
the yellow nor the Swedish turnip require to be covered ; but as when left 
exposed they will begin to vegetate, in February a portion of the crop should 
be taken up, topped (but not tailed, which would favour the escape of sap), 
and preserved in sand or straw in the root-cellar, or in a ridge like potatoes 
(141G) ; and like them so thickly thatched as to exclude both heat and rain, 
and maintain a degree of coolness that will prevent vegetation. Or the rows 
as they stand on the ground may have the leaves cut off and covered with 
soil, so as to form them into ridges, and after the whole mass of the ridges 
has been cooled down to 32° by frost, it may then be thickly covered ^^ith 
litter, to exclude the heating influence of the sun. A tliird mode of pre- 
serving turnips through the winter, consists in cutting off the tops with a 
slice of the roots attached, so as to prevent them from ever vegetating again, 
and in this state, with or without the tails, burying them in moist sand in a 
cellar, or in a ridge in the open ah* like potatoes. As the turnip vegetates 
at a much lower temperature than the potato, much greater care is required 
to keep it in a dormant state, 

1424. To save seed. — One kind only can be sowed in one garden in the 



THE CARROT. 



649 



same year. The best formed roots, and those which have come earliest or 
latest into maturity according to the variety, should be selected and trans- 
planted in autumn, or early in spring, into a spot by themselves, and the 
stems tied to stakes, if there should be any danger apprehended from high 
winds. The seed will keep four or five years, but should be aerated once 
every winter, during severe frost (1383). 

li2o. Diseases^ insects, S)C. — The turnip in very dry seasons is liable to 
the mildew, if it has not been liberally supplied with v\-ater ; and also to 
excrescences on the root, produced by a species of cynips which deposits 
its eggs there. Lime, soap-boilers' waste, putrid urine, or the urine of cows, 
are said to render the soil offensive to the parent-fly ; and when its attacks 
can be foreseen, this mode may be adopted, more especially as, if it fails, it 
wUl at all events manure the soil. On coming through the ground, the 
plants are liable to the attacks of a small jumping beetle, called the turnip- 
flea, Haltica nemorum, besides five or six other insects of different kinds, 
the effects of which are very serious in field- culture ; but in gardens they 
can generally be guarded agaiast, or counteracted by watering, or by digging 
down and re-sowdng. 

1426. Forcing the turnip for the root is seldom attempted in British 
gardens, though in Russia and some parts of Germany it is sown on hotbeds, 
as radishes are in England. The roots, more especially those of the Swedish 
turnip, placed close together on heat in January, will produce an abundance 
of delicate sprouts through February and March. 

SuBSECT. LY.— The Carrot. 

1427. The carrot, Daucus Carbta L. (Garotte, Fr.), is an umbelliferous 
biennial, common in Britain and other parts of Europe, of no use in cookery 
in a w^nd state, but by culture rendered succulent, agreeable, and when 
young highly nutritive. It is excellent in a mature state as a dish, or in 
stews ; and no vegetable is so much ia demand for soups. For the latter 
purpose, it is required in some families throughout the year ; several crops 
being forced, and the supply from May to October being furnished from the 
open garden. A considerable breadth is therefore required for this crop, 
which in the rotation may follow some of the cabbage tribe, or some crop 
that has been manured ; for any manure, except what is in a liquid state, 
applied to the carrot, causes the roots to branch and their rind to become 
ulcerated. 

1428. Varieties. — Early horn ; orange, short, coming earlier to maturity 
than any other variety. Early scarlet horn; larger than the preceding, and 
better for a main crop. Long orange, syn. Altringham ; orange-red, long, 
well-adapted for a main crop. Long red Surrey ; red, long, excellent also 
for a main crop. Long white; white, very delicate flavoured, produces an 
immense crop, but does not keep weU through the winter. Violet, syn. 
purple ; violet, large, sweet, not much cultivated. 

1429. Culture. — By seed is the only mode of propagation; and as the 
seeds have numerous forked hairs on their edges, by which they adhere 
together in clusters, they should be rubbed betw^een the hands and mixed 
with dry sand, in order to separate them as much as possible before sowing. 
For a bed four and a half feet by thirty feet, the plants to be thinned out 
to six inches every way, or for 150 feet of drill, 1 oz. of seed w^ill be requi- 
site. The seed does not come up for four or five weeks in spring, and for 



650 



RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



three or four in summer and autumn. The soil should be light and sandy, 
and deep and rich, in consequence of being well trenched and manured the 
preceding year. The first sowing of the early horn may be made in the 
middle of February, in a warm border ; and if the family require a constant 
supply of young carrots, successional sowings may be made, as recommended, 
for a constant supply of turnips. From the middle of March to the first week 
in April is the best time for sowing the main crop for taking up and preserving 
through the winter ; and a crop of small carrots, to stand through the winter 
and afford roots in February, March, and April, may be so^vn in the first 
week in August. The early scarlet horn is by some the only carrot grown, 
answering well both for an early and a main crop {G. M., 1840, p. 207, 
and 1841, p. 27)- AH the crops that are to be drawn young may be sown 
in drills, six inches apart, and the plants thinned out to three inches, but 
those which are intended to produce carrots of full size should be sown in 
drills eighteen inches apart, and the plants thinned out to from eight inches 
to ten inches in the row. Carrots will grow in peat. Deep holes may be 
made with a large dibber, and filled with prepared rich sandy soil, and 
two or three seeds sown in each hole, to be afterwards thinned, so as to 
leave the best in each hole. They may be produced of large size in this 
way, even where the ground is too stiff to produce otherwise a good crop. 

Routine culture as in the turnip (1421), with this difference that the 
soil between the rows should not be stirred deeper than is necessary to kill 
the weeds ; for by so doing the lateral fibres will be encouraged to grow 
large and disfigure the main roots. 

1430. Gathering and keeping. — Young carrots are drawn by hand, and 
full-grown ones dug up with the spade or two- pronged fork, a trench being 
made alongside one row after another, so as to admit of taking out the 
carrots without, in the slightest degree, injuring their rind. A portion of the 
main crop may be left in the ground, and covered with litter to be taken up 
as wanted ; and the remainder may be preserved in cellars or in ridges by 
some of the modes recommended for preserving turnips. When the top is 
cut off along with a slice of the root, there is no difficulty in preserving 
carrots till carrots come again ; indeed they have been so preserved for two 
years (G. 31. vol. vii. p. 191) ; but we should prefer keeping on the tops 
and burying the carrots in an ice-cold thatched ridge. 

1431. Diseases and insects. — The root is sometimes disfigured by ulcers, 
supposed to be the effect of recent manure, and they are often attacked by 
the grub of some dipterous insect, which in its perfect state may be prevented 
from depositing its eggs, by watering the soil after the plants have come up 
with some nauseous liquid manure, such as putrid urine or spirits of tar, at 
the rate of about one gallon to every sixty square yards (C Mcintosh, in 
Gard. Chron.for 1841, p. 58). Grubs already in the soil cannot so readily 
be destroyed, unless the ground is so deep that they may be trenched down 
when the want of air will kill them ; but some other crop may be grown on 
it which the insects will not attack. 

1432. Seed saving. — Select some of the finest specimens and transplant 
them in autumn, growing only the seeds of one variety in one year in the 
same garden. The seed, if kept dry and adhering to the stalk, will keep 
three or four years ; but if separated from the stalk, it will grow with diffi- 
culty the second year. 

Forcing the carrot. See 1106, 



THE PARSNEP AND THE RED BEET. 



651 



' SuBSECT. V. — The Parsnep. 

1433. The parsnep^ Pastinaca sativa, L. (Panais, Fr.)^ is an umbel- 
liferous biennial, a native of Britain, on calcareous soils in open situations, 
and withstanding our severest winters. It has been as much changed 
by culture as the carrot, and like it its roots are highly valued both 
in horticulture and agriculture. With respect to culinary purposes, they 
are in season from October till March. They differ from the carrot in 
being only used in their mature state, and chiefly during winter; form- 
ing a dish to be eaten to meat or to salt fish ; and they are used in soups, 
mashed, stewed, and fried. Beer and wine can be made from them, and also 
a powerful spirit. The parsnep is excellent food for cows, being highly 
nutritive, and giving to the milk a peculiarly rich and agreeable flavour, 
resembling that from cows that are fed on the richest old pasture. Hence 
it should be grown on a large scale by every cottager that has a cow. Only 
a moderate space is required for them in the gentleman's garden, and they 
come in in the rotation along with the carrot and the beet. The varieties 
are few ; the hollow-crowned is best worth cultivating. The Siam variety 
has a small yellow root of a high flavour, and the turnip-rooted has a round 
root. 

1434. Propagation and culture, — The seed required for a bed five feet by 
twenty feet, the plants to be thinned to eight inches' distance every way, is one 
ounce : and the same for a drill of one hundred and fifty feet ; the seed comes up 
in eight or ten days. Seldom more than one crop is required, and this is sown 
in March, in rows eighteen inches apart, the plants being afterwards thinned 
out to eight inches' distance in the row. Routine culture as in the carrot. 
The roots are not liable to be injured by frost, and may therefore be left in 
the ground to be taken up as wanted till February, when they will begin to 
grow. If parsneps are required after this season, a quantity of roots must be 
taken up in winter, and stored like those of the carrot, taking care either to 
cut off the tops, with a slice of the root, or to bury in an ice-cold thatched 
ridge. The parsnep is seldom attacked by diseases, or by insects. Seed 
may be saved as in the carrot, and it generally retains its vitality only one 
year. 

SuBSECT. VI. The Red Beet. 
1485. The Red Beet., Beta vulgaris L. (Betterave, jPr.), is a chenopodi- 
aceous fusiform-rooted biennial, a native of the South of Europe on the sea- 
coast, and cultivated in gardens for its root from the beginning of the seven- 
teenth century, and probably long before. The roots are boiled and eaten 
cold, either to meat, especially mutton, by themselves, dressed as sala'l, or 
in mixture with other salad ingredients ; they form a beautiful garnish, and 
a very desirable pickle. The thin slices dried in an oven are also used in 
confectionery, and the leaves may be used as spinach or greens. The roots 
must be washed and also boiled with all their lateral fibres, and, in short, 
without any part cut off except the leaves ; because it is found that when 
the root is wounded in any part, the colour in boiling escapes through the 
wound. There are several varieties, but the best are the common red heet^ 
the Castelnauda7-i, with a nutty flavour, and Whitens gigantic dark, a new 
variety of very great merit. The turnip-rooted is an early variety with the 
roots round, and the Basano beet has the skin of the root red, and the flesh 
veined with rose colour, but it is scarcely know n in British gardens. The 



652 



RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



common red and gigantic dark red are the best for a cottage garden. There are 
various kinds of white-rooted and yellow-rooted beet, but these, being grown 
chiefly for their leaves as spinach, will be noticed in the section on spina- 
cecus plants. Seldom more than one crop of beet is required, and this is 
sown in the last week of March or the beginning of April. For a bed four 
feet and a half by twelve feet, or one hundred and fifty feet of drill, one ounce 
of seed is sufficient. The ground should be prepared as for the carrot, and 
the seed may be sown in drills at the same distances, and the same routine 
culture given, with this difference, that blanks when they occur may be 
filled up by transplanting when the plants are quite small. The plants come 
up in a month. The crop will be ready for use in September, and may be 
treated in all respects like a crop of carrots, and like them, if desirable, kept 
in pits from December till the September following. Seed may be saved as 
in the carrot, and it will keep nine or ten years. 

SuBSECT. VII. The Skirret^ ScorzonerUf Salsify^ mid (Enothera. 
Though these plants are at present but little cultivated in British gar- 
dens, yet we think a small portion of each deserves a place for the sake of 
variety. 

1436. The skirret^ Slum Sisarum, L. (Chervis, Fr.) is an umbelliferous 
tuberous- rooted perennial, a native of China, and in cultivation in British 
gardens from the beginning of the sixteenth century. The part used is the 
root, which is composed of fleshy tubers, about the size of the little finger, 
and joined together at the collar of the plant in the manner of the tubers of 
the ranunculus. The tubers were formerly esteemed as " the sweetest, 
whitest, and most pleasant of roots," either boiled and served up with sauce, 
or fried in various ways. The root is in season during the same period as the 
parsnep. There are no varieties ; but when the plant is cultivated, it is 
generally propagated by dividing the roots. Seed, however, may be obtained, 
and its culture and management is in all respects the same as that of the beet. 
The seed keeps four years. 

1437. The scorzonera^ or Viper's grass, Scorzonera hispanica, L. 
(Scorzonere, or Salsifis d'Espagne, i^r.), is a chicoraceous fusiform -rooted 
biennial, a native of the South of Europe, in culture in British gardens since 
the middle of the sixteenth century. The root is straight, conical, and 
about the thickness of a middle-sized carrot, with a black rind. It is used 
boiled or stewed, in the mannei* of carrots or parsneps ; it comes into use in 
August, and may be taken up m November, and preserved as long as may be 
thought desirable. Though a perennial, it is always propagated by seed, of 
which an ounce will be sufiicient for one hundred and fifty feet of drill. 
The seed comes up in three or four weeks. The routine culture is the same 
as for the carrot and parsnep, and seed may be saved in the same manner ; it 
keeps good two years. 

1438. The salsify, or purple Goat's beard, Tragopbgon porrifolius, L. 
(Salsifis, F):), is a chicoraceous fusiform-rooted biennial, not unlike the 
scorzonera, to which, however, it is much to be preferred, but with much 
narrower leaves, at a distance resembling those of leeks, a native of England, 
formerly cultivated for its roots, which w^ere used like carrots and parsneps. 
The seeds may be sown in March or April, and treated in all respects like 
those of the scorzonera. The seed keeps two years. 

1430. The Spanish salsify, Scolymus hispanicus, L. (Cardouille, Fr.)^ 



THE HAMBURGH PARSLEY AND THE RADISH. 



653 



is a carduaceous biennial, a native of the south of France, where the roots of 
the wild plant are collected and dressed like those of salsify or scorzonera, 
which they closely resemble when dressed. (BonJard., 1842.) 

1440. The tree-iirimrose^ QEnothera biennis, Z,., an onagrarious fusiform- 
rooted biennial, a native of North America, is cultivated in some parts of 
Germany for the same purpose as the scorzonera, and the points of the 
shoots are used in salads. The roots of the other biennial species may 
doubtless be similarly applied. Seeds are readily procured from the seed- 
shops, and the plant grows freely in sandy soil, 

SuBSECT. VIIT. — The Hamburgh Parsley. 

1441. The Hamburgh parsley, Apium Petroselinum tuberosum Bon 
Jard.^ is a biennial, resembling the common parsley, but with much larger, 
less curled leaves, and with large fusiform roots of the same colour and tex- 
ture as those of the parsnep. It is occasionally cultivated in Germany, to 
put m soups and stews, and also as a separate dish, like the parsnep or 
Teltow turnip. Its culture is in all respects the same as that of the parsnep. 

SuBSECT. IX. — The Radish. 

1442. The radish^ Raphanus sativus L. (Radis and Rave, Fr.)., is a 
fusiform-rooted cruciferous annual, said to be a native of China, in cultiva- 
tion in Britain from the earliest period of garden history, for the roots which 
are eaten raw as salad, or in mixture with other ingredients. The roots are 
also excellent when boiled and sent to table in the manner of asparagus. 
The young seedling leaves are sometimes used as small salading, and the 
seed-pods are freq^uently pickled, and used as a substitute for capers. 

1443. Varieties. — These are arranged as spring and summer radishes, 
turnip radishes, autumn radishes, and winter radishes. The first class are 
delicately acrid, the second more powerfully so, and the last strong and 
coarsely pungent . 

Spring and summer radishes. — Scarlet syn. salmon-coloured : in most 
general cultivation. Short-topped scarlet: the earliest and best variety. 
Semi-long scarlet : a new sort, said to remain longer crisp than other spring 
and summer radishes ; and the semi-long rose coloured^ also of excellent 
quality. The short-topped scarlet is the best for a cottage garden. 

Turnip radishes. — White turnip: root globular. Rose-coloured turnip. 
Yellow short-topped turnip: form cylindrical. 

Autumn radishes. — White Russian: root large and long, white, tapering 
like a carrot, flavour nutty, like that of the rampion. Yellow turnip : root 
large, ovate, rough, yellow or dusky brown without, but white within. 
Round brown : root large, greenish brown ; the first is the best for a cottage 
garden. 

Winter radishes. — White Spanish : root large, outside greenish white, flesh 
hot, firm, solid, and white. Black Spanish : root large, rough, black, 
flesh white, hot, firm, solid ; the hardiest of the winter radishes ; the best 
for a cottage garden. 

1444. The soil for all the kinds should be light, rich, and well pulverized 
to at least eighteen inches in depth, and the situation for an early crop shel- 
tered and exposed to the sun. The seed should be sown in January and 
February for a crop to be drawn in March and April, and covered with 

u u 



654 



RADICACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



mats, straw or fern, nightly and during great part of the day in snowy or 
very cold windy weather. The seeds should be scattered so thin as not to 
come up thicker than one and a half inches or two inches apart. For a bed 
four feet six inches by twelve feet, two ounces of seed will be required. It 
will come up in eight or ten days. Successional sowings may be made every 
ten days or a fortnight, till the end of May ; afterwards the autumn radishes 
may be sown till the end of July; and the winter radishes may be sown 
from the beginning of July till the end of August. The autumn and winter 
radishes are most conveniently cultivated in rows, and as they are allowed 
to attain a considerable size before being used, the distance between the 
rows may be nine inches or a foot, and the distance in the row six inches. 
The winter radishes come into use in October, and being very hardy, may 
either be left in the open ground through the winter, which is the practice 
in Russia where the ground is covered with snow, and taken up as wanted ; 
or stored up in ridges or cellars in the manner of turnips or carrots. The 
tender green seed-pods used in pickling are taken from plants of the early 
sorts that have been allowed to run to seed for that purpose in July and 
August. The early radishes are so short a time on the ground that they 
are seldom troubled with insects ; but in the case of seed-bearing plants, the 
sparrows are very fond of the newly-formed seeds. In saving seed only one 
kind ought to be grown in the same garden at the same time. The seed 
will keep two j^ears. 

For forcing the 7'adis\ the details have already been given at length (1108). 

SuBSECT. X. — Oxalis Deppei, O. crenata, and Tropckolum tuberosum, 

1445. Deppes oxalis, O. Deppei^. C, is an oxalideous bulbous-rooted per- 
ennial, a native of Mexico, introduced in 1827, and strongly recommended for 
cultivation for its fusiform roots, which form a delicate vegetable dish ; and for 
its stems, flowers, and leaves, for putting into salads. The roots, when the 
plant is properly cultivated, become nearly four inches in length, and above 
an inch in thickness, consisting of cellular matter without woody tissue or 
sap vessels, not unlike, in texture and nutritious properties, the tubers of the 
salep orchis, O. morio, L. " The roots are gently boiled with salt and 
water, after being washed and slightly peeled ; they are eaten like aspa- 
ragus, in the Flemish fashion, with melted butter and the yolk of eggs. 
They are also served up like scorzonera and endive, with white sauce. They 
form, in whatever way they are dressed, a tender succulent dish, easy to 
digest, agreeing with the most delicate stomach. The analogy of the root 
with salep indicates that its effect should be excellent upon all constitutions. 
The young leaves are dressed like sorrel, put in soup, or used as greens ; 
they have a fresh and agreeable acid, especially in spring. The flowers are 
excellent in salad, alone, or mixed with corn salad, endive of both kinds, red 
cabbage, beet-root, and even with the petals of the dahlia, which are deli- 
cious when thus employed. When served at table, the flowers with their 
pink corolla, green calyx, yellow stripes, and little stamens, produce a very 
pretty effect." — (Professor Morren in Gard. Chron. 1841, p. 68.) Propa- 
gation may be effected by the little scaly bulbs, which are found in abundance 
round the collar of the plant. They require a light sandy soil, enriched 
with decayed vegetable matter, and frequent watering in very dry weather ; 
and Prof. Morren waters with liquid cow-dung in May. The bulbs may 



dxALis DEPPEi, o. crenata, trop^olum tuber6sum. 655 

be planted about the middle or latter end of April, when all danger from frost 
is over, in drills seven inches asunder, the bulbs five inches apart in the row, 
and covered with an inch-deep of soil. The bulbs being exceedingly small, 
three or four of them are put down together, so as to form a group of plants. 
Vegetation continues till October, when the plants may be taken up, and the 
roots preserved through the winter in sand in a dry cellar, protected from 
frost. The bulbs are previously taken off the sides of the crown of the root, 
and preserved till the planting season, in the same manner. Prof. Morren 
has seen a single plant produce from forty-five to fifty bulbs, — (Ibid., and An- 
nales des Sciences Physiques S^c, de Lyon, tome viii., 1838.) 

14-46. Oxalis crenata Jacq., a tuberous-rooted oxalisfrom Lima, where it 
is used as an esculent, has been cultivated in this country since 1 832, for the 
same purposes as Oxalis Deppei ; but it is said to be inferior to that species 
in the flavour of the tubers. The stalks and leaves, however, are used in 
tarts, alone or with other vegetables or fruits. The plant was much culti- 
vated ten years ago, but is now out of repute, while O. Deppei is coming 
into favour. There are several other bulbous or tuberous rooted species of 
Oxalis from South America, which might in all probability be used in the 
same manner as the species mentioned. 

1447. Tropoeolum tuber dsum Maund., is a tropseolaceous tuberous-rooted 
climbing perennial, growing five feet or six feet high, introduced from Peru 
in 1837, which has also been added to the list of our esculent roots. The 
tubers, when well grown, are about the size of hens' eggs, and have the flavour 
of sea-kale or asparagus, joined to somewhat of the hot taste of garden cress. 
The plant is propagated either by cuttings taken from tubers placed in heat 
early in the season, and treated like cuttings of dahlias so obtained, or by 
cuttings of the tubers, leaving one good eye in each set. These may be 
brought forward on heat in separate pots, and when all danger from frost is 
over, turned out into a light, rich, sandy soil, three feet or four feet apart 
every way, and either left to cover the ground with their trailing stems, by 
which the soil will be kept moist, or sticked like peas. The latter is the 
best mode in a moist season or damp soil. In October, when the leaves are 
beginning to decay, the plants may be taken up, and the tubers placed in a 
dry cellar, or in a pit or ridge, out of the reach of frost and damp, in the 
manner of the tubers of oxalis, or those of the potato. This tropaeolum was 
first successfully cultivated by Mr. Cameron, of the Birmingham Botanic 
Garden, who, from about a dozen tubers, raised twenty-five plants in April, 
turned them out in July, and dug up half a bushel of tubers from them in 
November. (G. M., 1838, p. 254.) T. edule, of which there are plants 
in the Hort. Soc. Garden, and other species with tuberous roots, might 
doubtless be used as substitutes for the Tropaeolum tuberosum L. 

1448. Substitutes for esculent roots are to be found m the roots or tubers 
of Psoralea esculenta Dec, a leguminous perennial, a native of Missouri, 
cultivated in North America ; Lathyrus tuberbsus L., Orobus tuberosus X., 
Apios tuberbsus Boer., Arachis hypogsea L., all well-known leguminous 
perennials ; Potentilla Anserina L. ; Trapa natans L. ; the common cara- 
way, Carum Carui L,, a well-known umbelliferous biennial, a native of 
Britain in meadows, the roots of which were formerly eaten as parsneps are, 
the leaves used in garnishing, and the seeds, as they still are, in confectionery 
and distillation ; Campanula, any of the fleshy rooted species ; Allium, any 
species ; Lilium pomponium ; Echinophora spinbsa L,, the prickly samphire, 

u u2 



656 



SPINACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



the roots of which are eatable, with the flavour of parsneps, and the young 
leaves make a very wholesome and excellent pickle ; Cyperus jL., the 
rush nut, and some others. 

Sect. IV. — Spinaceous Esculents. 

1449. The only spinaceous esculents generally cultivated in British gardens 
are the common spinach, and the sorrel ; but we have also French 
spinach, beet-spinach, perennial-spinach, New Zealand- spinach, and herb- 
patience. They are all very mild in quality, and may be used as greens by 
persons with whom the cabbage-tribe would disagree. In the rotation of 
crops, some of them, as the common spinach, are secondary ; others, as the 
white beet, are annual ; and some, as the sorrel, are stationary. 

SuBSECT. I. — The Common Spinach. 

1450. The common spinach^ Spinacia oleracea Z/., (Epinard Fr.^ is a 
chenopodiaceous, dioecious annual, a native of the north of Asia, in cultiva- 
tion from the middle of the sixteenth century, or earlier, for its succulent 
leaves. It is a very hardy plant, the Flanders variety particularly, with- 
standing the severest frost. The leaves are used boiled and mashed up as a 
separate dish, and in soups or stews, with or without the addition of sorrel. 
The leaves may be obtained from the open ground from April to Novem- 
ber, and also to a moderate extent through the winter, and spring. There 
are three varieties, the round- seeded, for sowing during summer; the 
Flanders spinach, which has also smooth seeds but larger, and very large 
leaves, for sowing in autumn for use in winter and spring ; and the prickly- 
seeded^ or common winter spinach. The quantity of seed required for a bed 4i 
feet by SO feet is two ounces, or for 150 feet of drill, one ounce. The 
seed comes up m a fortnight or three weeks, according to the season. The 
best mode of sowing is in drills 8 inches apart for summer spinach, and 
10 inches or 1 foot for Flanders-spinach ; the plants in the former case to be 
thinned to 6 inches apart, and in the latter to 8 inches, as soon as they 
have shown a proper leaf. In order that the leaves may be succulent, and pro- 
perly flavoured, the soil should be rich and the situation open and airy, more 
especially for the main crops. The summer crops are frequently sow^n alter- 
nately with rows of peas or beans ; but, as the spinach is generally more or less 
shaded by these crops before it is fit to be gathered, it is never of so good a qua- 
lity as that which is grown in the open garden. For summer spinach, the first 
sowing may be made in open weather m January, and sowings in succession 
every three or four weeks may be made till the end of July. For winter 
and spring use, a large sowing of the Flanders variety, and also some of 
the prickly-seeded, which some prefer, should be made in the first 
or second week of August, and a secondary one towards the end of that 
month. These sowings will come into use in November, and will continue 
to afford gatherings occasionally through the winter, and frequently in 
spring, till May or June, The routine culture of all the sowings consists in 
thinning; stirring the soil between the rows, and watering, in very dry 
w^eather. In gathering, the largest leaf only, or at most a few of the largest 
leaves, should be taken off" one plant at a time : they may either be 
cut or pinched off^. A portion of the winter crop may be protected by 
hoops and mats, when a heavy fall of snow is anticipated, to admit of its 
being more readily gathered. Seed may be saved by leavmg a portion of 



THE FRENCH, NEW ZEALAND, AND PERENNIAL SPINACH. 657 

a row, containing both male and female plants. When the female blossoms 
are set, the male plants should be pulled up. The seed will keep four 
years. 

SuBSECT. II. — Orache, or French Spinach. 

1451. The orache, or French spinach, Atriplex hortensis L., is a cheno- 
podiaceous polygamous annual, growing to the height of three feet or four 
feet, a native of Tartary, and in cultivation as a spinach plant from the be- 
ginning of the sixteenth century. The leaves are used as in the common 
spinach, to mix with those of sorrel, and sometimes also the tender points of 
the shoots. There are three varieties, the white, syn. pale green-leaved, the 
green-leaved, and the dark ret?- leaved. An ounce of seed will sow a drill of 
one hundred feet in length ; and it comes up in ten days or a fortnight. A 
dozen or two of plants placed two feet apart every way, in rich soil, in an 
open situation, kept moderately moist, will afford gatherings two or three 
times a week during the whole summer. The leaves ought to be taken 
while they are tender, and the blossoms pinched off as fast as they appeal-. 
The earliest crop may be sown in February, and for succession another sov/- 
ing may be made in June. One plant will afford abundance of seed, which 
will keep two years. 

SuBSECT. III. — N'ew Zealand Spinach. 

1452. The New Zealand spinach, Tetra;«6nia expansa H. K., is a ficoi- 
daceous trailing annual, a native of New Zealand, growing freely in the open 
garden during our summers, and suffering much less from drought than the 
common spinach. It has been more or less in culture as a spinach plant 
since the beginning of the present century ; but it is of inferior quality to 
the common spinach, and even to the orache, or French spinach. The seed, 
of which \ oz. will be sufficient, may be sown on a gentle heat in March ; 
it will come up in ten days, and the plants may be transplanted into small 
pots and kept in a cold frame till the middle of May, when they may be 
turned out into the open garden, allowing each plant at least a square yard 
for the extension of its trailing branches. Half a dozen plants are enough 
for an ordinary-sized garden. The rest is routine. Seed may be saved in 
fine seasons from plants in the open garden ; and in cold wet summers by 
planting on dry rubbish, keeping a plant in a pot, or training one up a wall. 
It will keep two years. 

SuBSECT. IV. — Perennial Spinach. 

1453. The perennial spinach, Chenopodium Bonus Henricus L. (An- 
serine, Fr.) is a chenopodiaceous perennial, a native of Britain, in loamy 
soils, and formerly cultivated in gardens for its leaves, which, when grown 
in a rich soil on vigorous young plants, make a very succulent spinach. The 
plant is easily propagated by division, and it also ripens seeds. In Lincoln- 
shire it is said to be cultivated in preference to the common spinach. 

1454. The leaves of many of the annual indigenous chenopodiums may, doubt- 
less, be used as spinach, when nothing better can be got ; as may those of the 
Quinoa, Chenopodium Quinoa W., an annual, a native of Peru, and exten- 
sively cultivated there for its small white seeds. There are two varieties, 
the green and the red-leaved ; they grow about the height of the orache, to 
which they bear a very close general resemblance. 



658 



SPINACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



SuBSECT. V. — The Spinach Beet, and the Chard Beet. 

1455. The spinach beet, leaf beet, or white beet, Beta cicla L. (Bette, 
or Poiree, Fr.) is a chenopodiaceous biennial, a native of the sea-shores of 
Spain and Portugal, and in cultivation in British gardens from the middle 
of the sixteenth century, for the leaves, which are boiled as spinach, or put 
into soups, and used as greens. 

1456. The chard beet, syn. Swiss chard, (Poiree a cardes, Fr.,) belongs 
to this species ; it has leaves with strong white footstalks and ribs, and 
these, separated from the disk of the leaf and dressed like asparagus, are 
thought to be nearly as good as that vegetable. There are varieties with 
white, yellow, and red midribs. 

The advantage of using the white beet as a spinach plant is, that it 
affords a succession of leaves during the whole summer ; and hence it is 
recommended for the gardens of cottages. The same advantage also attends 
the use of the sea-beet. Beta maritima L., a biennial, or imperfect perennial, 
a native of our shores. Culture of both the leaf beet and the chard beet 
as in the red beet (1435) ; and a single plant will produce abundance of 
seed, which will keep five or six years. 

SuBSECT. VI Patience Spinach. 

1457. Patience spinach. Herb Patience, or Patience dock, Rumex Pa- 
tientia L. (Rhubarbe des Moines, Oseille-epinards, and Epinards immortels, 
Fr.), is a polygonaceous perennial, a native of Italy, formerly common in 
gardens as a spinach plant, but now much neglected. The leaves rise early 
in spring, and continue to be produced during great part of the summer ; 
they should be gathered when quite tender, and boiled with about a fourth 
part of common sorrel. It may be raised from seeds, or increased by 
division like the perennial spinach (1453). 

SuBSECT. VII. — The Sorrel. 

1458. The sorrel, Rumex L. (Oseille, Fr.), is a polygonaceous genus, 
of which two species have been long in cultivation for then* leaves as sorrel. 
The French sorrel, syn. Roman sorrel, or round- leaved sorrel, R. scutatus 
L., is a perennial, a native of France and Italy ; and the common garden 
sorrel, R. Acetosa L., is an indigenous perennial, common in moist meadows. 
The leaves of both species are used in soups, sauces, and salads ; and very 
generally by the French and Dutch as a spinach ; in the latter way it is 
often used along with herb-patience, to which it gives an excellent flavour, 
as well as to orache, turnip-tops, nettle-tops, and those of Jack-by-the- 
hedge. There are several varieties of the common sorrel, but that most 
esteemed is the large-leaved, I'oseille de Belleville, Fr. The mild-leaved, 
R. montanus H. P. (I'oseille vierge Fr.), is a dioecious species, of which the 
leaves are smaller and less acid than those of R. Acetosa. The male plant 
of this species is recommended in the Bon Jardinier for being planted as 
edgings in the kitchen-garden. All the kinds are propagated by division or 
by seeds, and they may be grown in rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot 
distant in the row ; lifting a portion of the plantation every year after the 
flowering season, when the plants are in a comparatively dormant state, and 
dividing them, and replanting. If this is neglected for two or three years, 
the plants will become large and crowded, produce only small leaves, rot in 



THE ONION. 



659 



the centre, and ultimately die off. Wherever French cookery is in demand, 
a considerable breadth of sorrel will be required, and to produce the leaves 
in a succulent state the soil ought to be rich, loamy, and kept moist. 

1459. Substitutes for spinaceous esculents are to be found in chenopodia- 
ceous plants generally : in ficoideae, portulacese, amarantacese, polygonaceas, 
crassulacese, and oxalidacese ; to which we may add, Symphytum officinale 
L., in Boraginaceae. See these orders in pp. Cl7, 018. 

Sect. V. — Alliaceous Esculents. 

1460. The alliaceous esculents in cultivation in British gardens are chiefly 
the onion, leek, shallot, and garlic ; but there are also the chive and the 
rocambole. They are all asphodelaceous perennials belonging to the genus 
Allium L. They all require a rich, loamy soil and an open situation ; the 
onion, shallot, and leek crops occupy a considerable proportion of every 
garden, and they may follow either the cabbage tribe or some of the legu- 
minosae ; they are all more or less subject to the onion-fly, which is described 
under the subsection on the onion (1470). 

SuBSECT. I. — The Onion, 

1461. The common onion, Allium Cepa L. (Oignon, Fr.), is an asphode- 
laceous bulbous perennial, the native country of which is unknown, but its 
culture is as old as the history of the human race, and as extensive as 
civilization. The common onion, though treated as an annual when gronni 
for its bulb, and as a biennial when grown for seed, is yet as much a peren- 
nial as the garlic, and, like it, produces offsets the second year, though not 
in such abundance. The Welch onion, potato onion, and bulb-bearing 
onion, are different species, or very distinct varieties, also cultivated in 
British gardens, but not of such antiquity as the common onion. The onion 
is in universal use, when young, in salads; and when more advanced, or when 
mature, in soups, stews, or alone boiled or roasted. 

1462. Varieties a7id species. — The silver-skinned , middle-sized, or small, 
chiefly used for pickling. Nocera ; very small, roundish or oblate, with 
one or two small leaves, in colour resembling the silver-skinned; good 
for pickling. Strashurg\ syn. globe, Dutch, Deptford, Essex, and 
other names; large, oval, light-red tinged with green, strong flavour, 
perhaps the most generally cultivated. James's Keeping ; large, pyramidal, 
and in other respects like the preceding. Blood-red^ syn. Thomas's onion ; 
middle-sized, flat, strong flavour, and very hardy ; esteemed in the London 
market for its diuretic properties. White Spanish^ syn, Reading, White 
Portugal ; large, mild, good for a general crop, but not a long keeper. 
Brown Portugal ; resembles the preceding, excepting in colour. Tripoli ; 
the largest onion grown ; oval, light-red, mild, but does not keep long after 
it is taken up. The Welch onion, or ciboule, A. fistulosum i., a native of 
Siberia, strongly flavoured, but does not bulb ; very hardy, sown in autumn 
for drawing in spring. The underground, or potato onion^ A. Cepa, var. 
aggregatum, G. Don, multiplies by young bulbs on the parent root, which 
have all the properties of the common onion, and are equally productive, but 
do not keep longer than February. The tree, or bulb-hearing onion, syn. 
Egyptian onion, A. Cepa, var. viviparum ; the stem produces bulbs instead 
of flowers, and when these bulbs are planted they produce underground 



660 



ALLIACEOUS ESCULENTS. 




Fig. 381. The Fig. 382. The small- 
sickle-hoe, drill hoe. 



onions of considerable size, and being much stronger flavoured than those of 
any other variety, they go farther in cookery. 

1463. Propagation and Culture. — All the kinds, except the last two, are 
propagated by seeds, of which two ounces will be requisite for a bed 4 feet 
by 24 feet, to be drawn young ; or one ounce for a bed 5 feet by 24 feet, to 
remain till they are full grown. The seed will come up in about a fort- 
night. The soil in which the onion succeeds best is a strong loam well 
enriched with manure, which may be of the strongest kmd, such as bullocks' 
blood, night soil, powdered bones, &c. previously rotted. It should be well 
pulverised to a considerable depth. Where the soil is not apt to produce 
annual weeds, the best mode is to sow broadcast, because less labour is 
required in thinning ; but in the case of soils abounding with the seeds of 
weeds, it is better to sow- in drills, 9 inches apart for the smaller kinds, and 
a foot for such as are larger : the plants to be thinned out when 3 inches 
high to 4 inches, 6 inches or 8 inches, according to the kind, or w-hether 
onions of large or moderate size are washed for. To produce small onions 

for pickling, the silver-skinned variety, or the 
Nocera, should be sown thick, or very thick, 
according to the size wanted ; and to produce 
very large onions, the Tripoli ought to be sown 
thin, and the soil stirred once or twice during 
the summer, care being taken, in this and in 
every other case of stming the soil among 
onions, not to earth up the incipient bulb, that being found to impede its 
swelling. Liquid manure may be freely applied. The time for sowing a 
main crop, to produce bulbs for keeping through the winter, is the beginning 
or middle of March ; and great care is requisite not to cover the seed more 
than an inch, and to press the soil on it firmly by treading or rolling. Thin- 
ning and hoeing-up weeds should be performed with a 2 inch hoe (394), and 
the soil may be stirred with the Spanish hoe, fig. 21, in p. 132 ; or, if the 
plants are very close, with the sickle hoe, fig. 381. When the seeds are to 
be sown in drills, these may be made either singly with the drill-hoe, fig. 
882, or in three or four at a time, by the drill-rake, fig. 383. The teeth of 

this rake, like the head, are of w-ood ; the 
latter being pierced with holes an inch 
apart, so that the teeth, which are to form 
the drills, may be fixed at any convenient 
distance. Market-gardeners sometimes, 
instead of distributing the seed along the 
di'ill, drop four or five seeds together at 
every six or eight inches distant, giving no 
thinning afterwards, but leavmg the plants to press against and push aside 
one another. This saves the labour of thinning ; and if the soil is kept 
well stirred between the rows, a considerable bulk of crop will be produced, 
though the onions will be very irregular in point of size. 

1464. An autumn and winter crop of onions, for being drawn as wanted 
for salads and soups, is procured by sowing about the middle of August the 
Strasburgh, or globe. These will be fit for use by Michaelmas, and will 
afford supplies through the winter, and in early sprmg till the March-sown 
crop for drawing comes into use ; or till thinnings can be obtained from the 
main crop. Formerly the Welch onion was sown to stand through the win- 




Fig. 383. The drill-rake 



CULTURE OF THE ONION. 



661 



ter for a spring crop, but as it does not bulb, and is rather stronger than the 
common onion, it is now but little cultivated : being much hardier, however, 
it answers well for cold late situations. 

1465. A transplanted crop is, by many gardeners, preferred to a sown one. 
The seed is sown quite thick in the last week of August, or first week of 
September, and transplanted into rows, the ordinary kinds 9 inches wide, 
and 6 inches or 8 inches apart in the row, and the larger kinds at double 
these distances, in the following March ; the greatest care being taken to 
keep the whole of the bulb above ground, and only to fix the fibres in the 
soil. Onions thus treated attain a large size, and produce a uniform crop, 
without the trouble of thinning, some weeks before a crop sown in IMarch ; 
the only drawback is that the plants sometimes run to flower. Some per- 
sons, instead of leaving the onions in the seed-bed through the winter, sow 
in June, or even in April, if the soil is very poor, quite thick, take up the 
bulbs in September, and dry them and hang them in bags till the April 
following ; when they are transplanted, by pressing them down with the 
finger and thumb, at regular distances, in rows. As the object is to prevent 
the bulb from being earthed up, the ground should be previously trodden 
or rolled, at least along the line where the plants are to be placed. The 
shorter the time these onions have been in the ground the preceding year 
the less likely will they be to run to flower. Another mode of obtaining 
a transplanted crop, is by sowing in February on a slight hotbed, or merely 
under glass, and transplanting into rows in April. 

1466. The potato-onion may be planted in February, in shallow drills 1 
foot apart and 6 inches distant in the row, leaving the point of every bulb 
exposed, and pressing its lower end firmly to the soil. In Devonshire, where 
this onion is grown extensively, it is slightly earthed up during summer 
in the manner of potatoes. It is a common saying there, that it should be 
planted in the shortest day, and taken up in the longest ; which being fully 
two months before the common onion is taken up, it is evident that the 
potato-onion cannot keep so long as that variety. It is an excellent onion 
for the cottager, as it produces both an early and a certain crop. 

1467. The bulb-bearing onion. — The small bulbs are collected from the 
heads of the stems, and planted in shallow drills in September ; or the stems, 
with the heads and bulbs attached, are hung up in a dry airy shed from 
October till February, and the bulbs are then planted rather closer together 
than those of the potato-onion. The crop will be fit to take up in J uly, or 
the beginning of August. 

1468. Treatment common to all the kinds. When the leaves begin to 
decay at the points, or when any indication of running to flower appears, 
bend down the stem an inch or two above the bulb, in order to check the 
supply of sap thrown into the leaves, and thereby promote its accumulation 
in the bulb. This is commonly done by one person with the back of the 
rake, or by two, with the handle of a rake or hoe between them. If one 
bending has not the desired effect, repeat the operation, or bend the stem 
back again, or give it a twist and turn down at the same time. In very warm 
dry seasons, the bulbs come to maturity and the stems decay naturally with 
perhaps a few exceptions ; but in cold wet seasons, the operation is useful, 
and is generally performed about the middle of August. 

1469. Diseases, insects, S;c. The onion in good soil is little subject to 
disease, but there are some insects which live on it in their grub or maggot 



662 



ALLIACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



state. When a crop has been attacked by insects, but little can be done ; 
but when an attack is anticipated, it may be prevented by watering the 
ground with some fetid liquid, such as putrid urine, or thin putrid liquid 
manure, which by its offensive smell will deter the parent insect from depo- 
siting its eggs in the plant, and at the same time invigorate the plant, and 
prepare it to resist theii- attacks. 

1470. The onion fly ^ Anthomyia ceparum Meigen, a dipterous insect, not 
unlike the common house-fly, is the most common insect which attacks the 
onion, the leek, and the shallot, and as it frequently occasions very serious 
losses, the following details respecting it by Mr. Westwood may be useful. 
During the summer months, and especially in June and July, the 
cultivator of onions is annoyed by perceiving that, here and there, in 
various parts of his crops, the plants appear to be in a dying state, and the 
leaves fallen on the ground. At first, this is observed in plants which are 
only just above the surface of the soil, and which are not above the thick- 
ness of a straw. These soon die, and then others, of a larger size, are 
observed to decay in a similar manner ; this continues until the middle of 
July, and even until the onions are full-grown; at which time they have 
occasionally sufiicient strength to survive the injury, with the decay of a 
portion only of their outer layer or root, the centre part remaining sound. 
In this manner whole beds are destroyed ; and it seems to be of little use to 
sow again, as the fresh-sown plants fare no better. In light soils especially, 
the attacks of this insect are occasionally very annoying to the gardener. 
On stripping off the coats of the young onions which show evident signs of 
decay, it is at once perceived that it is owing to the attack of a small grub, 
destitute of legs, upon the vital parts of the bulb or stem of the plants, that 
its destruction is occasioned. On pulling up a very young onion, its interior 
is found to be completely devoured by a single grub at its very heart ; but, 
in plants of larger growth, at least half a dozen of these grubs have been 
counted, varying considerably in size. In the summer season, these grubs 
are about a fortnight in arriving at their full gi'owth. They generally con- 
sume the entire of the interior of the onion, the outside skin of which is 
alone left dry and entire, serving as a place in wliich they undergo their 
transformations, without forming any cocoon. In about another fortnight 
the perfect fly makes its appearance, the time varying according to the season, 
from ten to twenty days. (G. M. 1837, p. 242.) To prevent the attacks 
of this insect, it has been recommended to sow after strawberries that have 
occupied the soil for four or five years, or to strew the surface of the soil 
with charcoal cinders, such as may be obtained from a wood where charcoal 
has been made ; or to transplant in preference to sowing, dipping the roots 
or the bulbs in a puddle consisting of three parts of earth, and one of soot. 
The most effective mode with a sown crop, we believe to be that first men- 
tioned, viz., to water with any fetid liquid, such as stale soap-suds mixed 
with a little stale tobacco-water, from the middle of May till the beginning 
of July. (G. M. 1841, p. 88.) 

1471. Gathering the crop. When the necks shrink and the leaves decay, 
pull or dig up the bulbs ; spread them on dry ground, in the full sun, to dry 
and harden completely, turning them every two or three days, and in a 
week or fortnight they will be ready to house. Clear ofi^ the grossest part 
of the leaves, stalks, and fibres ; then spread out the bulbs m an airy loft or 
cool dry cellar, in which they should be turned over occasionally, and those 



THE LEEK. 



663 



that begin to decay picked out. Thus treated, onions will keep sound and 
good, all winter and spring, till May following, except the potato-onion, 
which with difficulty keeps beyond February. Onions are not injured by 
frost, unless they are moved when frozen, which, by bruising them, ruptures 
the tissue, and when a thaw takes place, the bruised part becomes a wound, 
and the bulbs begin to decay. Onions intended for market are tied by the 
neck round sticks, by strands of matting, or plaited into straw, and thus form 
what are called ropes of onions. Hanging up these ropes in an open airy 
shed is the best way of keeping them ; but if they are spread out, or hung 
up in a close cellar, room, or loft, somewhat above 40° they will grow. 

1472. To save seed, select some of the finest specimens and plant them in 
rich soil early in spring. The seed will ripen in August, when the heads 
should be cut off and laid in cloths exposed to the sun till they are perfectly 
dry, when the seed may be thrashed out, and again exposed to the sun for 
a few hours, previously to being put up in bags. It will keep two years, 
and sometimes three. It varies considerably in price, according to the crop 
in this country, and also in Holland, whence much onion seed is imported. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Leek. 
1478. The Leek, Allium Porrum L. (Poireau, Fr.), is a perennial, a 
native of Switzerland, in cultivation in British gardens, from an unknown 
period. Its blanched stem is used in soups and stews, and in a dish by itself, 
served up on toasted bread with white sauce. The best variety is the broad- 
leaved or London leek, which is always raised from seed, though suckers may 
be obtained from old plants. For a seed -bed four feet wide by eight feet in 
length, one ounce of seed is sufficient, which may be sown about the middle 
of March, and will come up in a fortnight. The plants should be trans- 
planted when three or four inches high, in May or June, if possible in 
showery weather ; previously shortening a little the roots, and taking off 
the tips of the leaves. They require a very rich soil, and may either be 
planted along the bottom of drills, or on the surface in rows, ten or twelve 
inches apart, by six or eight inches in the row ; inserting the sheathed stems 
nearly up to the leaves, or, in default of this mode of planting, earthing them 
up as the}^ grow, in order that a greater portion of the plant may be blanched. 
In planting, press the soil to the fibres with the dibber, but leave the stem 
quite loose and free, and as it were standing in the centre of a hollow cylinder, 
two inches in diameter, and at least six inches deep. This cylinder will 
afterwards be filled up by the swelling of the stem, and as the leaves are so 
close together, it is a much better mode than attempting to earth the plants up. 
Some plant in hollow drills, and earth up as in celery culture, which pro- 
duces very large stems. Some form holes with a large dibble, drop the 
plant in, followed by as much loose earth as will just cover its fibrous roots, 
and afterwards water once a day, till it has taken sufficient hold of the 
soil. If the soil is very rich to a considerable depth, and on a dry bottom, 
the size of the stem, by this mode of culture, becomes enormous. The 
leeks will be fit for use in September, and will continue in perfection 
till the following April or May, when they may be taken up and placed in a 
cool cellar to retard vegetation, which will admit of their being used till the 
middle or end of May ; or much later, if growth is prevented by cutting off 
the plate from which the roots proceed. When severe frost is anticipated, 
a portion of the crop may be taken up in the beginning of winter, and 



664 



ALLIACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



planted in sand, in an open shed ; or it may be protected where it stands. A 
few plants left will produce abundance of seed, which will ripen in Septem- 
ber, and may be treated like that of the onion. The seed will keep two or 
three years. 

SuBSECT. 111.— The Shallot. 

1474. The Shallot, Allium ascalonicum L. (Echalotte, Fr.), is a bulbous- 
rooted perennial, a native of Palestine, and long in cultivation for its bulbs, 
which separate into cloves. These are used like the bulbs of onions, in 
soups and stews, and in a raw state cut small, as sauce to steaks and chops ; 
and sometimes a clove or two is put into winter salads, more especially 
potato salad. The best variety is the lone/ -keeping, which will remain good 
two years. Propagation is effected by dividing the bulb into its separate 
cloves, and planting and managing these in all respects like the potato onion 
(1466). The soil should be rich, and particular care taken to guard against 
the onion fly, by the means already indicated (1470). Mr. Knight planted 
on the surface of the ground, earthed up a little at first, and as soon as the 
roots had taken hold, removed the soil with the hoe, and by abundant watering, 
which he found a check to the ravages of the maggot. The bulbs, if planted 
in March, or, as is sometimes done, in the preceding November, will be ready 
for use towards the end of July, and the crop may be taken up in September, 
and spread in an airy loft, or tied up in ropes, like onions. A sufficient 
quantity of the smallest cloves ought to be selected for sets for the following 
year. 

SuBSECT. IV. — The Garlic. 

1475. The Garlic, Allium sativum L. (Ail, F7\), is a bulbous-rooted 
perennial, a native of the South of Europe, long in cultivation for flavouring 
meats, and for various sauces and ragouts. In many parts of Europe, par- 
ticularly in France and Spain, the peasantry rub garlic over the slices of 
their black bread as a seasoning, and find the bread so prepared delicious. 
The bulb divides into cloves like the shallot, and is cultivated exactly in the 
same manner. The leaves begin to wither in August, and the bulbs may 
be taken up in September, dried, and laid in an airy loft, or tied up in ropes. 

SuBSECT, V. — The Chive. 

1476. The Chive, Allium SchcBnoprasum L. (Civette or Ciboulette, Fr.), 
is a bulbous perennial, a native of Britain, in meadows and pastures, but 
rare. It has been long in cultivation for its leaves, which are used in spring 
salads, in soups, omelets, and generally as a substitute for young onions. 
The bulbs are very small, and seldom applied to any culinary purpose. The 
plant flowers in May, and after the leaves have begun to decay in J une, it 
may be taken up and divided, and replanted in rows, one foot by six inches ; 
but as the chive is little used except in cottage gardens, a very few plants 
are sufficient, and these may be planted in the herb-ground in the slip. If 
kept cut so as to prevent its flowering, it will succeed for several years in the 
same spot. No cottage garden ought to be without the chive, which may 
be planted as an edging to walks not much frequented. 

SuBSECT. VI. — The Rocambole. 

1477. The Rocambole, Allium Scorodoprasum L. (Ail d'Espagne, Fr.), 
is a bulbous perennial, a native of Denmai-k, formerly cultivated for the 



THE ASPARAGUS. 



665 



same purposes as garlic, but now comparatively neglected. It differs from 
garlic in having the bulbs smaller, milder to the taste, and in producing 
bulbs on the joints of the stem, as well as at its base. 

1478. Substitutes for alliaceous plants are to be found in the genus 
Allium, of which there are several indigenous species, and a number in gar- 
dens which are natives of other countries. Three cruciferous plants, by no 
means rare, also taste and smell of garlic, viz., Peltaria alliacea L., a per- 
ennial from Austria ; Thlaspi alliaceum Z,., a biennial from the South of 
Europe ; and Alliaria officinalis Andrs. (Jack-by-the-hedge), a perennial, 
a native of Britain. The latter is used as greens or spinach in many parts of 
the country. 

Sect. Yl. — Asparagaceous Esculents. 

1479. The asparagaceous esculents belong to various natural orders, but 
the principal are the asparagus, the sea-kale, and the artichoke ; there are 
a few others of less note. They are all comparatively plants of luxury, 
though the asparagus and the sea-kale ma}' with propriety be cultivated in 
the garden of the cottager, who if he does not use the produce, may sell it. 

SuBSECT. I. — The Asparagus. 

1480. The asparagus., Asparagus officinalis L. ; (Asperge Fr.^ is an 
asphodelaceous perennial, found in light sandy soils on the sea-shore in 
Britain and other parts of Europe ; often where it is covered by drifting 
sand, and watered by salt-water during spring- tides. It is also found in 
abundance in sandy steppes in the interior of Russia. It has been in culti- 
vation, for its stalks when they are just emerging from the ground, as a 
culinary esculent, from the time of the Greeks ; coming into use in the open 
ground in May, and lasting till the middle of J une, and procured by forcing 
during the winter and spring months. The shoots or buds, more or less 
blanched according to taste, are boiled and served on toasted bread with white 
sauce, and the smaller shoots, which are allowed to become green, are cut 
into pieces about the size of peas, and used as a substitute for that legume. 
There scarcely can be said to be any particular variety, though the pre- 
ference is generally given to seed saved atBattersea, Gravesend, or Mortlake, 
places famous for the large size to which asparagus has been grown for the 
London market. 

1481. Soil., and sowing or planting the asparagus. — Asparagus can only be 
growTi large, and succulent, on a soil sandy, deep, light, more especially on 
the surface, from vegetable matter, and well enriched with animal manure. 
The toughness and stringyness of the London asparagus are owing to the sur- 
face soil through which it sprouts being too deep, and not sufficiently light. 
In consequence of this the w^oody fibre of the sprouts has time to strengthen 
and harden; whereas, were no other covering than leaves or even leaf- 
mould used, the sprouts would be quite tender throughout the greatest 
part of their length. From the asparagus being a sea-side plant, it may 
be inferred that salt water might be occasionally beneficial, and hence 
fresh stable- dung mixed with sea- weed has long been found the best 
manure for asparagus in Scotland ; and night-soil the best at St. Sebastian, 
where the surface of the beds is only about three feet above high-water 
mark. {G. C. 1842, p. 1870 Fi'om this last circumstance, and from the 
nature of the asparagus grounds at LTlm and Augsburg on the Danube, and 



666 



ASPARAGACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



in a small sandy island in the Oise in France, at which places the soil is a 
coarse sand, saturated with water at three feet beneath the surface, we are 
led to conclude, that if the subsoil at the depth of three feet is porous and 
kept moist in the growing season by the water of an adjoining river or lake, 
as the hyacinth gardens are in Holland, and the surface strewed over 
every spring with salt, there will be a union of the most favourable cir- 
cumstances for growing asparagus to a large size. The soil ought to be 
trenched at least three feet deep, and a layer of animal manure of some 
kind, such as good stable-dung, or night-soil, put in the bottom of the trench, 
and mixed with the soil throughout in trenching ; and if the ground is 
re-trenched immediately before planting, so much the better. For the conve- 
nience of management the plants may be grown in beds four feet wide, with 
alleys between then-i two feet wide. There may be three rows of plants in each 
bed, the outer rows nine inches from the edge of the bed, and the centre row 
fifteen inches from the outer rows. To afford the means of keeping the beds 
of a regular width, a strong oak stake may be driven down in each corner, 
which will be a guide in stretching the line, when the alleys are to be dug 
out in autumn, and filled in from the bed in spring. The seed may be sown 
in drills an inch deep in INIarch, and the plants thinned out to the distance 
of one foot in the J uly following. A slight crop of radishes and onions may 
be sown broadcast over the beds the first year, but nothing the second, or in 
any future year. The fourth year the plants will afford stalks fit to cut. 
To save time, two year-old plants are sometimes used instead of seeds ; these 
are either purchased from a nursery, or raised in a seed-bed, and for a 
bed four and a half feet wide, by six feet long, one quart of seed will be 
sufficient. If sown to remain, then for three rows in a bed fifty feet in 
length, half a pint of seed will be necessary. The seed will come up in 
three weeks. Tlie quantity of plants required is easily calculated. They 
are planted in the trench manner (728), or in drills (726), in February or 
March, keeping the crowns of the roots two inches below the surface. The 
quantity of ground sown or planted, even in the smallest garden, should not 
be less than a rod, as it requires that extent of plantation to produce a single 
good dish. For a large family one-eighth of an acre will be requisite ; but 
five poles, planted with 1600 plants, will yield from six to eight score heads 
daily for a month. A crop from seed will allow of one stalk from each 
plant being gathered the third spring ; two stalks the fourth spring, and 
three or more the fifth ; while a plantation of two-year-old plants trans- 
planted, will allow of one stalk being cut from each plant the second spring, 
two the third, and so on. 

1482. Routine culture. — About the middle of October, every year, cut 
down the decayed stalks of the plants close to the ground, and chop them to 
pieces in the alleys with the spade, after which stretch the line along the 
alleys from the stakes placed at the corners, and dig out as much soil, and 
chopped stalks, as will cover the bed to the depth of three or four inches; 
previously laying on a layer of stable dung. This is called the winter dress- 
ing. About the end of March, just before vegetation commences in the 
roots, the spring dresshig is given, which consists in forking over the surface 
as deep as the crowns of the plants over the rows, and twice as deep between 
the rows. Then rake the surface of the beds even, drawing off nearly as 
much soil into the alleys as had been dug out of them for the winter's dress- 
ing ; stretching the line as before, and finishing off the edges in a neat and 



THE ASPARAGUS. 



667 



regular manner. If sea-weed has not been laid on along with the dung at 
the winter dressing, a sprinkling of salt, or of wood ashes, or of both, may 
be scattered on the surface of the beds ; and over this a layer of tree 
leaves of the last year, half decomposed, or of dry litter, may be placed, in 
order to blanch the sprouts. In dry weather, water should be supplied 
abundantly, either by means of liquid manure in the alleys, or clear 
water poured over the beds. Nothing more is required till the asparagus 
is fit to gather, which in the climate of London is about the end of April, 
and it lasts till midsummer, when its place at the table is taken by green peas. 
In the neighbourhood of London, soil from the alleys is laid over the beds to 
a considerable thickness in spring ; so that the shoots are obtained blanched 
to a great length ; but there is very little tender at the top, in consequence 
of the shoots having to grow so long before they get through so great a thick- 
ness of soil, much woody fibre being, as before observed (1481), formed 
during its progress. 

1483. Gathering. — To suit the taste of some persons, asparagus should be 
so far grown as to become green, but in general it is preferred more or less 
blanched, that is, when the shoot is three or four inches above the surface 
of the soil, with the terminal bud close and plump. In some parts of the 
Continent each particular stalk is blanched by putting a wooden or earthen- 
ware tube, eighteen inches long, and one inch in diameter within, over it ; 
and at St. Sebastian the beds are covered, before cutting commences, to the 
depth of eight inches with dead leaves, which effects the same object, and 
keeps the soil moist. The last mode well deserves to be adopted in this 
country, as well as that of watering abundantly during the gathering season. 
In young plantations, gather only the largest stalks for two or three weeks, 
and then permit the whole of the others that may be produced to run to 
flower ; but in plantations in full vigour, gather all the stems that appear, 
whether large or small, for a month or six weeks, or till the time fixed on 
for leaving off gathering. If, instead of gathering all the stems, some are 
allowed to nm to flower while the gathering is going on, but few more stems 
will be sent up from the root, and these weak on account of the main force 
of the sap being spent in the flowering stem. To ensure large stalks, gather- 
ing should not be continued longer than the middle of June ; or if continued 
tUl the end of the month, no cutting should take place the following year. 
It must be constantly borne in mind that the stalks of the coming year, 
culture and other circumstances alike, depend on the number of matured 
stalks with healthy leaves of the present year. In gathering, first scrape 
away a little earth from the shoot ; then cut it off" within the ground, with 
a narrow sharp-pointed knife, or small saw, nine Laches long (fig. 41 in 
p. 138) ; thrusting the knife or saw down straight, close to the shoot, cutting 
it off^ slantingly, about three inches below the surface, and taking care not to 
wound the younger buds advancing below. The shoots are next sorted and 
tied in bundles of between two and three inches in diameter, and in that 
state sent to the kitchen, or to market. 

1484. Culture after gathering. — The alleys, being no longer required for 
walking in to gather the asparagus, are now richly manured and planted 
with cauliflower, which, under ordinary circumstances, will be all gathered 
by the time the winter dressing commences. The beds require only to be 
kept clear of weeds, and the plants to be stripped of their blossoms, as these 
expand ; exceptmg such as may be required for producing seed. ^Vhere the 



668 



ASPARAGACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



plants are weak, they may be strengthened by two or three waterings with 
liquid manure. 

J 485. The duration of an asparagus plantation is never less than ten or 
twelve years ; but in deep sandy soils, well enriched with manure, it will last 
twenty or thirty years. The plants are seldom attacked by insects, though 
the asparagus beetle (Crioceris aspavagi, Z*.) sometimes makes its appearance 
in spring, and ought to be deterred from laying its eggs by watering with 
some fetid liquid in April, or gathering the insects, which are easily known 
from their bright lively colours, by hand. (G. M. 1837, p. 337). 

1486. To save seed, allow the blossoms of some of the strongest stems to 
remain on ; the fruit will ripen in October, and may either be thrashed out 
and kept in bags, in which state it will retain its vitality for four or five 
years ; or it may be retained on the stems, and these being hang up in a dry 
place, the seed will grow at the end of fifteen or twenty years. 

Forcing the asparagus in the open garden and under glass has been already 
treated of (1096). 

SuBSECT. II. — The Sea- Kale. 

1487. The sea-kale, Crambe maritima, L. (Chou marin, Fr.), is a cruci- 
ferous perennial, with long strong deeply penetrating roots, a native of 
Britain, on the sea- coast in many places, and always most vigorous in a 
sandy soil, or a loamy subsoil, overflown by spring tides. The young 
shoots and leaf-stalks, just as they come through the sand, and are blanched 
and tender, have been boiled and eaten by the inhabitants of the western 
shores of England from time immemorial ; but the plant was not cultivated 
as a gai den esculent till after the middle of the last century. It is now 
reckoned second in excellence to the asparagus, and to be found in every good 
garden, sometimes even in that of the cottager. It comes into use in the 
open garden in the beginning of March, and continues good till May ; and by 
forcing it can be obtained from November throughout the whole of the winter 
and spring. No plant requires less care in its cultivation, or less heat 
to force. 

1488. Propagation and culture. — By seed is the common mode, but it 
will also grow freely by cuttings of the roots. If sown to transplant, a seed- 
bed four feet by ten feet will require two ounces ; if sown in drills to remain, 
the same quantity will sow one hundred and fifty feet of drill. The seed 
will come up in a month. It is generally grown in rows two feet apart, and 
the plants about the same distance in the row. Seeds, plants which have 
been one year in the seed-bed, or cuttings of the roots of old plants, may be 
used ; in the latter case leaving two eyes to each cutting ; or cuttings 
without eyes may be used, provided the upper part of the cutting bo 
planted uppermost ; or the cutting be laid on its side in a shallow 
drill. {G. M., vol. ii. p. 365.) Sowing and planting may take place 
about the beginning of March. The best soil is a deep sandy loam, 
thoroughly enriched with manure, including sea -weed, if it can be got, or if 
not, a sprinkling of salt once a year. The most efficient mode of culture 
would be to follow that recommended for asparagus. The strongest plants 
are produced from seeds sown where the plants are to remain. Three rows 
may be marked out two feet apart, leaving an interval of three feet after 
every third row, the centre of which, to the width of eighteen inches, is to 
be treated as an alley for the convenience of gathering the crop. The seeds 



THE SEA-KALE. 



669 



may be dropped in patches of three or four along the drills, and the plants 
thinned out to one plant in a place, soon after they come up. The first 
winter's dressing may consist of some littery stable-manure, sea-weed, and 
leaves, spread over the surface, which may be forked in early in the following 
spring. This may be repeated the second autumn, increasing the thickness, 
and the second sprmg a few stalks may be gathered. The third autumn the 
dressing may be repeated ; or the rows may be covered with leaves alone, 
with sand, or with soil dug out of the alleys, to the depth of six inches. 
The third spring several stalks may be gathered from each plant ; and the 
fourth spring the plantation will be in full bearing. Excepting in the first 
spring after sowing, no spring dressing is required till May, after the 
crop has been gathered. The London market-gardeners plant the sea-kale 
in rows from four to six feet apart, and every autumn after the leaves have 
died down to the surface, they dig a trench betv\-een the rows, and cover the 
plants with soil to the depth of a foot. As the crop is gathered, the ridges 
so formed are levelled down, and a crop planted between. By this mode 
the whole produce of the plant is gathered at once, every part of it being 
completely blanched and tender. (G. M.^ vol. ix.) 

1489. Gathering. — The points of the stems will appear above the leaves, 
or other matters with which the plants have been covered the preceding au- 
tumn, about the beginning or middle of March, according to the warmth of 
the situation, and of the season. Remove the covering round such of the young 
stems as are about three inches long, and cut them over half an inch above 
the collar, taking care not to injure any of the buds which remain on the 
plant, and which will immediately begin to swell. From four to six heads 
or stalks, according to the size, make a dish, and they are sent to the kitchen 
or the market tied together like asparagus. Three stout plants will aflFord 
five dishes in a season ; and hence when the number of dishes required by 
any family are known, one third added to their number will give the amount 
of plants required for a plantation. A plantation will alBFord a succession of 
gatherings for six weeks, after which period the plants should be uncovered, 
and their leaves suffered to grow, in order to strengthen the roots for the 
succeeding year. If very large and succulent sea-kale is required, gathering 
should only be made ever}^ other year, and the plants should be manured 
with stable dung or nightsoil. 

1490. The culture after gathering. — The leaves or dung with which the 
plants were covered may be partly forked in, and partly carried away ; water 
supplied abundantly in very dry weather, including liquid manure if thought 
necessary, and the blossoms stripped from all the plants not required to pro- 
duce seed. By the end of October the leaves and stems will be decayed, 
when the winter covering should be given as before directed. 

1491. Diseases and insects give little trouble in cultivatmg the sea-kale, 
because the crop is generally gathered before the insect season. The ex- 
panded leaves, however, are sometimes attacked by the caterpillars of moths 
and buttei-flies, and by the turnip-fly, both of which may be subdued by 
abundant watering with lime-water. 

1492. The duration of a plantation of sm-J^ale is in general six or eight 
years ; but as the roots, v.hen cut over below the collar, send up abundance 
of buds, even when the heart of the root is decayed, by a little care in pro- 
curing fresh sprouts from the roots, a plantation might be continued on the 
same ground for an indefinite period. 

X X 



670 



ASPARAGACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



1493. To save seed. Leave the blossoms on a few of the strongest plants, 
the seed produced by which will ripen in August, and the stalks may be 
collected and thrashed like those of the common cabbage. The seeds mil 
retain their vitality for four or five years. 

1494. Forcing. Where a crop is to be forced in the open ground, the 
ordinary mode is to cover the plants in autumn with sea-kale pots (fig. 58, 
in p. 143), or with large garden pots, and to cover these and the whole 
surface of the ground with hot dung, or a mixture of hot dung and leaves. 
When tills is done in October, kale may be gathered in November or 
December; and by successive applications of heat to other parts of the 
plantation, a supply may be obtained till it can be procured from the plants 
covered with soil, or leaves only. Other modes of forcing have been already 
noticed (1097). 

SuBSECT, III. — The Artichoke. 

1495. The artichoke.^ Cynara Scolymus L. (Artichaut, Fr.\ is a cardu- 
aceous perennial, a native of the South of Europe and North of Africa, in 
cultivation in British gardens from the middle of the sixteenth century. 
The plant is cultivated for the head of flowers, which is gathered before 
their expansion ; and the common receptacle, and the base of the involucral 
scales, are the parts eaten. These are boiled, sometimes fried in butter, and 
they are occasionally eaten raw in salads. The receptacles, or bottoms, as 
they are commonly called, after being blanched in boiling water, are some- 
times dried and preserved for use during winter and spring. In the North 
of Spain the lesser flower-heads are cut soon after they appear, and 
the pith ( ? bottoms) is extracted, and forms a palatable ingredient in the 
puchera or olla, a favourite Spanish dish. Artichoke bottoms are also com- 
bined with capsicum in a sort of stew made of fowl. (^Captain Churchill^ 
in Gard. Chron., 1842, p. 284.) The first heads are ready in July, and by 
continuing to gather them before allowing any to expand their flowers, they 
will continue being produced till November ; and by cutting off^ the heads > 
at that season, with a foot or more of stalk attached, and inserting the stalks in 
moist sand, in an open shed secured from frost, they will keep fit for use till 
January or longer. The leaves of the artichoke may also be blanched like 
those of the cardoon. The varieties are, the Globe, with a globular purplish i 
head, which is the best variety for a main crop ; the French, with an oval 1; 
green head, considered as having more flavour than the other, and being ii 
hardier. Both sorts are propagated by rooted suckers taken from the old {{ 
plants in JNIarch and April, and planted in rows four feet asunder, and two 
feet distant in the row. The soil ought to be deep, sandy, and rich, and sea- id 
weed is said to be an excellent ingredient in the manure for this plant, being |:i 
the manure used in the Orkney islands, where the artichoke grows stronger 
than anywhere else. The routine culture consists in keeping the plants 
clear of v/eeds, thinning out the shoots produced by the stools, stirring the i 
soil, manuring once a year, in autumn or spring, and laying litter round the i 
plants in autumn to protect the roots from frost during the winter. The i 
plants will produce some heads the first year, and all that they produce may m 
be gathered as soon as they attain the proper size, as the strength of the | 
root depends on the leaves, and not on the flowers. The plantation will 
continue productive for six or seven years, or longer. In gathering, the 
heads are cut off within an inch or two of the stalk attached, and half-a- |j 
dozen heads are considered as making a dish. > 



THE CARDOON. 



67i 



1-19G. Culture for producing the chard. — This is oply attempted when the 
artichoke plantation is to be renewed, and the old plants to be thrown away. 
After Midsummer, cut over the leaves within half a foot of the ground, and 
the stems as low as possible. Then, when the new crop of leaves, whicli 
will be produced in September or October, are about two feet high, tie them 
up close, first slightly with matting, and in a few days afterwards with hay 
or straw, and earth them up like celery ; or lay litter round the stems. In 
a month or six weeks, the interior leaves will be found completely blanched, 
and fit for use. By digging up the plants before frost sets in, and planting 
them in sand in an open shed, they will keep till Christmas, or later. 

The artichoke is seldom attacked by insects^ and though generally propa- 
gated by division, slips, or suckers, yet it ripens seeds freely in September, 
which, sown the following spring, will produce heads in the second summer. 
The seed keeps three years. 

SuBSECT. IV. — The Cardoon. 

1497. The cardoon, or chardoon, Cynara Cardunculus L. (Cardon, Fr.), 
is a carduaceous perennial, a native of the South of Europe and the North of 
Africa, closely resembling the artichoke in appearance and properties. It 
lias long been cultivated in gardens for the mid-rib of the leaf, which is ren- 
dered white and tender by blanching, and is used stewed, or in soups and 
salads during autumn and winter, much in the same manner as celery. The 
flavour is that of the artichoke. It is much more in request on the conthient 
than in England. In France the corollas, both of the cardoon and the 
artichoke, as well as those of several thistles, are dried and used as a substi- 
tute for rennet, in curdling milk. 

1498. Cookery of the cardoon. — "When a cardoon is to be cooked, its 
heart, and the solid, not piped, stalks of the leaves are to be cut into pieces, 
about six inches long, and boiled like any other vegetable, in pure water, 
not salt and water, till they are tender. They are then to be carefully 
deprived of the slime and strings which will be found to cover them ; and 
having thus been thoroughly cleaned, are to be plunged in cold water, where 
they mast remain till they are wanted for the table ; they are then taken 
out and heated with white sauce, marrow, or any other of the adjuncts recom- 
mended in cookery books. The process just described is for the purpose of 
rendering them white, and depriving them of a bitterness which is peculiar to 
them ; if neglected, the cardoons will be black, not white, as well as dis- 
agreeable." — (^Gard. Chron., p. 143.) 

1499. Varieties^ propagation, S^c. — There are several varieties, but the 
best are the cardoon of Tours, and the Spanish cardoon. The cardoon is 
always propagated by seed, which must not be sown too early, unless it is 
abundantly supplied with water in the dry season, otherwise it is apt to run 
to flower. In the climate of London, the end of April, or beginning of May, 
is found a proper time for a crop to come into use in November ; but an 
earlier crop may be obtamed by sowing in March. It may be sown and 
transplanted, but it is found best to raise the plants where they are finally 
to remain. Sow in patches of three or four seeds. Prepare shallow trenches 
a foot wide, and four feet apart centre from centre, manuring the soil in the 
bottom of the trench. Sow the seed in patches in the centre of the trench 
twenty inches, or two feet apart, and as soon as the plants come up, one 
only should be left in each patch. Tw^o ounces of seed will be sufficient for 

X X 2 



672 



ASPARAGACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



fifty patches. With tlie usual routme culture, the leaves will be three feet 
or four feet long by the middle of October, when they should be first slightly 
tied up with pieces of matting for a few days, and afterwards closely wrap- 
ped round with hay-bands, so as completely to exclude the light from the 
root to about two -thirds of the length of the leaves. In three weeks the 
interior leaves will be fit for use. On the approach of winter, they may be 
earthed up like celery, as high as the hay-bands, to protect them from the 
frost ; or they may be covered with litter and thatched hurdles, for that 
purpose ; or taken up with balls, and placed close together in an open airy 
shed. 

In taking the plants for use, remove the hay-bands and the outer leaves, and 
shorten those which are tender and blanched to the length of eighteen inches 
or two feet, cutting off the root. One or two plants will make a dish. Seed 
may be saved by protecting some plants, the leaves of which have not been 
blanched, through the winter, in the spot where they have grown ; they will 
flower in the following July, and ripen seed in August, which will keep five 
or six years. 

SuBSECT. V. — The Rampion. 

1500. The Rampion, Campanula Rapunculus L. (Raiponce, JFV.), is a 
campanulaceous fusiform-rooted biennial, a native of England in gravelly 
soil, and formerly much cultivated in gardens for its roots as well as its 
leaves. The latter are excellent, eaten raw as a salad, or boiled as spinach ; 
and the root, w^hich has the flavour of walnuts, is also eaten raw like a 
radish, or mixed with salads, either raw or boiled and cold. It is always 
propagated by seed, which is so exceedingly small, that a sixteenth part of 
an ounce is sufficient for any garden. It will come up in a fortnight. 
As in the case of other biennials, if sown too soon, the plants will 
run to flower the same season. The end of May, or beginning of June, 
is considered the best time for a main crop ; but a crop to come in 
early may be sown in March. The seeds may either be sown broadcast 
or in drills six inches apart, and from a quarter to half an inch in 
depth ; in either case covering the seed with not more than an eighth 
of an inch of soil. The plants may be thinned out to three or four 
inches apart, and the soil among them should not be deeply stirred, lest the 
roots should be encouraged to branch, which they are very apt to do, and 
are then unfit to be sent to table. The principal point in the culture of the 
rampion, is to sow it in a deep sandy light rich soil, which can be penetrated 
by the roots without difficulty ; and to supply water abundantly in very dry 
w^eatlier. The roots may be taken up as wanted from November till April, 
when the plants will begin to run ; but by burying the roots out of the 
reach of surface heat, in the manner of potatoes (1416), they may be kept 
through the summer. A few plants allowed to stand the second year will 
produce abundance of seeds, which will keep two years. 

SuBSECT. VI. — Substitutes for Asparagaceous Esculents. 

1501. Substitutes for asparagaceous esculents are to be found in the follow- 
ing plants: — The Hop, Humulus Lupulus L., the young shoots of which, 
when they have risen three or four inches from the root, are boiled in the 
hop districts, and eaten like asparagus^ to which they are considered little in- 
ferior. The Bladder Campion, Silene inflata Ii\ K., a perennial common on 
sea-shores, the tender shoots of wliich, when not above two inches long, have 



THE LETTUCE. 



a flavour which, according to Bryant, is surpassed by few garden vegetables; 
and it will continue producing these shoots for two months. In our opinion, 
it Avell deserves cultivation. The Virginian Poke^ Phytolacca decandraZ/., a 
perennial from Virginia, where the points of the young shoots are used as 
asparagus. The Willow-herb^ Epilobium angustifolium />., the young and 
tender shoots are eaten as asparagus, and the leaves as greens. Solomons 
seal, Polygonatum vulgare Dec, the young shoots are boiled and eaten as 
asparagus, and the roots said to be dried, ground, and made into bread- 
The common Comfrey, Symphytum officinale L., the blanched stalks form 
an agreeable asparagus. The Black Bryony, Tamus communis L., the 
blanched tops are eaten as asparagus. The But'dock, Arctium Lappa L., 
the tender stalks are eaten as asparagus. Stachys paliistris L., the under- 
ground stems of which, when grown in rich moist soil, are white, crisp, and 
agreeable to the taste. The Milk-thistle, Carduus Marianus L., is a bien- 
nial, a native of Britain, on rich soils. The young stalks, peeled and soaked 
in water to extract a part of their bitterness, and then boiled, are said to be 
an excellent substitute for asparagus. When very young the leaves are 
used as a spring salad ; and the large leaves, blanched in autumn like those 
of the cardoon, form a good substitute for that vegetable, and they are also 
used as greens. Early in the spring of the second year, the root is prepared 
like skirret or salsify (14S6 and 1438), and in the summer of the second 
year, the receptacle of the heads of flowers gathered before they expand, is 
pulpy, and eats like that of the artichoke. The Cotton-thistle, Onopordum 
Acanthium L., is an mdigenous biennial, the leaves of which were formerly 
blanched and used like those of the cardoon ; the tender blanched stalks, peeled 
and boiled like asparagus, and the receptacle of the flower treated like that 
of the artichoke. The Carline- thistle, Carlina acanthifblia AIL, a perennial, 
a native of Carniola, and the common species C. vulgaris L., a biennial, a 
native of Britain, produce large heads of flowers, the receptacle of which may 
be used like that of the artichoke ; and in all probability the flowers and 
leaves of most carduaceous plants might be used like those of the artichoke 
and cardoon. The pyramidal Campanula, Campanula pyramidalis L., and 
various other species of campanula, producing fusiform, or fleshy, roots, might 
doubtless be used as substitutes for the rampion, as are those of the campanula- 
ceous plants, Phyteuma spicatum L., in Sussex, and Canarina Campanula L., 
in the Canary Islands. Ruscus aculeatus L., for its tender young shoots in 
spring; Ornithogalum pyrenaicum L., the Bath asparagus, the flower-stems 
of which are brought to market at Bath, where the flowers are in a close 
head like an asparagus bud ; the mays, Zea Mays L., the sweet or sugar 
variety of which, when the seed is immature, is much used in America, 
roasted, fried, or boiled. 

Sect. VII. — Acetariaceous Esculents. 
1502. The acetariaceous esculents, or salads, in cultivation in gardens are 
numerous, but those of most importance are the lettuce, endive, and 
celery. They are all articles of luxury, unless we except the lettuce, 
which is a useful vegetable in every cottage-garden. 

SuBSECT. I. — The Lettuce. 
Ijjjjf' 1503. The lettuce, Lactiica sativa L. (Laitue, Fr.^, is a cichoraceous 
plant, annual or biennial, according to the time in which it is sown ; con- 



674 



ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



sidered by some as the Lactuca virosa in a cultivated state, and by others as 
a different species, of Eastern origin. It has been cultivated in British gar- 
dens from the time of Elizabeth, and by suitable management may be had 
all the year. Lettuce is in universal esteem in a raw state, as a cooling and 
agreeable salad, and it is also used in soups and stews. 

1504. Varieties. — The varieties are very numerous, and are included 
under two divisions. 

1, Cos lettuces^ of which the best are the black-seeded green, a very hardy 
kind, which does not run readily to seed ; the Bath cos, which is the best 
for standing the winter in the open ground ; the brown cos, and the whit 
Paris cove cos. 

2. Cabbage lettuces, the best of which are : the brown Dutch, hardy and 
of good quality ; the grand admirable, a very fine lettuce, which continues 
a long time without running to seed ; the Hammei'smith hardy green, the 
best for standing through the winter ; the Marseilles, a large excellent 
summer lettuce ; the Malta, excellent in the early part of summer ; and 
the Dutch forcing, the best kind for growing through the winter under 
glass. 

1505. Propagation and culture. — All the sorts are raised from seed, which 
being small and light, for a seed-bed four feet by ten feet \ oz. is sufficient, 
and will produce four hundred plants. It comes up in ten days or a fort- 
night. To grow large succulent lettuces, it is essential that the soil be 
deep, light, sandy, and rich, on a dry subsoil ; and that it be abundantly 
supplied with water during the hot season. In Spain, recent night-soil is 
used as a manure for the lettuce ; being buried in a trench between every 
two rows of plants. To produce a supply of lettuce throughout the year, 
the first sowings may be made in the beginning of February, on a warm 
border, or on the south side of an east and west ridge, either broadcast or in 
drills, and of the kinds preferred by the famil3^ Some persons dislike the 
cabbage lettuce from its softness, while others prefer it for that reason. 
As soon as the plants have shown the third leaf, they should be thinned with a 
two-inch hoe, so as not to stand nearer together than six inches ; or in the case 
of the large-growing varieties, such as the Marseilles and Malta, a foot. 
From this time till the beginning of August a sowing may be made every 
fortnight or three weeks, choosing a north border, or screening the ground 
from the sun, by wickerwork hurdles, in the hottest part of the season. 
The crop sown in the first week of August will last till it is destroyed by 
frost, or tiU October ; from which time recourse must be had to the lettuces 
grown under glass in the manner before described (1109). Independently 
of the forced crop, a sowing may be made in the third week in August, 
which, if the winter should be mild, will afford some plants for use during 
the winter ; and a sowing in the last fortnight of September, under the 
shelter of a south wall, in poor, dry, sandy soil — or in the same soil, covered 
by a frame and sashes — or by hoops and mats, to be taken ofi" qxqyj fine day, 
will produce plants for transplanting early in spring. These, if put into 
light rich soil, in a warm situation, at one foot apart every way, will 
produce plants fit for use about the end of April, when the forcing of lettuces 
may be given up ; and this spring-transplanted crop will be in perfection 
during great part of the month of May. In this way lettuces are obtained 
throughout the year both in private and public gardens ; but the market- 
gardeners about London, instead of sowing the crops where they are to remain, 



THE ENDIVE. 



675 



SOW in seed-beds and transplant (1368). The plants to stand through the 
winter for spring-transplanting are sown in a cold frame about the middle of 
September, and planted out in February or the beginning of March. The first 
spring sowing for transplanting is made on heat, and the subsequent sowings in 
the open garden ; always on comparatively sandy, poor soil, that the plants 
may form abundance of roots and comparatively rigid foliage, so as not to 
suffer so much from transplanting, as if they had been grown on rich soil, and 
consequently had tender succulent leaves and roots. The routine culture 
consists of little more than weeding and watering ; each crop being but a 
short time on the ground. In the beginning of summer the Cos varieties 
are sometimes slightly tied up with matting, to hasten their blanching. In 
gathering, pull up the plant, and take the outside leaves and roots at once 
to the rot-heap. 

1506. Lettuces as small salad are produced by sowing the seed in drills, 
and cutting over the plants when they are in the third and fourth leaf, as is 
done with mustard and cress. 

1507. To save seed, a few plants which have stood through the winter 
and been transplanted into rich soil in spring, or some spring-sown plants, 
may be allowed to run, and the seed will be ripe in August, and will keep 
three years; but as it is very precarious to save lettuce seed in wet seasons, it 
is an excellent method to grow a few plants in pots in good soil, one in each 
pot, and place them in front of a south wall, moving them under glass shelter 
to ripen off, if the weather render it necessary. Birds are very fond of lettuce 
seed ; and the lettuce-fly, Anthomyia Lactucse Bouche (see Kollar, p. 160), 
lays its eggs in the flower, the larvss produced by which live on the seed. 

Forcing. — See 1109. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Endive. 

1508. The endive, Cichorium Endivia L, (Chicoree des Jardins, jPr.), is 
a cichoraceous fusiform-rooted biennial^ said to be a native of China and 
Japan, but long cultivated in European gardens for its leaves as salad. 
These are blanched to diminish the bitter taste, and they are used chiefly 
in autumn, winter, and spring. There are two principal varieties; — The 
Batavian, syn. broad-leaved (Chicoree scarole, Fr.^ ; and the curl-leaved 
(Chicoree frisee, Fr.) ; of each of which there are a number of sub- varieties. 
As the season for endive is from August till March or April, the first sowing 
is made about the middle of June ; the second about the end of that month ; 
the third in July ; and the fuurth in the beginning of August. The plants 
are seldom raised where they are finally to remain (though in very dry 
weather they succeed best by that mode), but generally in seed-beds ; and 
for one four feet wide by ten feet in length, | oz. of seed is sufficient. The 
advantage of sowing in seed-beds, and afterwards transplanting, in this and 
similar cases, has been already noticed (1868). When the plants attain three 
or four leaves, they should be transplanted into rich soil, at one foot apart 
every way ; and, as they are generally earthed up, to facilitate this process, 
they may be planted in drills. The two latest crops for use during winter 
and spring should be planted in a dry, warm border, or on the south side 
of an east and west ridge. 

1609. Blanching. — As the summer and autumn crops advance to maturity, 
a portion should have the leaves tied up every ten days or fortnight, to cause 
the hearts to blanch and become tender, crisp, and mild-tasted ; but thl 



676 



ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



ought not to be done till the plant is almost fully grown, for blanched leaves 
can no longer add any strength to the root. This operation ought only to be 
performed in dry days, and when the leaves are quite dry ; and in winter, 
when the weather is dry without frost. The mode of performance is as 
follows : — When the plants are well filled up in the heart, and apparently 
nearly fully grown, put your fingers under the leaves which rest upon the 
ground, and gather the whole plant up in your hands into a conical form ; 
then tie it round with strands of matting, loose during summer, but tighter 
late in autumn and in winter, when the plant grows slower ; arranging the 
leaves so as to terminate in a point at the top, in order to prevent rain 
from falling into the heart of the plant. The curled endive, if carefully 
earthed up^ will blanch tolerably well without being tied ; but the broad- 
leaved variety, from its looser growth, hearts and blanches much better 
when bandaged. The blanching, when the weather is hot and dry, will 
sometimes be completed in a week ; but late in autumn and during winter 
it will require a fortnight or a month. As soon as it is properly blanched, 
it should be taken up for use, as it will rot afterwards in a week or less, 
more especially if much rain fall. Sometimes blanching is effected by laying 
a flat tile on the plants ; setting tiles or boards on each side of them, and 
bringing them together at top in the form of a ridge, so as to confine their 
growth and exclude the light ; or covering them with garden-pots or 
blanching-pots, in the manner of sea-kale. In the north of Spain the 
blanching of endive is generally effected by covering the heart of the plant 
with a fragment of tile ; " over this a light covering of earth is sifted. The 
fringed edges of the exterior leaves are carefully freed from earth, and 
exposed to light ; having small bits of tile laid over that portion of the 
soil from which they protrude, to render the blanching perfect, and produce 
what the gardeners particularly pride themselves on,viz. : a plant of endive 
white all over, excepting the edges of the outer leaves, which should show 
about two inches of green." — (^Churchill in Gard. Chron., 1842, p. 452.) 

1510. A crop may be preserved through the winter, either by covering it 
where it stands by thatched hurdles raised on props (fig. 329 in p. 401) ; by 
hoops and mats ; by removing it with balls to an open airy shed ; by covering 
it with dry litter, taking it off every fine day; or, what is best of all, covering 
it where it stands with frames and sashes, taking the latter off every fine day. 
During the period that the endive is covered, tying up for blanching must 
go regularly on with every plant about ten days or a fortnight before it is to 
be gathered. 

The endive is little troubled with insects ; but snails and slugs attack it, as 
they do the lettuce, in every stage, and require to be kept under by frequent 
waterings with lime-water. 

Seed may be saved as in the lettuce, and it will keep good four or five 
3'ears. 

SuBSECT. III. — The Succory. 

1511. The succory, chiccory, or wild endive, Cichorium Intybus L. 
(Chicoree sauvage, Fr,\ is a ciehoraceous fusiform-rooted perennial, a native 
of England, in chalky soils, in open situations. It is much cultivated on 
the Continent for its roots, which are cut in slices, kiln-dried, and ground as 
a substitute for coffee ; and for its leaves, which are blanched and used like 
those of the endive. It is also sown thick, and when quite young cut as 
small salad fl506). In Flanders the roots are scraped and boiled, and eaten 



THE CELERY. 



077 



along with meat, or vvitli a sauce of butter and vinegar. In British gardens 
it is only cultivated as a winter salad. It is sown in the end of June or 
beginning of July, and treated like the endive, except that it is not blanched. 
Instead of this process, the leaves are cut off the plants, but so as not to de- 
stroy their hearts, about the beginning of October ; the roots are then dug up, 
shortened, and planted in pots, or portable boxes, with the dibber, very close 
together in rich soil, watered, and afterwards protected from the frost by a 
light covering of litter, taken off in the daytime, or by any other convenient 
means. In a week or two the plants will be established, and the pots or 
boxes are then removed, as the produce is wanted, into the mushroom-house, 
or into a cellar, or any other dark warm place where the light will be com- 
pletely excluded ; or into any light warm place, and covered over so as to 
force the production of leaves and the blanching of them at the same time. 
In a few days the roots will push forth leaves which will be completely 
blanched, and each leaf, when fully expanded, may be gathered separately 
till the plants cease to produce any. These leaves in Belgium, and in the 
North of Germany and Russia, are considered as forming the most agreeable 
of all wdnter salads ; and by a sufficient number of roots, it may be had in 
perfection from November till May. It is not even necessary to plant the 
roots in pots or boxes : they may be left in the soil covered with litter, and 
taken up to be forced as the salad is w^anted ; or they may be taken up and 
preserved in sand ; or they may be pitted in the manner of potatoes ; portions 
being regularly taken up, potted, and forced as wanted. The roots being 
established in the pots before forcing is a matter of very little consequence, 
as the leaves are supplied, not from the soil by means of the spongiolcs of the 
fibres, but from the nutriment laid up in the roots. The temperature of the 
mushroom-house, or other place in which the chiccory is forced, should be 
between 55° and 60° ; but the roots will send up leaves if the temperature is 
a few degrees above the freezing point. (See 1098.) No blanched produc- 
tion is more beautiful than succory, as the leaves become of a pure white 
with most delicate pencillings of crimson, when grown as above recommended 
in a mushroom house. Aboard ship the roots of the succory are packed into 
casks of sand, with their heads protruding through numerous holes pierced 
in the sides of the cask, by which means a maximum of produce is procured 
from a minimum of space. 

1512. An excellent substitute for the succory, both as a salad and a coffee 
plant, may be found in the common dandelion, Leontodon Taraxacum L., 
which is by many persons, and by us among the number, considered not infe- 
rior to it for both purposes. 

SuBSECT, IV. — The Celery. 

1513. The celery, Apium graveolens L. (Celeri, Fr.^, is an umbelliferous 
biennial, a native of Britain, by the sides of wet ditches, and in marshy 
places, especially near the sea ; and though poisonous in a wild state 
(when it is called smallage), yet by long cultivation it has become one of 
our most agreeable salads. The part used is the blanched leafstalks, and in 
the case of one variety the roots. Both stalks and roots are used raw in 
salads from August till March, and also in soups and stewed. In Italy, the 
points of the unblanched leaves are used to flavour soups ; and in Britain, 
when neither stalks, leaves, nor roots can be had, the bruised seeds form a 
good substitute. 



678 



ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



1514. rar/e^^e*.— Those at present considered the best are, the Italian., a 
dwarf growing variety, the best for an early crop ; the red solid, syn. Man- 
chester-hardy, which grows to a large size, single plants having measured 
four feet six inches in height, and weighed nine pounds ; Seymours solid, very 
solid, and fine-flavoured ; Seymour's superb white, very solid, large size, good 
flavour, and well adapted for early crops ; the turnip-rooted, syn. celeriac 
(Celeri-rave, Fr., and Knoll- sellerie, Ger.\ has rough irregular shaped roots, 
about the size of the fist ; it is generally cultivated in Germany, but in 
England is considered coarser than the kinds of which the blanched stalks 
are used. Upright or stalked celery, when well grown, has the stalks solid, 
and not hollow or piped, as is frequently the case — thoroughly blanched, crisp, 
tender, and of a delicate flavour. The roots of the celeriac should be solid, 
tender, and delicate. To attain these qualities both sorts require to be grown 
with rapidity, in very rich soil, kept very moist at the root, but dry about 
the leaves. 

151-5. Propagation and culture. — The celery, like other culinary biennials, 
is only propagated by seed, and half an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four 
and a half feet by ten feet, of the stalked or upright sorts ; but for celeriac, 
as it is a spreading plant, half the quantity of seed will suffice for the same 
space. The seed is long in commg up, often a month ; and this is one 
reason why the first sowing is generally made on heat. As the celery 
grows naturally in marshy soil, and as such soils are always rich in vegetable 
matter, and when near the sea must be slightly saline, these circumstances 
affbrd a guide for its culture in the garden ; in which it can never be brought 
to a large size, without constant and abundant supplies of water during the 
whole period of its growth. The flavour, however, is better when it is 
grown of smaller size, and with less water. In general, three crops are 
enough even for a large family : the first should be sown in the end of 
February, to transplant in June, and to come into use in August ; the second 
is sown in the end of March, to be transplanted in July, and to come into use 
in September ; and the third is sown about the middle of April, to be trans- 
planted in the first week of August, and to come into use in October or 
November, and last till March. The plants raised by every sowing, when 
about two inches high, should be pricked out into rich soil two inches or 
three inches apart every way, and again transplanted into a nursery planta- 
tion, also in rich soil, about six inches apart every way. Those for the 
earliest crop may be pricked out in a small hotbed, and transplanted into a 
warm border ; but those for the others do not necessarily require artificial 
heat. As the earlier crops of celery are very apt to run to flower, and as this 
tendency in herbaceous plants, and especially annuals and biennials, is known 
to be checked and retarded by destroying the tap-root, and encouraging the 
production of fibrous roots (699 and 1308) ; some excellent growers of 
celery adopt the following process with their plants : — The seed-bed, whe- 
ther for an early or a late crop, is formed of fresh, dark, loamy soil, mixed 
with old rotten dung, half and half, and placed on a hotbed. The nursery 
or transplanting bed is formed with old hotbed dung, very well broken, laid 
six inches or seven inches thick, on a piece of ground which has lain some 
time undisturbed, or which has been made hard by compression. The 
situation should be sunny. The plants are set six inches apart in the dung, 
without soil, and covered with hand-glasses. They are watered well when 
planted, and frequently afterwards. By hardening the soil under the dung 



CULTURE OF THE CELERY. 



679 



in which the plants are set, the root is formed into a brush of fibres : and by 
thus preventing the pushing of a tap-root, the plant never runs to seed before 
the following spring. — (Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii.) 

1516. Transplanting into t^'enches. — Where the object is to have very 
large celery, only one row ought to be planted in a trench ; but where a 
moderate size is preferred, there may be two rows ; or the trenches may be 
made four feet or six feet wide, and the celery planted in rows across the 
trench, at the distance of a foot from one another, and six inches apart in 
the row. Single trenches, when the object is to grow celery alone, may be 
made in the direction of north and south, three feet or four feet apart, centre 
from centre, and eight inches or ten inches deep ; the soil dug out being 
formed into a ridge between the trenches. As every trench is opened, dig into 
the bottom a coating of five or six inches in thickness of thoroughly-rotted 
dung, and along the centre of the trench insert the plants with a trowel, at 
six inches apart. When the plants are being removed, previously to plant- 
ing, all side slips should be carefully taken off. Where celery is to be 
grown with other crops, as in simultaneous rotations (921), the trenches 
may be made six feet or eight feet apart centre from centre, and a row of 
peas for sticking, or some other crop of short duration, should be grown 
between every two rows of celery. Where celery is to be planted in rows 
across broad trenches, whatever may be the width of the trench, a similar 
width must be allowed between them for containing the soil dug out ; and 
these trenches should be made in the direction of east and west, for the same 
reason that trenches for single or double rows are made in the direction of 
north and south. To save ground, the plants before they are planted in the 
trenches should be kept in the nursery till they are ten inches or twelve 
inches high, taken up with balls, any descending roots shortened, any suckers 
that may have appeared removed, and the points of the leaves cut off, so as to 
throw the whole strength of the plant into the central bud, or growing point. 

1517. Blanching. — It has been already observed (1509), with respect to 
blanching generally, that it w^eakens the plant by lessening the powder of the 
leaves to elaborate nourishment, and return it to the root ; and hence, celery 
which is intended to grow of large size should be nearly full-grown before 
it is earthed up at all. Mr. Stewart grew celery which averaged from 9 lbs. 
to 12 lbs. weight, which had not been finally earthed up more than 
three weeks before it was gathered, and which had only one slight earthing- 
up previously to the final one, which was in September. On the other hand, 
when celery is wished to be of small size, and tender, it ought to be earthed 
up in an early stage of its growth, and the process continued as it advances in 
height. If the plants have been liberally supplied with water when first put 
into the trenches, and daily afterwards, excepting during rains, they will be 
ready to receive the first earthing-up in three or four weeks. This is done 
by paring down a little soil on each side of the trench with the spade, draw- 
ing it against the plants, and taking care that none of it gets into their hearts. 
To prevent this, each plant may be first slightly wrapped round with a 
strand of matting ; and to do this on a large scale, a strand is procured of 
great length, or is added to as it is applied ; and one end being tied round and 
fastened to the first plant in the row, it is passed on to the next plant, giving 
it one twist round the leaves, and so on till the other end of the row is 
reached, when it is there fastened to the last plant. The moulding-up may 
now proceed with rapidity, and when finished the strand should be removed, 



680 



ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



and applied to the row in the next trench. It is scarcely necessary to observe, 
that where there are two rows in a trench, both must be tied up at the same 
time ; or that when the rows are made across a broad trench, three ought to 
be tied, to prevent all risk of soil getting into the heart of the third row, 
while the first is being earthed up. The height of the soil applied may be 
three, four, or five inches, according to the height of the plants ; and the 
earthings up may take place at intervals of ten days or a fortnight, till, by 
degrees, the stalks are covered to the height of twelve inches for the earliest 
crop, and eighteen inches, or two feet, or more, for the later crops ; always 
taking care to perform the operation when the plants are quite dry, and to 
keep the heart open and free ; except in the last earthing before winter, 
when the summits of the plants may be nearly closed to exclude rain. The 
longer celery is allowed to grow before applying the soil, the longer time 
does it require to blanch ; but, in general, three weeks or a month will 
effect this, more especially in the early part of the season. Red celery re- 
quires a longer time to blanch than white celery, and never entirely loses 
its red colour. The latest crop of celery which is to be in use through the 
winter will require to be protected by dry litter, or thatched hurdles, during 
severe frosts ; or it may be taken up and preserved in sand or soil, in a shed 
or cellar. When celery is frozen, it begins to rot immediately after the first 
thaw ; and therefore to prolong a crop in the open garden, protection of some 
sort is essential on the approach of severe frosts. 

1518. Late spring celery. — As celery is in great demand for soups in 
most families, especially during winter and spring, when other delicate 
vegetables are scarce, a crop may be procured till the beginning of J une by 
the following means : Sow on a seed-bed about the middle of May ; prick 
out, when the plants are six weeks old, into rows six inches apart, and allow 
the plants to remain in this nursery till September or October ; then trans- 
plant them into trenches ; earth them up slightly, and protect them by litter 
or thatched hurdles during winter; and in February or March earth them up 
finally. The^stalks thus produced will not always be fit to use in salads, but 
they will be valuable for soups and stews. No celery crop that has been 
blanched in autumn will keep sound longer than the end of March ; but 
green celery which has been only slightly earthed up will stand through an 
ordinary winter with little or no protection. 

1519. Taking the crop. — The plants should be dug up without being 
bruised, beginning at one end of a row ; and afterwards, the roots and green 
points of the leaves being cut off, and the loose outer leaves removed, the 
heart of the plant in a compact state is fit for being sent to the kitchen ; but 
if intended for market, or to be sent to a distance, the outer leaves should be 
kept on, and also all the root excepting the fibrous part. 

1520. Celeriac is cultivated with greater ease, and at less expense of ground 
and manure, than the common celery ; and it may be used in the kitchen for 
seven or eight months in succession. The times of sowing are the same as 
for the other sorts, and the plants should be pricked out in a similar man- 
ner. They should be divested of all side-slips, not only before transplant- 
ing, but also during their aftergrowth. Early in June they may be finally 
transplanted in rows fifteen inches apart every way, into flat beds of very 
rich light or sandy soil, with two-feet alleys between, to admit of watering 
the plants. The routine culture here consists chiefly in liberal waterings, 
and in slightly earthing up the roots after they have swelled to their full size 



THE lamb's lettuce, ETC. 



681 



in order to blanch them. The celeriac has a continual tendency to revert 
from the knob-rooted form to that which is natural to it ; and hence, like the 
turnip and similar plants of culture, it will not attain any large size if much 
earthed up. Still, the celeriac, to be eatable, requires to be blanched, and 
therefore must be earthed up to a certain extent, but the less the better. — 
( G. M. vols. ii. p. 415, and v. p. 364.) The roots of the celeriac may be taken 
up on the approach of frost, and preserved in sand or soil out of the reach of 
surface-heat, like potatoes (1416), for an indefinite period. The London 
market used formerly to be supplied with this root from Hamburgh, 

1521. Diseases^ insects, S^c. — The celery is liable to the canker in some 
soils, and also to be eaten by the maggot of the celery-fly, Tephritis Ono- 
pordinis Fab., which is hatched in the leaves, and may be destroyed as soon 
as these have a blistered appearance, by cutting them, off, and bruising or 
buj-ning them ; or foetid substances may be frequently sprinkled near the 
plants, as a preventive. 

1522. To save seed. — Select the finest specimens of the variety to be pro- 
pagated, in February or JVJarch ; and either remove a part of the soil with 
which they have been earthed up, and allow^ them to flower where they 
stand, or transplant them to a more convenient situation. The seed will 
ripen in September, and will keep ten years. 

1523. The alisanders, or alexanders, Smyrnium Olusatrum L., and S. 
perfoliatum L. (Maceron, i^?'.),two umbelliferous biennials, the first a native 
of Britain, and the other of Spain, were formerly cultivated, and the leaf- 
stalks blanched like those of the celery ; and their leaves w^ere also used as 
pot-herbs and in salads. The flavour of the leaves being very much like 
that of celery, they may be useful in spring for putting into soups. 

1524. The Naples parsley, syn. celery parsley (Persil-celeri, Fr.), appears 
to be a hybrid between the common broad-leaved parsley and the celery. 
We have never seen it in England ; but about Paris and in Italy it appears 
to be cultivated and used in the same manner as celery. 

SuBSECT. V. — The Lamb's Lettuce, Burnet, the Garden Cress, Winter Cress, 
American Cress, and Water Cress. 

1525. The Lamb's lettuce, or corn-salad, Valerianella oiitoria Dec. 
(Mache, Fr.), is a valerianaceous indigenous annual, very hardy, and 
which requires no other culture than sowing in August, September, and 
February, and thinning the plants to three inches apart. The leaves should 
be gathered singly, like those of spinach, when of fall size ; except when the 
plant is groT\Ta as small salading, w^hen the leaves and stems may be cut 
over, as in gathering the common cress or mustard. They are considered as 
forming, when used raw, a delicate salad ; and when boiled, a good spinach. 

1526. The burnet, Poterium Sanguisorba L., and Sanguisorba officinalis 
L., are rosaceous perennials, the leaves of which, especially those of the 
second species, are put into salads, and sometimes into soups ; and so much 
are they esteemed in Italy, that the Italians have a proverb, quoted by 
Evelyn, signifying that a salad without burnet is good for nothing. 

1527. The garden cress, Lepidium sativum L. (Cresson Aienois, Fr.), is 
a cruciferous annual, long in cultivation for its young leaves, which have a 
peculiarly warm and grateful relish, either alone, or with other salading. 
There are several varieties ; the best of which are the common Curled-lea ved, 
the Normandy curled, and the Broad-leaved. The Normandy curled is the 



682 



ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



hardiest and most useful variety, supplying a beautiful garnish to dishes 
throughout the winter. The seed, which comes up in three days, may be 
sown in September and October for winter and spring supply ; and in March, 
April, and IMay, for summer use. These five sowings will afford a constant 
supply throughout the year of leaves to be gathered singly, whether for 
garnishings or salads; but as the cress is also used as a small salad (1107), 
and for that purpose gathered in the seed-leaf, where it is in demand in that 
state, it should be sown three or four times every month — during winter and 
spring under glass, and in summer and autumn in a shaded situation, the soil 
being kept moist by watermg, or by covering with hand-glasses or mats. The 
soil should always be rich, the great object being rapid growth, so as to ensure 
succulence and delicacy. A few plants allowed to run to flower will produce 
abundance of seed, which will keep two years. Half a pound of seed at least 
will be required where the cress is in constant demand as small salading. 

1528. The winter cress, Barbarea vulgaris H. K., and the American cress, 
B. praecox Dec,, are cruciferous perennials, natives of Britain in watery 
places, and by careful culture in gardens they can be made to produce their 
leaves throughout the year. Sow in August, or the beginning of September, 
in rows a foot apart, for a crop to stand through the winter, and thin the 
plants out to six inches in the row. If the leaves are gathered singly, and 
the plants protected from frost by glass, or nightly coverings, they will afford 
a regular supply till next June. The plants will then run to flower, and 
produce seed in abundance. 

1529. The water cress, Nasturtium officinale ff. K. (Cresson de Fontaine, 
jPr.), is a cruciferous amphibious creeping perennial, held in general estima- 
tion in this and in other countries as an antiscorbutic plant, and brought to 
market in immense quantities from its natural habitation in running water, 
or artificial plantations made there. The most favourable description of 
water is a clear stream, not more than an inch and a half deep, running over 
sand or gravel ; the least favourable, deep still water on a muddy bottom. 
It is evident, therefore, that there are few private gardens in which the water 
cress can be cultivated in running water ; but fortunately it will grow luxu- 
riantly in rich sandy soil, if watered overhead every evening and morning 
during the growing season ; and the cresses thus produced are undoubtedly 
of a richer taste than those grown in clear running water. The plants may 
be raised from seed, or obtained by division of old plants ; and they may be 
planted early in spring, a foot apart every way. In gathering, only the points 
of the shoots should be taken, as the lower leaves are not only coarser, but 
apt to be infested by the larva of insects if growing in water, and by snails 
and slugs if on land. 

For a small garden, the Normandy cress and the water cress are the only 
plants of the cress kind worth cultivating. 

SuBSECT. VI Small Salads. 

1530. Small salads are understood to be very young plants of the salad 
kind, sown thick, and gathered, some, as the cress, mustard, rape, radish, 
and some other cruciferous plants, in the seed-leaf ; and others, as the lettuce, 
endive, succory. Lamb's lettuce, and various others, when in the third or 
fourth leaf. In general, all rapid- growing salad plants are fit for being used 
as small salads, and are so used on the continent ; but the principal small 
salads in England are the cress, mustard, rape, and radish, which are sown 



SUBSTITUTES FOR ACETARIACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



683 



weekly all the year round on fine rich soil kept ^varm, moist, and shaded, 
and cut in the seed-leaf, generally in about a week after they are sown. Of 
the small salads which are allowed to advance beyond the seed-leaf before 
they are cut, by far the best is the common cos lettuce. There are two kinds 
of mustard which may be grown as small salading, Sinapis alba i., and 
S. nigra L. ; but the former alone is grown as salading, the latter being the 
kind grown in fields for its seeds to be ground into the flour-of-mustard of 
the shops. It is, therefore, seldom seen in gardens. The rape, Brassica 
Napus, var. oleifera Dec.^ is only grown in gardens as a small salad, and as 
in the case of other small salads, when much in demand, one pound of seed 
of each kind at least will be required. 

1531. Substitutes for mustard are to be found in the wild radish, Ra- 
phanus Raphanistrum L. ; the sea -radish, R. maritimus iS'm.y in the wild 
mustard, Sinapis arvensis L. ; the fine- leaved mustard, S. tenuifolia L.; in 
all the species of Brassica, &c. ; and, in short, in all the annual and biennial 
species of Cruciferas, not excepting the wall-flower and stock gillyflower, 
though these and various others are not worth growing as salad-plants. 

SuBSECT. VII. — Substitutes for Acetariaceous Esculents. 
1582. — Substitutes for acetariaceous esculents are found in the following 
plants. — The Brooklime^ Veronica Beccabimga jL., a scrophularinous perennial 
common in rivulets and wet ditches, and used like the water-cress. The Garden 
Rocket, Eruca sativa Dec, a cruciferous annual, used like the common cress 
and mustard. Scurvy Grass, Cochlearia officinalis i., a cruciferous bien- 
nial found on our sea-shores, the leaves of which are used like the water 
cress. Wood Sorrel, Oxalis Acetosella L., an oxalidaceous perennial, the 
leaves of which form a very grateful addition to salading, and communicate 
an agreeable relish to dishes of mashed greens : this may also be said of the 
leaves of all the other species of Oxab's. To these may be added the young 
leaves of all the cruciferous plants mentioned in p. 616; the leaves and 
flowers of Tropaeolum majus L.; the flowers of Cercis siliquastrum i. y the 
petals of the Dahlia ; the points of the shoots of CEnothera biennis L.j the 
leaves of Sedum album L. ; of Crlthmum maritimum L. ; of Salicdrnia 
herbacea L. ; of Hypochseris maculata L. ; of Picrldium vulgare L. ; of 
Spilanthes oleracea L., and of S. fiisca Hort. Far. (see Bon Jard. 1842, 
p. 317) ; of Balsamita vulgaris Desf the costmary, a leaf or two of which 
is sometimes used to add to the flavour of mixed salads ; of Achillea Mil- 
lefolium L. ; of Inula crithmifolia L. ; of Cochlearia Coronbpus L.; of 
Plantago Coronbpus L., and various others. 

Sect. VIII. — Adornaceous Esculents. 
1533. Adornaceous esculents, under which term we include chiefly the 
plants used as garnishes, such as the parsley, chervil, fennel, horse-radish, &c , 
include a great variety of plants belonging to different natural orders, and some 
of which, such as the Indian cress, might even have been included under 
acetariaceous esculents. The culture of all the plants of this section is 
very simple, and with the exception of the horse-radish, a dry calcareous 
soil, poor rather than rich, is to be preferred ; because such a soil is found 
to be most favourable for the preseiwation of their aromatic properties, 
With the exception of the horse-radish, they are generally grown in a com- 
partment, commonly a border, in the outer garden or slip, by themselves. 



084 



ADORNACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



SuBSECT. T. — The Parsley. 

1534. The parsley^ Apium Petroselinum L, (Persil, Fr.)^ is an umbelli- 
ferous biennial, a native of Sardinia, long in cultivation as a seasoning, and 
also as a garnish. Eaten along with any dish strongly seasoned with onions, 
it takes off their smell, and prevents their after- taste ; no herb is more 
valuable as communicating flavour to soups and stews. There are two varieties, 
the plain -leaved^ and the curled-leaved^ but the latter alone should be cul- 
tivated, because the former is apt to be confounded with a poisonous plant, 
the fool's parsley, iEthusa Cynapium Z/., an indigenous annual, common 
as a weed in most gardens, but which can never for a moment be mistaken 
for the curled-leaved parsley. Parsley-seed, of which an ounce will sow a 
drill 150 feet in length, requires to be sown every year in Februar3% either 
broadcast or in rows, but not as an edging to walks as is commonly done ; 
because in that situation the leaves get soiled or injured. The seed will 
remain in the ground from forty to fifty days before it vegetates, being a 
longer period than is required for any other garden-seed ; and, contrary to 
what is general, parsley-seed that has been kept several years comes up 
sooner than new seed ; unless, indeed, the new seed has been taken from the 
plant before it was fully ripe, and sown immediately. The plants should 
be thinned out to six inches' distance in the row ; and also all those plants 
that have not the leaves beautifully curled should be pulled up, an operation 
technically called roguing (864) ; because one of the principal uses of parsley 
is as a garnish, and the curled leaves are mcomparably more ornamental 
than the plain ones. They should be gathered leaf by leaf; and when 
there is a want of young tender leaves, the plant should be cut over by the 
surface of the ground, when a new set of leaves will be sent up. In order 
that there may be a supply in the winter season, a sowing should be made 
about May, to be covered in October with a frame and sashes, or with 
hoop sand mats, or propped hurdles. The parsley leaf may be preserved in a 
state fit for being used in soups and stews, by drying it in a Dutch oven, or 
in a tin roasting-screen (or hastener), and when it becomes brittle, rubbing it 
into a fine powder, and putting it into glass bottles till wanted for use. 
Seed may be saved by selecting a few plants with the most beautifully- 
curled leaves, and allowing them to run to flowers. The seed will ripen in 
July, and will keep six or eight years. 

1535. The Hamburgh parsley^ the roots of which are eaten like those of 
the parsley, has been noticed under esculent roots (1441) ; and the Naples 
parsley^ the footstalks of the leaves of which are used like celery, was 
noticed when treating of that vegetable (1524). 

SuBSEcr. II. — Chervil, the Coriander, Dill, Fennel^ Tarragon, and 

Purslane. 

1536. The chervil, Chajrophyilum sativum Pers. (Cerfeuil Fr.), is an 
umbelliferous annual, a native of the South of Europe, and cultivated for the 
same purposes as the parsley ; but as it runs rapidly to seed, several soAvings 
require to be made in the course of the growing season. Sow in shallow 
drills six inches apart, and thin out the plants ; and when gathering, take the 
leaves singly. They may be dried and preserved in the same manner as 
those of parsley. A few plants allowed to run will bear abundance of seed, 
which will keep six or eight years. 



THE CHERVIL, ETC. 



685 



1587. The coriander^ Coriandrum sativum Z,., an U)iibelliferous annual, a 
native of the south of Europe, is sometimes cultivated in gardens for the same 
purposes as the chervil ; but more frequently, especially on the Continent, for 
its seeds, which are sold by the confectioners encrusted in sugar. 

1538. The anise^ Tragium sativum Spr., is an annual, a native of Egypt, 
sometimes cultivated in gardens for the same purposes as the coriander. 

1539. The dill, Anethum graveolens L. (L'Anet i^r.), is an umbelli- 
ferous biennial, a native of Spain, the leaves of which are occasionally used in 
soups and sauces, and to put along with pickles, especially cucumbers. Two or 
three plants w^ill be enough for any family. It is easily propagated by 
division, or by seeds. 

1540. The fennel, Anethum Foeni'culum L., (L'Anet Fr.), is an 
umbeUiferous perennial, resembling the dill, but considerably larger, a 
native of the south of Europe, and very generally cultivated in gardens for 
the stalks and leaves. The leaves, boiled, enter into many fish-sauces, and, 
raw, form a beautiful garnish ; the tender stalks are used raw in salads ; 
and the blanched stalks of the variety called finochio are eaten with oil, 
vinegar, and pepper, as a cold salad ; and they are likewise put into soups. 
Three or four plants of the common fennel are sufficient for any garden. 
The finochio may be grown in rows in light, rich soil, and earthed up to the 
height of five inches or six inches, to blanch the stalks. This blanching 
will be effected in ten days or a fortnight ; and by cutting down a few plants 
at a time during summer, a succession of young shoots will be produced, 
which, being blanched, will afford a supply from J une till December. The 
soil ought to be calcareous, dry, and rich, and watered in very dry weather. 

1541. The tarragon, Artemisia Dracunculus L. (L'Estragon Fr.), is an 
anthemideous perennial, a native of Siberia, cultivated for its leaves and 
the points of its shoots as an ingredient in salads, soups, stews, pickles, and 
other compositions. By infusion, the stalks and leaves make tarragon 
vinegar, which is considered one of the best condiments for fish. Tarragon 
is propagated by division or by seed, and grown in rows eighteen inches 
apart and six inches distant in the row. The soil in which it is grown 
should be dry and calcareous ; otherwise the plants will be comparatively 
without flavour, and be apt to perish in a severe winter. It is easily forced 
by transferring a few plants to the hotbed or hothouse (1110) ; and the 
stems may be gathered just before they are coming into flowxr, dried, com- 
pressed into small packets, and put up in paper as already described (857). 

1542. Substitutes for the tarragon are to be found in the Achillea serrata 
£. B., and the Tagetes lucida Cav. ; in the latter plant more especially. 
The former is much used in Nottinghamshire, under the name of sweet 
mace. Achillea nana L., and several dwarf species of Artemisia, are used 
for the same purpose in the Alps. 

1543. The purslane, Portulaca oleracea L., and P. sativa Haw. (Pour- 
pier Fr.), is a portulaceous annual, with succulent leaves and procumbent 
stems, a native of South America, and cultivated for its young shoots and 
succulent leaves as ingredients in spring and summer salads, and as pot- 

I herbs and pickles. There are two sorts, considered as distinct species, the 
i green and the golden ; the latter is more showy as a garnish, but the former 
is more succulent as a salad. Where a constant supply is required, the first 
sowing should be made on heat in February, and the others monthly, on a 
warm border till August. The shoots are gathered for use when they are 

V Y 



ggg ADORNACEOTJS ESCULENTS. 

5n anf afford a second supply. A few plants .ill produce abundance 
of seed, which will keep good two years. 

SuBSECl. III.-TA<= Man Cress, Borage, and Marigold. _ 
These plants are annuals, and only a very few of each are reqmred for 

"Lif TAe miar. ores., or — Trop^olum (CaP-^^; 
Fr^X a tvop^olaceous trailing or climbing annud a nat.ve of Peru, bu^ 

make a beautiful gainish alone, oi aio , ^^^^ 
gold, oxalis, dahlia, &c.; „f7 "taste ike the common 

tender slwots are eaten in ^^l^-^^' ^''""Ip.^^'^t „^t,iered green, and 
cress, whence the name "^.ajj jr^^^^^ 

pickled like capers, for which ' f y f"™ ^he two sorts best worth 

are preferred to the true caper by ma y persons. 11 ^^^^^^ ^^ 

cultivating are '''<^/«»"'»" "^i onSi March, and transplanted 
flowered. The seed may ether be so. u n hea ui A , ^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ 
in May, or sown mMay where it is finallj to len a , 

the flowers and ^"^;!-;: „ ^ ^-J^^^' flower's, should 

themamier of peas J^^ ^^^^'^^X; ^,„a the fruit for pickling, 

- '^'---'^ >-'p-^^-^-'=^ 

of seed, which will keep two y^ars. T,„un.ache Fr Y Is a boragina- 

1M5. The borage, Borago officmaU (B"'^^'''*^^ .^uivated 
ceous annual, indigenous 0—^^^^^^^^^ i ' ut'ul line flowers. The 

;^-^;!^1fa-rttr-^^ 

lemon juice, and sugar. The ^^^'^keops four year^^ 

1540. The marUjold, P"':™'''"^"''^' ^,'''^X "doubk-Cered varieties of 
Jardins, Fr.) is a '-'-""^^ ^^,1^ plants, for their 

g^tCd, diSd in the sun, and put up in paper for winter use. 

SliBSECT. W.-The Horse-radish. 
1547. Tke horse -radUh, Cochlearia Armoracea ^- (C-~'i„^;S; 
llai ort, Fr.), is a cruciferous perennial, a no^v f E >S a. d in . J 
places, long cultivated for its roots J"*^^!;"'^^ J t^^^^^^^^^^ 
Lap^d into shreds, as a garnish and a *~ ,30 ,3 it is eaten 

an ingredient in winter salads and '^^'^'J lf ^lJ^^^^ If ,he root, either 
• raw, with bread and butter. It is J^'^l^" ^^^^^^^^ Xd or of the root, 
of the crown, with one or two .ne .es „.ith the 

without any visible buds, about the 1^"=,^^^ cuttings may either 

upper end uppermost, as in --l^f . '^^f,,^ r^/e^Mc'en inches in 
be dropped into holes, made by a d.bbu, tiuten 



THE RHUBARB. 



687 



depth, and about the same distance apart every way, the upper part of the 
hole being filled in with light soil or wood ashes ; or they may be planted 
while the ground is being trenched, covering it to the depth of eighteen 
inches. March is the season for planting, and the soil should be rich, free, 
moist, and at least two feet deep. The roots, that is the part produced 
between the top of the cutting and the surface of the ground, and which 
may be called a blanched stem, will be fit for use at the end of the first 
autumn, when the leaves have decayed ; but they will be much stronger at 
the end of the second autumn. They ought never to be allowed to remain 
longer than three years^ nor to ripen seed, otherwise the roots become 
tough and disagreeable to use. A portion ought to be planted every year, 
to come in in succession. In taking the crop, begin at one end of a row, and 
dig down as far as the roots have penetrated, so as to take up every particle 
of root, for the least fragment left will send up leaves the following year. 
For this reason many gardeners grow their horse-radish always on the same 
spot of ground ; trenching up one-half every winter ; and selecting the 
larger roots, and laying them up in sand, or earthing them up in a shady 
border, for use, and leaving the smaller roots in the bottom of the trench 
for next year's crop. In whichever way horse-radish is grown, the soil 
ought to be deep, rich, and moist, in order that the growth may be rapid 
and the root succulent ; the flower-stems should be cut off as soon as 
they appear, because they deprive the root of nourishment which would 
otherwise be sent doAvn to it ; and the crop should not be allowed to stand 
more than two years, or at most three, otlierwise the roots will become 
filled with woody fibre, sticky, and unfit for use. 

1548. Lepidium latifdVmm Z/., a cruciferous annual, a native of Britain 
on the sea-coast, has roots resembling those of the horse-radish, which may 
vrey well be used as a substitute ; the leaves are excellent as greens, and 
not bad in salads. 

Sect. IX. — Condimentaceous Esculents. 

1549. Condimentaceous esculents are such as in cookery are always used 
with pastry in the form of tarts, pies, puddings, &c. ; or preserved in sugar, 
or pickled in vinegar. Though fruits are chiefly employed in these prepa- 
rations, yet we have as substitutes the rhubarb and the Oxalis crenata for 
tarts, pies and puddings, and the angelica for preserving in sugar, and the 
samphire for pickling. The prmcipal plant belonging to this section, how- 
ever, is the rhubarb, which, though scarcely known as a tart plant in the com - 
mencement of the present century, is now become generally cultivated for 
that purpose, even in the garden of the cottager. The other plants of this 
section occupy but a very small space in the herb-ground. 

SuBSECT. I. — The Rhubarb. 

1550. The Rhubarb, Rheum L. (Rhubarbe Fr.)^ is a polygonaeeous 
perennial, a native of Tartary, and other countries of the East, of w hich 
there are several species, hybrids and varieties, in culture for the petioles of 
the radical leaves. These are peeled, cut into small pieces, and pat into 
tarts and pies, in the manner of gooseberries and apples, or, like them, baked 
whole in a dish. A wine is also made from them, and they are also pickled 
and preserved. There are a great many different kinds in cultivation, and 
every year produces some new sort ; but those considered the best at the 

Y y2 



688 



CONDIMENTACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



present time are : the Elf or with scarlet stalks, for an earlj^ crop ; Hyatt's 
Victoria, for a main crop, and it is also the best for forcing ; and Rheum 
australe D. Don., syn. R. Emodi Wal., for a late crop. The latter has 
an excellent flavour, somewhat resembling that of apples. To ensure the 
flavour in pies and puddings, a portion of the stalks should always be put in 
without being peeled. 

1551. Propagation and culture. — By seed is the best mode when the soil 
is rich and deep, because the tap-root penetrates at once to a great depth, 
and the plant is less likely afterwards to suffer from drought ; but it will 
grow quite well by division, which is the most certain mode of continuing 
particular varieties. The soil being deeply trenched and richly manured, a 
few seeds may be deposited in drills two feet apart for the Elford, and three feet 
for the other sorts; and nearly the same distance may be allowed in the rows. 
When the plants come up, reduce the patches to single plants, and, with the 
usual routine culture, one or two leaves from each plant may be gathered the 
second year, three or more the third, and several every year for a number of 
years afterwards ; though as the number of buds on the crowns of the roots 
increase, the leaves will be smaller. The flower-stems should be cut down 
as soon as they appear, unless seed is wanted. Some persons prefer the 
leaves partially blanched, and for this purpose place a sea-kale pot over each 
plant, but without the cover ; others have grown it in chimney-pots for the 
same purpose, and find also an increased produce from the greater length of 
stalk. The progress of the Elford, or any other early variety, may be greatly 
accelerated in spring by covering each plant with a common hand-glass, or 
with the substitute (figs. 111—113, in p. 172) invented by Mr. Forsyth. In 
gathering the leaves, remove a little soil, bend them down, and slip them off^, 
without injuring the buds at their base, and without bruising the stalks or 
knife. The stalk is fit to use when the disk of the leaf is half expanded ; 
but a larger produce and a fuller flavour are obtained by waiting till the leaf 
is fully grown. One plant allowed to run will produce abundance of seed, 
which ripens in August, and will keep a year. 

Forcing the rhubarb. See 1098. 

1552. Substitutes iox the tart rhubarb may be found in every other species 
of the genus, not even excepting the supposed medicinal, species, R, palma- 
tum; in the stalks of the oxalis crenata (1446), of the sorrel (1458), and 
of the different species of dock, which, according to Cobbett, are sent to 
market for that purpose in America. 

SuBSECT. II. — The Angelica, Elecampane^ Samphire, and Caper. 
1658. The Angelica, Angelica Archangeiica L., is an umbelliferous bien- 
nial, a native of England, in moist situations in good soil, but rare, and cul- 
tivated in gardens for their leaves, and the tender flower-stalks, which were 
formerly blanched like celery. They are now chiefly candied with sugar by 
the confectioners ; and in Sweden and Norway, the leaves and stalks are 
eaten raw, or boiled with meat and fish ; and the seeds are used to flavour 
Ki'dent spirits. The time for gathering the stalks is May, and if the plant 
be then cut down a second crop will be produced ; and if the flower-stems 
be cut off as fast as they appear, the plant, though a biennial, will last 
jseveial years. Seed is produced in abundance, and will keep three or four 
years, 

1554. Substitutes for the angelica are to be found in the alisanders (1523), 



THE ANGELICA, ETC. 



689 



and the lovage, Ligiisticum scoticum Z,., an umbelliferous perennial, eaten 
raw in the Highlands of Scotland. 

1555. The elecampane^ Inula Helenium L., is a carduaceous perennial, a 
native of the South of England in moist pastures. The root is fusiform, 
thick, and aromatic, and is candied like the stalks of the angelica, and much 
admired in France and Germany. The plant ought to be taken up yearly, 
and divided and replanted, in order that the roots may be obtained succulent 
and tender, and for the same reason the plant ought never to be allowed to 
come into flower. 

1556. The samphire^ Crithmum maritimum Z., is an umbelliferous 
perennial, a native of England, on rocky cliffs by the sea, and cultivated in 
gardens for its seed-pods, which make a warm aromatic pickle, and its leaves, 
which are used in salads. It is propagated by division, or by sowing the 
seed in April ; but in either way it is rather difficult of cultivation. It suc- 
ceeds best in a gravelly soil, kept moist, and sprinkled in spring with a 
little powdered barilla, or common sea-salt. During winter it requires to be 
protected by a little dry litter. By this treatment it has produced an ample 
supply of shoots, which may be cut twice in a season. Seed may be saved, 
or plants procured from their native habitats on the sea-coast, as for example 
at Dover, Salcombe, and on the coast of Galloway and Haddington shires. 

1557. Substitutes for the samphire are to be found in some other plants 
which grow within salt-water mark ; for example, the golden samphire, 
Inula crithmifolia Z., a perennial, not uncommon in salt marshes; and 
Salicdrnia herbacea jL., a chenopodiaceous annual, found on muddy sea- 
shores throughout Europe; in Echinophora spinbsa Z,., an umbelliferous 
plant, a native of sandy shores in Lancashire and Kent ; the young leaves of 
which make a wholesome and excellent pickle. 

1558. The caper, Capparis spinosa i., is a capparidaceous trailing shrub, 
a native of the South of Europe, on rocks and dry stony or gravelly places, and 
cultivated about Marseilles, and other parts of France, for its flower- buds, when 
about half the size which they attaui before expanding. It might be culti- 
vated in the South of England in the open garden, and in other parts against 
a conservative wall ; or if it were thought necessary a few plants under glass 
would supply all that would suffice for an ordinary family. It would thrive 
on the rocky shores of the south of Devon, more especially about Salcombe, 
where the Agave stands through the winter without protection ; and it will 
also succeed in Somersetshire, as Sir John Trevelyan has proved, by plant- 
ing it on the sides of an old stone quarry. 

1559. Excellent substitutes for the caper are found in the unripe fruit of 
the Indian cress, and of the Euphorbia Lathyris L. 

1560. The ginger, Zingiber officinale L., a scitamineous perennial from 
the East Indies, is sometimes cultivated in our stoves for the roots, or creep- 
ing underground stems, to be taken when succulent, and pickled and pre- 
served. The plants are divided when in a dormant state, and planted in rich 
light soil, and in a year afterwards the roots are fit to gather, (G. Jf., 
vol. vii., p. 578.) 

1561. The flowers of Magnolia grandiflbra L., are pickled in some parts 
of Devonshire, and considered exquisite in flavour ; and we have no doubt 
that the flower-biids of the other species, and the leaf-buds when bursting, 
of all the species, and also of the tulip tree, might be used for the same 
purpose. 



690 



AROMACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



Sect. X.^ — Aromaceous Esculents. 
1562. The esculent aromatic plants, or sweet herbs, in common use, are 
about a dozen in number, but they all grow in a very limited space in the 
herb garden. The soil for all of them may be dry and calcareous, with the 
single exception of the mint family. They are used to give flavour to soups, 
stews, and other dishes; and in sauces and various stuffings. The leaves and 
stalks of all these plants may be gathered when they are coming into flower, 
dried, and compressed in a shallow box by a screw press, so as to form packets 
about the size of a small octavo volume, which, being put up in paper, will 
retain their fragrance for two or three years. Nothing can be worse than 
the former mode of keepmg herbs, by hanging them up loose, in the back 
sheds, or in the seed-room, where they soon became covered with dust, and 
deprived of their aroma. 

1568. The common thyme. Thymus vulgaris X., is a labiaceous evergreen 
undershrub, a native of Spain and Italy. The young leaves and tops are 
used either green or dried in soups, stuffings, stews, and sauces. It is readily 
increased by seeds, cuttings, or by division, and the plants should be renewed 
by one or other of these modes every year in spring. 

1564. The lemon thyme is the T. citriodbrus Pers.y a trailing evergreen, 
used for the same purposes as the preceding species ; but being less pungent 
it is more grateful, and therefore used as a seasonhig for veal, instead of 
lemon peel. 

1565. The sage. Salvia officmalis 7.., is a labiaceous evergreen undershrub, 
a native of the South of Europe. The leaves and tender tops are used m 
stuffings and sauces, for many kinds of luscious and strong meats ; as well as 
to improve the flavour of various articles of cookery. There are several 
varieties: the common, red, or purple leaved; the narrow-leaved green; and the 
broad-leaved green, all of equal merit. They are propagated by seeds or 
cuttings, and like the thyme, the plantation ought to be renewed every two 
or three years, otherwise it is very apt to be destroyed by the wmter. 

15G6. The clary, S. Sclarea L., is a biennial, a native of Italy, sometnnes 
used as a substitute for the sage. ^ ^ 

1567. The common mint, or spear mint, is the Mentha viridis L., a 
labiaceous creeping stemmed perennial, a native of England, in marshy 
places ; the voung leaves and tops of which are used in sprmg salads, and 
form an ingredient in soups ; they are also employed to give flavour to cer- 
tain dishes, as peas, Szc. ; being boiled for a time, and then withdrawn. Mmt 
is much in demand about London as an ingredient in a sauce for lamb. It iS 
propagated by division of the roots before they begin to grow m sprmg, which 
are buried in shallow drills; or by the young shoots slipped off when they 
are three inches or four inches in length, and planted in beds a few mches 
n t)avt To produce tender stalks and leaves the plants require to be liberally 
supplied with water. When mint is to be dried the stalks should be cut 
when they are just coming into flower, dried in a shady place, compressed m 
packets, and papered ; to be laid up in a drawer or herb case till wanted tor 
use. One p icket may be sent to the kitchen at a time. No plant is easier 
to force, and this ought always to be done in time for new lamb. (See lllU.; 

1668. The pennyroyal mint, M. Pulegium L., is alow creeping perennial, 
a native of England, in wet commons, and on the margins of brooks It is 
used in cookery like the common mint, and for distilling pennyroyal water. 



FUNGACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



69i 



15G9. The pot mmjoram^ Origanum Onites L., is a labiaceous under- 
shrub, a native of Sicily, but hardy enough to stand through our winters. 
The leaves and tender tops, green or dried, are used in soups as a substitute 
for those of the sweet or knotted marjoram. It is readily propagated by 
division of the roots, or by seeds. 

1570. The sweet marjoram^ or knotted marjoram, O. Majorana Z., is a 
biennial, a native of the South of Europe, and long cultivated in British 
gardens as a seasoning for soups, and for other culinary purposes. This 
species being somew^hat tender, is commonly sown on a slight hot-bed towards 
the end of March, or on a warm border about the middle of April ; in the 
former case transplanting it into rows one foot apart, and the plants six 
inches distant in the row ; and in the latter case thinning them out without 
transplanting. The green tops may be gathered as wanted ; but those to be 
preserved in packets will have most flavour, if gathered when just coming 
into blossom. The seed, of which a quarter of an ounce is sufficient for any 
garden, is commonly imported, and will keep four years. 

1571. Thevnnter marjoram^ O. heracleoticum i., is a perennial, a native 
of the South of Europe, with leaves resembling those of the knotted marjoram, 
but with the flowers in spikes instead of whorls. It is used like the other 
marjorams, and propagated by division. 

1572. The winter savory, Satureja montana i., is a labiaceous under- 
shrub, a native of the South of Europe, and cultivated for its tender tops as 
a seasoning for soups and made dishes, and for boiling with peas, beans, 
&c. It is propagated by seed, cuttings, or division, like thyme, but most 
frequently by the latter mode. 

1573. The summer savory, S. hortensis L., is an annual, a native of Italy, 
with larger leaves and a more agreeable fragrance than the winter savory, to 
which it is generally preferred. It is sown in drills, one foot apart, in the 
open garden, in March or April. 

1574. The sweet basil, or larger basil, Ocymum Basilicum L., is a labia- 
ceous annual, a native of the East Indies, cultivated for its highly aromatic 
properties. The leaves and bractese, or leafy tops, are the parts gathered ; 
and, on account of their strong flavour of cloves, they are often used in 
highly-seasoned dishes, as well as in soups, stews, and sauces ; and a leaf 
or two leaves are sometimes introduced into salads. Sow on a hot-bed 
in the end of March, and plant out in a warm border when all danger from 
frost is over, allowing the plants at least a square foot of space for each. 
Seed is generally imported from Italy, and it keeps two years. 

1575. The bush basil, or least basil, O. minimum L., an annual, also 
from the East Indies, is a much smaller plant than the former, but being 
equally aromatic, and rather more hardy, is frequently substituted for it. 

1576. The tansy, Tanacetum vulgare L., is an anthemideous perennial, 
a native of Britain on the sandy banks of rivers, and cultivated in gardens 
for the young leaves, which are shredded down, and employed to flavour 
puddings, omelets, and cakes. There is a variety with the leaves doubly 
curled, which is generally preferred. No plant is more easily propagated or 
cultivated, and it also forces freely. 

Sect. XI. — Fungaceous Esculents. 
The only fungaceous vegetable cultivated in Britain is the common mush- 
room, though attempts have been made to bring under subjection the tniffle 
and the morel. 



692 



FUNGACEOUS ESCULENTS. 



1577. The garden mushroom^ Agaricus campestris Z,., is a hynienomyce- 
taceous fungus, a native of Britain and most parts of Europe^ appearing in 
pastures in August and September, and readily distinguished from other 
fungi by its fine pink or flesh-coloured gills, and pleasant smell. As the 
natural history of the mushi-oom was given when treating of the mode of 
forcing it (Till), and as there are no varieties to be described, we have only 
to notice a practice sometimes adopted of growing the mushroom, in imi- 
tation of nature, in grass-lawns and pastures. The attempt will not succeed 
in every soil and situation, but it has done so in a great many instances. 
Take mushroom spawn — the mode of procm-ing which has been already 
given (1113) — and in the beginning of July inoculate a lawn or pasture 
with it by simply raising one piece of turf, three inches thick, with the 
spade, in every square yard, inserting a small fragment of spawn beneath it, 
and pressing it firmly down again with the back of the spade or the foot. 
Tliis will not interfere with the mowing of the lawn, and in all probability a 
crop will be produced during the latter end of August and the beguming of 
September; and mushrooms will appear of themselves in the same ground 
for a number of years afterwards. jMushroora spawn has also been planted 
among potatoes and other crops in the open garden, and has produced mush- 
rooms, but no mode yet discovered is so certain as those in which artificial 
heat and a bed of stable-dung is employed (G. M., vol. ix., p. 223). The 
mushroom, when cultivated in houses, is liable to the attacks of various 
insects, slugs, and worms, all of which may be collected by baits, or devoured 
by a toad or two kept on purpose. 

1578. The truffle, Tuber cibarium Sibth., is a gasteromycetaceous fungus, 
a native of Britain, and growitig naturally some inches below the surface. 
It is very common in the downs of "NT^'iltshire, Hampsliire, and Kent, 
where dogs are trained to scent it out, and where also it is sought out and 
devoured by pigs ; — which on the Continent are used to discover the localities 
of this fungus, as dogs are in England. It is sent to the Loudon market 
from different parts of England in a green state, and imported from the 
Continent sliced and dried ; the most celebrated truffles are those from the 
oak forests of Perigord. Various attempts have been made, both in Britain 
and on the Continent, to cultivate the truffle, but hitherto without success 
{G. M. I., VIII., andXUl.); but it would appear that Dr. Klotzsch, 
of Berlin, has ascertained that the best course is to take truffles which are no 
longer good for the table, bemg over-ripe, and nearly in a state of decompo- 
sition, diffusing a disagreeable odour ; to break them into pieces, and place 
them two inches or three inches deep in the earth, in rather raised flat 
places, under copse or underwood, protected from the north and east winds. 
Truffles in the state in which they are eaten are never ripe, and therefore 
unfit for propagation. — (^Gard. Chron. 1842, p. 287.) 

1579. The morel, Morche'lla esculenta Pers., belongs to the same division 
of fungi as the ti-uffie. It is a native of Britain in wet banks, in woods, and 
in moist pastures, and is in perfection in May and June. When gathered 
dry it will keep several months. It is used for the same purpose as the 
truffle, but like it has not as yet been subjected to cultivation. 

1580. Suhstitutea for these fungi may be found in a number of species of 
the same genera, more especially of Agaricus, but as a great number of 
fungi are considered poisonous, it would be dangerous for any one to collect 
tliem for edible purposes from mere description without figures. We refer 
therefore to Suwerby's English Fungi, in which coloured plates are given of 



MEDICACEOUS HERBS. 



693 



all the indigenous species, and those which are edible, and those which are 
poisonous, particularly pointed out. See also Descrizione dei Funghi Man- 
gerecci piu comuni dell' Italia e de velenosi che possono c omedesimi confon- 
dersiy del Dottor Carlo Vittadini. Milano^ 1835. 

Sect. XII. — Odoraceous Herbs. 

1581. 77ie odoraceous herbs, or perfumery herbs, cultivated in British 
gardens in the present day, are, with the exception of lavender and pepper- 
mint, applied to very little use. 

1582. The lavender, Lavandula spica L,, is a labiaceous under-shrub, a 
native of the South of Europe, a few plants of which are cultivated in every 
garden for their powerfully aromatic flowers. These are gathered with a 
portion of the stalk attached, and tied up in little bundles, dried, and 
placed among linen to perfume them and to deter the moth. They are also 
used for scenting rooms, wardrobes, and for a variety of similar purposes, 
and for affording by distillation lavender-water. It is propagated by seeds 
or cuttings, and thrives best on dry calcareous soils, in which it will last five 
or six years. L. latifolia Ehrh., and L. viridis Herit., are cultivated in 
some gardens instead of the common sort, or along with it. 

1583. The rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis L., is a labiaceous evergreen 
under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe, and like the lavender highly 
aromatic. The flowers are used like those of the lavender, and for distilling 
Hungary-water ; and the sprigs are sometimes used as a garnish. It is 
readily propagated by seeds or cuttings in dry calcareous soil, and a plant 
will last six or seven years. 

1584. The peppermint. — Mentha piperita L., is a labiaceous creeping- 
stemmed perennial, a native of England in watery places. Its only use is 
for distilling peppermint- water, for which purpose it may be propagated like 
the mint (1567), and planted in a soft, rich soil, moist either naturally or by 
art. The stalks are gathered when they are in full flower, and taken at 
once to distil. The plantation, from its travelling-roots, requires to be 
renewed every four or five years. 

Sect. XIII. — Medicaceous Herbs. 

1585. The medicinal herbs enumerated in this section, are still found in 
a number of gardens, though very little use is made of them. 

1586. The medicinal rhubarb, Rheum palmatum L., may be cultivated 
like the tart rhubarb, and after standing three or four years, the plants 
may be taken up and their larger roots dried for use. After taking up 
and cleaning the roots and cutting off the lateral fibres, cut them into sec - 
tions an inch or more in thickness, make holes in them, and string them, 
and hang them up to dry in an airy loft, laundry, or kitchen, gradually, till 
the}^ are fit for being bruised into a powder, or cut into pieces about the size 
of peas, to be taken as pills. Till about the commencement of the present 
century, it was customary for almost every gardener in Scotland to grow 
enough of rhubarb, and of chamomile, for his own family ; and also, if he 
had children, a certain quantity of wormwood and rue as anthelmintics. 

1587. The chamomile, Anthemis nobilis L., is an anthemideous creeping 
perennial, a native of England in gravelly pastures, and cultivated for its 
flowers, which are bitter and stomachic, and much used as chamomile tea. 

1588. The wormwood, Artemisia Absinthium L., is an anthemideous 



694 



TOXICACEOUS HERBS. 



perennial, a native of Britain in calcareous "pastures^ and formerly cultivated 
as a vermifuge, and for other purposes in domestic medicine. It is found 
beneficial to poultry, and should be planted in poultry grounds ; and it is 
also used as a substitute for hops in beer. It is easily propagated by 
cuttings or division. 

1589. The rue, Ruta graveolens L., is a rutaceous evergreen under-shrub, 
a native of the south of Europe, the leaves of which are sometimes eaten 
with bread and butter, and frequently given to poultry for the croup. They 
also make a beautiful garnish. 

1590. The horehound, JMarriibium vulgare is a labiaceous perennial, 
a native of Britain on dry chalky or gravelly soO, and was formerly in 
demand as a cure for coughs and asthmas, for which candied horehound is 
still a popular remedy. 

1591. The hyssop, Hyssbpus officinalis Z,., is a labiaceous evergreen 
under-shrub, a native of the South of Europe, the leafy tops and flowers of 
which are gathered and dried for making hyssop tea and other purposes. 

1592. The balm, JNIelissa officinalis L., is a labiaceous perennial, a native 
of Switzerland, of which balm tea and balm wine used to be made. 

1593. The blessed thistle, Centaurea benedicta L., is a carduaceous annual, 
a native of the South of Europe, an infusion of the leaves of which is con- 
sidered as stomachic. 

1594. The liquorice^ Glycyrrhiza glabra J^., is a leguminous deep-rooting 
perennial, cultivated in fields more frequently than in gardens for its saccha- 
rine juice, which is used as an emollient in colds, fevers, &c. 

1595. The blue melilot, Melilotus cajrulea L. (Baume du Perou, Fr.), 
is a leguminous annual, a native of Switzerland, Bohemia, &c., remarkable 
for its powerful fragrance, which is used in Switzerland to aromatise the 
Schabziguer cheese, and there and in other countries to perfume clothes, 
and affi)rd, by distillation, a fragrant water. In a dried state, the perfume 
is more powerful, and it is retained for upwards of half a century. — (^Bou 
Jard. 1842.) 

Sect. XIV. — Toxicaceous Herbs. 

1596. The poisonous plants cultivated in gardens for the purpose of 
destroying insects or vermin are few, and indeed the tobacco is almost the 
only one. 

1597. The tobacco, Nicotiana Tabacum L., is a solanaceous annual, a 
native of South America, and cultivated to a limited extent in gardens for 
horticultural purposes. " It is used to fumigate hot -houses ; large infusions 
of it are put into most washes that are prepared for extirpating insects ; and 
by dr^'ing and grinding it into the form of snuff, it is found very efficacious 
in destroying the green-fly on peach and rose trees out of doors." The best 
variety is the large-leaved Virginian. 

1598. Propagation and culture. — The practice in the Hoi*t. Soc. gardens is 
as follows : — The seeds were sown about the middle of March, covered very 
lightly with fine loam, and placed upon a moderate hot-bed. When the plants 
were come up, and had acquired sufficient strength, they were pricked into shal- 
low pans, about two inches apart ; they were then gradually inured to the open 
air on good days, and finally planted out in the middle of ]\Tay, at three feet 
apart, in rich ground. They were shaded with flower-pots, and occasionally 
watered, till tliey had taken root and begun to grow. No more attention 



TOXICACEOUS HERBS. 



695 



was bestowed, except keeping the ground clean, until their lateral shoots 
began to show themselves, which were constantly kept pinched off as they 
appeared : these, if suffered to remain, would have had the effect of very 
much reducing the supply of sap from the useful leaves of the plants. They 
were topped at sixteen or eighteen leaves, according to their strength. The 
tobacco was ripe in the beginning of September, as was indicated by the 
leaves becoming mottled with yellow spots, those at the bottom more so 
than at the top of the plant ; they were also more glossy and shining than 
before." 

1599. After management. — " In most gardens the leaves are stripped off 
the plants in a green state, and thrown together in a heap to ferment ; while, 
little or no attention being paid to the degree of temperature which such 
fermentation should reach, the usual consequence is burning or rotting the 
leaves. Tobacco so treated has neither the taste, the smell, nor the efficacy 
of tobacco, and when burnt in hothouses is by no means effective in killing 
insects, without a great proportion of regularly cured and manufactured 
tobacco being burnt along with it. Hothouses also smell very disagreeably 
for eight or ten days after being fumigated Avith it." 

1600. Curing. — " The mushroom-house being at this time disengaged, was 
thought an eligible place for the curing process. The plants were taken up 
quite dry, with a few of their roots ; but no particular attention was paid to 
saving many of the latter, as the object was only to avoid breaking the bottom 
leaves (which might have been the case by cutting the stems). The plants 
were carried immediately to the house, and hung on nails in the walls, and 
on ropes in the middle of it. When all had been brought into the house, it 
was shut up quite close, the fire lighted, and the temperature kept to 70°, 
until the leaves got completely yellow, which they did in four or five days. 
The heat was then raised to 75° ; and in about a week the leaves, with the 
exception of the midribs, were cured, and of a fine brown colour. The heat 
was then increased to between 80° and 90° ; and in five days the midribs 
were so completely killed, that the thick ends of them would have broken 
immediately on attempting to bend them. The leaves were now very much 
curled, and dry as fire could make them, and if subjected to any pressure 
would have crumbled to snuff. Fire was discontinued, and the floor of the 
house well watered. This was repeated as it evaporated, and in twenty- 
four hours the leaves were as soft and pliable as could be desired : they 
could now be handled without breaking or wasting them. When stripped 
off the stalks, they were stretched out singly, and laid above one another, 
smoothing them gently with the hands. When all were laid out neatly, 
they were well pressed, to give them form and keep them smooth ; they 
were then tied in hands, of about half a dozen leaves in each, and packed into a 
tub, being well pressed as tliey were put in. In this way they remained 
a fortnight, when they began to mould slightly at the midribs, in conse- 
quence of the weather being moist and warm. They were then rehung in 
the house, and very gradually dried by fire-heat ; were afterwards brought 
to a moist state in the manner above described, and finally were repacked in 
the tub, where they now remain, well pressed, and in a good keeping state. 
1 he tobacco continues to improve in smell and appearance with its age. 

" The important points in the above mode of curing are, to carry the 
plants to the house whenever they are taken up ; for if the sun be bright, 
the leaves would sunburn in a short time. The leaves require to be yellow 



696 



TOXICACEOUS HERBS. 



before the heat is increased, otherwise the tobacco would cure too light- 
coloured ; and the midribs must be completely killed before the leaves are 
taken off the stalks ; for if not once made very dry, they would never keep. 

" The power which the leaves possess of absorbing moisture in a damp 
atmosphere is immense, and very curious : a person unacquainted with it 
would not believe, on seeing a leaf in its driest state, that it could ever be 
brought back so as to be again pliable. 

" The number of leaves that each plant ought to be allowed to produce 
should be determined by the quality of the ground, the earliness or lateness 
of the season, &c. : when these com])ine to the advantage of the plants, they 
are able to perfect proportionally more leaves. By a timely and careful 
attention to such circumstances, and by pinching off the lateral shoots, the 
climate of England, or that of Ireland, is in every respect sufficient to the 
full perfection of tobacco. Four months are not fully required to bring it 
to maturity. 

" In the case of large plantations being made, shading with flower -pots 
would be attended with considerable expense : it is not, however, of absolute 
necessity ; for, when tobacco plants are pricked out some time previous to 
planting, they make good roots, which are of greater benefit to them, after 
they are planted, than shading is. Shading with pots, however, is certainly 
useful ; but it is by no means an essentially necessary part of the manage- 
ment of tobacco. The leaves flag under a hot sun ; but, if the ground is 
moist, quickly recover." — (Gard. Mag. vol. x. p. 503.) 

1001. The white hel/ebore, Veratrum album L., is a melanthaceous tuber- 
culous-rooted perennial, a native of Denmark, and formerly in much repute 
as a powerful medicine. The part employed is the root dried and powdered ; 
and as it has lately been found more efficacious than tobacco powder (1223) 
in destroying the caterpillar on the gooseberry, it might be worth while to 
cultivate it in gardens for that purpose. The plant is not rare, and is easily 
propagated by seeds or by division. At two years from the seed the roots 
may be fit for use, and may be taken up, dried on a hothouse flue, and beat 
into powder, first on a stone with the cast-iron rammer (fig. 37 c, in p. 136) , 
and afterwards, if thought necessary, to a finer powder, in a mortar. A 
decoction of the leaves and stems might probably also be effective ; or they 
might be treated like those of the tobacco, and afterwards used in fumigation 
or as snuff, 

1602. The foxglove, Digitalis purpurea L., is a scrophularinaceous 
biennial, a native of Britain, and common in copse- woods and hedge- wastes. 
The whole plant is poisonous, and may be used for the same purpose, and in 
the same manner, as the tobacco. 

1603. The henbo,ne, Hyoscyamus niger L., and the thorn-apple. Datura 
Stramonium i., are well known indigenous annuals, of highly narcotic 
properties, which, if treated like the tobacco, would probably be equally 
efficacious in the destruction of insects. 

1604. Walnut leaves, in strong decoction, are found to destroy worms ; and 
the leaves of the sweet bay, Laurus ndbilis L,, which are used in very small 
quantities to flavour tarts, have been also put into frames and pine-stoves to 
destroy the red spider, by the evaporisation of the prussic acid with which 
ihey abound. 



APPENDIX. 



9, in p. 4. — In comparing plants with animals, the leaves can only be compared 
to lungs ; and, similarly to lungs, it is true, they aerate the sap, and imbibe oxygen, 
as the lungs do to the blood : but, when we carry the comparison further, we find 
that not only do the leaves imbibe oxygen, but they also, by imbibing the chemical 
power of the light, decompose carbonic acid, absorbing the carbon, and setting the 
oxygen free. This is a power which has never been ascribed to lungs ; and, as the 
chemical power absorbed probably acts m other ways on the sap presented (see 
124), though it is difficult to discriminate between organic secretion of particular 
organs and the chemical power of light, it has been by many eminent physiologists 
called digestion. Comparative physiology is valuable as assisting us to understand 
more readily what we are ignorant of, by comparing it with what we are already 
acquainted with. It is necessary to know the functions which the different organs 
perform before we can estimate their value, or know the necessity of supplying 
them with proper food ; and the more we can simplify the subject, by classifying 
one organ in one organised being with one destined to a similar purpose in another, 
we the more readily ai'rive at a general knowledge of the whole. There are many 
difficulties, however, in comparative physiology ; and the proper class of organs to 
which leaves may belong seems one of the principal stumbling-blocks. 

103, in p. 26. — It may be questioned whether the roots of Rosaceee, &c., abound 
in adventitious buds. It is more likely these buds are called into existence by an 
effort of the vitality of the plant. In such as the Rhus, Papaver, &c., which 
abound in a thick viscid sap, the very smallest pieces, in which it is scarcely possible 
buds could be formed, ai-e found to produce them, if they have only fibres to collect 
nourishment. The buds are generally formed at the edges of the cut, where the 
leaf is extravasated, showing they are formed from the extra vasated sap, and did not 
previously exist in the state of buds. The edge of the cut is sometimes so crowded 
with buds, that they cannot be supposed to have had pre-existence in such large 
quantities. The buds noticed at 121 maybe more properly called axillary than 
adventitious. 

128, in p. 34. — It has been customary to call the cause of fruiting an accumula- 
tion of nutritive matter. Were this the case, we would add to the fruitfulness of a 
tree by augmenting the quantity of its food or nutritive matter. The reverse of 
this, however, more often takes place, as in ringing and taking away roots, impo- 
verishing the soil, &c., all which diminish the quantity of nutritive matter, and yet 
generally add to fruitfulness. It is not that impoverishing is itself the cause : were 
we able to increase the light and heat as we can increase food, there would be less 
cause for impoverishing. The supply of food, however, is most at our command; 
the others, especially the light (the most needful), we have but little power over, 
and must, therefore, curtail the food to suit ( ur limited means. A certain highly 



698 



APPENMX. 



elaborated state of the food is necessary before fruit-buds can be formed : experi- 
ence teaches us this, as we see that fruit-buds are always most plentifully formed 
in seasons when the accumulation of the chemical power of the light from an un- 
clouded sky has added most to the power of the leaves. Chemistry has not yet 
been able to unravel the changes required to bring the sap into a proper condition 
for producing fruit-buds ; but that it is the quality, more than the quantity, experi- 
ence abundantly points out. 

128, in p. 34. — It has been pointed out that a large quantity of crude sap is 
not conducive to fruitfulness, but the contrary ; and that, therefore, a smaller 
quantity duly elaborated is to be preferred. It may, however, be observed, that 
in order that the fruit may be large and abundant, an abundant supply of nourish- 
ment is absolutely necessary ; and therefore eflforts should be made, by the employ- 
ment of every means in our power, towards the elaboration of the largest possible 
quantity of sap, rather than adopt the prompt system of partial starvation, by 
means of which the fruit, if produced in abundance, must necessarily be small. A 
full crop of fruit cannot be obtained, unless from buds and branches previously 
well nourished. If a vigorous branch is ringed so as to throw it into a bearing 
state, the fruit will be larger than from a weak branch either so treated or left 
untouched. N. 

157, in p, 48. — Magnesia, in its caustic state, is much longer in returning to the 
mild state, by regaining its carbonic acid from the air, than lime, especially if lime 
is present, as it generally is with magnesia. In this caustic state, it may be dan- 
gerous in excess ; but, being more sparingly soluble than caustic lime, excess is 
not so apt to occur. 

158, in p. 48. — The sulphate of iron being the most soluble of any of the salts of 
ii'on, is most hurtful. Turning up the soil, and exposure to the air, change the 
sulphate into an msoluble peroxide ; and quicklime decomposes the sulphate, so 
will also mild hme or chalk, but not so powerfully, the sulphuric acid of the iron 
replacing the carbonic of the lime. 

188, in p. 59. — There is a good deal of loss in mixing quicklime with substances 
putrefying rapidly. The lime seizes on the carbonic acid of the substances, form- 
ing an insoluble carbonate of lime ; and the extraction of the carbonic acid hastens 
decomposition. Ammonia, being expelled in greater quantity, is always the result 
of the application of quicklime, as may be detected by the smell. It may be useful, 
in a commercial way, to sustain a great loss for the purpose of makmg the article 
negotiable ; but, where convenience will admit, rapidly putrefying substances are 
most economically prepared by mixmg with earth or compost, and keeping cool by 
turning. Where they have to be carried far, sulphuric acid (vitriol), where cheap, 
will disinfect most economically ; or, if cheaper, sulphate of lime (gypsum) ; or 
sulphate of h'on (copperas), if very cheap. Quicklime is most useful with substances 
that decay slowly ; its avidity for carbonic acid causes it to be extracted from the 
slowly decomposing substances it is mixed with, as couch-grass, roots, weeds, &c.., 
and hastens their decomposition. (See 195). 

188, i/i p. 59. — Earth is undoubtedly the best substance for mixing with nauseous 
manures. In many cases the extra expense of carinage, occasioned by greater bulk 
in consequence of admixture with soil, will be fully compensated by the benefit 
arising from the addition of soil of a different nature to that on which the compost 
is laid ; thus a quantity of maiden loam would improve permanently a piece of 
worn-out ground to an extent that would more than pay for carriage from a con- 



APPENDIX. 



siderable distance ; and therefore the intrinsic value of the soil, as a dressing, ought 
to be allowed for as a deduction fi'om expense of carriage in the case of using it 
in the way of compost. It is very doubtful whether night soil, disinfected by 
sulphuric acid, or sulphate of iron, &c., would form a manure half as good as if it 
had been mixed with a sufficient quantity of earth in compost. N". 

189, in p. 59. — When there are not sufficient of the phosphates in the soil for 
bones, their application will have a more powerful effect at first, than after long 
continuance has caused the soil to abound in these. 

193, in p. 60. — Inorganic substances, though not found in great quantity in vege- 
tables (from 1 to 1 0 per cent, only), are yet essential. Though great part of their 
action is as solvents, to introduce other substances, yet the plant will not thrive 
without them. It is found, for instance, in peaty soils, that there is a great defi- 
ciency of silicates and phosphates ; and that wheat and oats thrive much better on 
these soils, when bones, containing phosphates, and when wood ashes, decomposed 
straw, &c., containing silica, are added. The structure of the plant cannot be built 
up without all the requisites ; and, though not needed in such quantities as the 
organic substances, and more generally found mixed in the soil, they (the inorganic) 
are yet essential, as the straw will not stand without its proportion of flint or silica ; 
and the lime, phosphorus, soda, and potash found in all parts of the plant are indis- 
pensable. (See 208). Soda is a constituent to a small extent in beans, clover, &c., 
and even in wheat. 

214, in p. 66. — A great many mineral manures may be most cheaply sown 
with the hand, dry, in the state of powder ; but are more safely distributed well 
diluted in water ; and, being more divided, will do more good, but may be more 
expensive. 

2lb, in p. 66. — Wherever manures can be applied in the bulk, they will always 
be more beneficial than extracts, which are useful only as a saving of expense. 
Farm- yard manure, as it decomposes in the soil, improves its mechanical texture, 
a matter of great importance. To such as peat soils, silicate of potash and phos- 
phates are valuable ; but where earth can be added cheaply, it may give these also 
(especially if it has been well manured before, as both of these are found in manure), 
and the spongy peat solidified, and permanently improved in its texture. Farm- 
yard manure supplies most of the inorganic substances needed, improves the 
texture, especially of clayey soils, and is most permanently beneficial ; but where 
this cannot be got sufficiently cheap, or where peculiar deficiencies or excesses 
occur in the soil, recourse may be had, with a great degree of profit, to inorganic 
manures in small compass. 

268, iti p. 85. — The motion of air or wind is caused by colder air replacing warmer; 
this may cause the cooling effect of breezes in summer. Why the effects of still cold 
air are not so great as those of air in motion is, because, when in motion, the cold 
air is constantly replacing that partially heated by the human body. Why motion 
of heated air should, when uniformly heated, give relief, is not so plain. Why 
moisture gives relief is connected with electricity. In dry air the electricity of the 
body accumulates, because dry air is a bad conductor. Moist air, being a good 
conductor, draws ofi" the excess of electricity, which, when present, was causing a 
pricking, uneasy sensation ; and, when removed, the body gets more elastic and 
exhilarated. Motion is undoubtedly of benefit to leaves and stems of plants. 

281, in p. 90 Plants suff'er most at a distance from light, when the light is 

only from the top, or one-sided. This has been called the attraction of light, but 
is no explanation. In the one-sided light it may be the greater solidifying of the 



700 



APPENDIX. 



side next the light which draws. In the top-light of frames, the want of direct 
light at the sides may cause partly the greater elongation of the top ; but plants 
elongate below glass, even though surrounded by light. The want of motion is 
a great cause of this : plants uniformly elongate more in a sheltered than an 
exposed field. If there is any such thing as attraction between light and plants, as 
roots follow their food (which is partly hygroscopical in the latter case), it will be, 
like the attraction of gravitation, more easily perceivable in its effects than capable 
of explanation. Refraction will disperse the light : it is difiicult to understand 
how it should weaken what does pass through. The chemical power of light, how- 
ever, is so much connected with electricity, that it may be weakened in a way we 
cannot account for. The chemical power of light is greatest in the least luminous 
part of the rays ; and yet, as the quantity of light is equal, that of the equator 
must have most power. There is a connexion between heat, light, and electricity, 
not yet explained ; the optical qualities of Ught have been much more attended 
to than the chemical. The red rays have more momentum than the blue ; thus 
causing the red of the rising and setting sun, and the azure blue of the sky. Per- 
haps more of the blue or chemical portion of the sun's rays may thus be lost 
in refraction. 

454, ill p. 167. — I have found the leather wallet much improved by having the 
two sides nailed to t^vo pieces of wood about an inch and a half wide ; and also one 
piece down the middle, so as to form a parting ; one of which does for nails and 
the other for shreds, — H. C. O. 

463, in p. 173. — I should think any protection from frost would be much more 
effectual if drawn up or removed durmg a mild day ; the plant would be hardier 
also and healthier, and the extremes between heat and cold not so great. In 
Scotland, woollen nets are most used ; from the coldness of the climate they 
are most beneficial ; and those who keep them constantly standing find they do 
harm; the foliage is rot so healthy, and insects collect. There is seldom so 
much heat there as to requu'e shading for the blossom. Dry, cold east winds do 
most harm. 

474, in p. 181. — White walls will heat the air around the leaves most through 
the day from reflection, as these are seldom close to the wall ; and the extreme of 
cold will not be so great at night, which is most dangerous. Black-coloured walls, 
though they absorb heat during the day, will not retain it to give ofi" at night, as it 
will be conducted through the wall in great part during the day, and any little 
retained be speedily radiated off in the early part of the night. 

501, in p. 205. — The temperature of the blood is 94° to 98o, and the heated air 
is not likely to be much below the temperature of the skin ; to that extent, how- 
ever, it will undoubtedly increase the eff'ect ; and, in motion, will give motion to 
the leaves and stems of plants, and will not stagnate and corrupt. 

504, in p. 208. — Subsequent improvements have been made on Rogers's conical 
boiler by Mr. Shewen, and modifications of it have been adopted by Mr. Stephen- 
son and various persons. Messrs. Garton and Jarvis, of Exeter, have invented 
and put up at various places a boiler on the same general principle as that of Mr. 
Rogers's, viz.. having the fire in the centre of the water — but totally different in 
mechanical construction. This boiler will be figured in the Gardeners^ Magazine. 
The boiler most generally in use for heating horticultural structures at present, 
is unquestionably that of Mr. Rogers as improved by Mr. Shewen. Two of 
these are now (Oct. 1842) putting up in the Hort. Soc. Garden. 

524, in p. 225,— A small building on the 7iorth side of a larger one is in a lower 



APPENDIX. 

temperature throughout the year than if it stood iu the open sun ; consequently it 
>vill always act as a condenser of moisture in the atmosphere that is in contact with 
it. Thus, if a portion of wall is of the same temperature as the air, supposing 
the latter to be within say 1° of saturation, the wall, with regard to the moisture it 
may contain, will remain in nearly the same state ; increase the heat of the wall, 
and it will give out moisture, and will ultimately become dry ; but render the wall 
several degrees colder than the surrounding atmosphere, or lower than its dew 
point, and, like the dew on the cooled bulb of Daniell's hygrometer, previously 
explained, a deposition of moisture will immediately take place. This fact ought 
to be borne in mind where dwelling-houses are to be erected in the proximity of 
thick and lofty trees, or where trees of such description of growth are planted near 
houses ; for if a row of trees are growing on the north sides of houses, the latter 
are not in consequence affected by damp ; but if the houses are at the north side 
of the trees, nothing but strong fires, equal to the discrepancy of temperature occa- 
sioned by a northern exposure, will render the houses equally dry ; and even in 
this case, as the fire-heat cannot be made to pervade every part of the building, it 
is probable a habitation in a northern exposure will not prove so healthy under 
any circumstances as one otherwise situated. — -N. 

564, in p. 245. — Substances yielding oxygen should be of most use in germination 
to oily seeds, which have a deficiency of oxygen in themselves. 

571, in p. 248. — According to Liebig, ammonia hastens and strengthens germi- 
nation ; and, according to the same authority, charcoal and snow absorb ammonia 
from the atmosphere ; this may be great part of the benefit. 

575, in p. 251. — The plexus of vessels at the heel of the shoot or insertion of the 
branch in the stem, causes a peculiar activity of life there ; and both buds and 
roots are much more easily formed and in greater quantity there than in any other 
place of the shoot. The insertion of the branch resembles ir this respect the collar 
of the stem (577). If the heel of the gooseberry or currant-cutting is taken out 
completely by breaking off", not cutting, it is better than taking off a piece of the 
old wood. 

578, in p. 252. — Cuttings of growing succulent wood have vitality most active, 
and strike root most quickly ; but, from the unripened state of the wood, are most 
apt to die, and require to be kept more close and moist. There is danger in both 
extremes, and both must be guarded against in such as are difiicult to strike. 

580, in p. 253.— When the season is hot and warm, and little time to attend to 
keeping moist, succulent cuttings, such as pinks, are most certain to strike, by 
paring close below the uppermost joint, and cutting off above close to the joint, 
leaving none of the leaves uncut, except those beginning to develop. Such a cut- 
ting is a mere joint in a vital, active, not ripened state, and will stand a great deal 
of heat ; if covered with a hand-glass in sunny weather, or in a hotbed frame in 
cold weather, they seldom or never fail. Excitement of heat, not preservation, is 
all that is wanted. 

581, in p. 254. — When cuttings are tardy to strike, and have callosities formed, 
heat has a powerful effect in causing them to root. Those that have stood months, 
without appearance of rooting, will strike in a few days in a strong heat. 

601 in p. 262. — The best mark for such as strike most readily by pieces of the 
root is an abundance of thick viscid juice, as in the genera i?hus, Papaver, Aildn- 
tuSf Gymndcladus, &c., which strike more freely than Cydonia, roses, thorns, &c. 
which have less. 

z z 



702 



APPENDIX. 



614, in p. 269.— Mr. Barnes, gardener to Lady Rolle, at Bicton, mixes char- 
coal with the soil in which he grows every kind of plant, from the cabbage and 
the onion to heaths, pine-apples, and orchideae, and with extraordinary success. 
The charcoal is generally broken into small pieces, say an inch or more in length, 
and seldom thicker than a quill ; but he also uses it of a larger size, along with 
drainage materials, and, when sown along with seeds, in a state of powder. See 
the history and details of this practice in Gard. Mag. for 1842. We were not 
aware of Mr. Barnes's discovery till after the last sheet of this work was printed, 
otherwise we should have introduced a notice of it in its proper place. See p. 706. 

650 in p. 287. — It is of great consequence that the graft and stock should be 
pressed closely together, in order that the first emission of cambium from the 
stock should come in contact immediately with the inner bark and albumen of the 
graft. When grafts are taken o£F, and tied on in a growing state, the wood of the 
graft clings and dries ; having no roots to feed it, it shrinks from the stock, leaving 
an empty space, and before it is filled up, unless the stock is very vigorous, the 
graft dies. This might be obviated by grafting before the sap rises, but grafts will 
not succeed till the flow of sap has begun to rise bi'iskly ; late grafting always suc- 
ceeds best ; and, hence, the grafts when taken off before growth commences, and 
kept moist till the stock begms to grow, always succeed best, as they experience no 
checks. Much of the success of grafting, however, depends on the state of the 
weather ; if the heat prevails so as to keep the sap flowing, every healthy graft, 
well fitted, will succeed ; if not, they may perish before the sap rises. 

669 in p. 297. — A species of grafting I think you have not noticed may be deno- 
minated bud-grafting, and is the best for most evergreens, as daphnes, &c. When 
the stock has begun to grow vigorously cut the head ofi", and, making an incision in 
the bark a few inches down, open it on both sides, the same as for budding ; prepare 
the graft without a tongue, and insert the lower part as you would a bud, leaving 
the herbaceous growing top green above. Soft succulent evergreens in which the 
bark opens freely will do better in this way than any other. 

696 in p. 308. — Much of the success of budding depends on the stock and bud 
growing vigorously, to supply the juices or cambium causing the imion to take 
place ; and allowing the bark to separate easily from the wood, so as to prevent 
laceration and bruising of the vessels in separating them. If the bark does not fly 
up freely from the stock, when the handle of the knife is inserted, it is not likely 
the bud will succeed ; and the same if the shield of the bud does not part freely 
from its wood ; if either of them has commenced ripening, or if the sap has not 
begun to run or flow, the labour will be in vain. In order to insure the cut being 
smooth, and no laceration of the bark of the shield taking place, the best of all 
methods (especially for such barks as the cherry and plum, which will not bear 
handling, and are very apt to spoil) is to mark the size of the shield intended, all 
round the bud with the point of the knife, cutting into the wood, and then intro- 
ducing the thumb at the side of the bud, and raising it off with a gentle squeeze. 
If the shoot is growing vigorously, it will spring out, without any difficulty, so clean 
and smooth on the edges, as greatly to facilitate the success of the operation. By 
the common method, if the bark is much handled, the shield of the bud is apt to be 
spoiled at the edges before insertion. 

703 in p. 311.— In transplanting deciduous trees before the leaves are fallen, it 
is found in practice that the shoots are not ripened, and die back often to a consi- 
derable distance, in the same manner as if the leaves had been destroyed by early 
frost. The young fibres, also, will protrude spongioles more quickly in the spring 



APPENDIX. 



703 



from the fibre tliat has been well ripened, than from that lifted before I'ipened. It 
can only be when the distance of removal is very short, and the plants very small, 
and lifted with the earth adhering to the roots, that the transplanting of deciduous 
plants in autumn, before ripe, can be attended with any advantage. In the 
nurseries, we have great experience of lifting and shoughing immense quantities of 
deciduous plants, and experience must say on this head, that any process of growth 
which may be going on in the interior of the plant during whiter has very little if any 
outward appearance. Unless the winter is more than ordinarily mild, the spongioles 
are never seen to protrude, nor the buds to swell, till the spring begins to advance. 
Such as gooseberries, cherries, thorns, bu'ch, larch, &c., may begin in February 
or March ; beech, oaks, apples, &c., are later, and seldom begin to show much 
before April or May. Even the mezereon, which often flowers in February, is 
seldom found to protrude new roots befoi-e that period. Of course the period will 
vary as to localities ; some soils and situations are more than a month earlier than 
others, within very shoi-t distances. Autumn planting is preferable where the soil 
is dry, as it washes the soil closer to the root ; where the soil is clayey, and the 
weather soft at planting time, it gets into a state of puddle and rots the roots in 
winter ; and, unless the weather is dry at planting time in autumn, such soils had 
better be deferred till spring. Quarters of young trees planted in autumn will 
stand all winter without the appearance of failure ; and yet, when the spring 
drought sets in, will fail nearly as much as spring-planted ones, showing that very 
little has been done by the plant towards establishing itself in the ground during 
winter. (Autumn is considered decidedly best in the climate of London.) 

717, in P' 321. — According to a table made out by Mr. Robert Thompson, and 
published in Lindley's Theory of Horticulture, the atmospheric moisture for the 
different months of the year 1831, is as under: — 





a d 








WIN 


D. 








6 1 

§ 3 




% S 


North 


N. East_ 


East. 


S. East, 


South 


S. West. 




N. West. 


a; to 


January 


31-6 


882 


893 


989 


1000 


982 


1000 


983 


1000 


966 


February . 


39-0 


815 


657 


992 


1000 


963 


874 


804 


1000 


888 


March . . 


39-0 


815 


688 


752 


1000 


913 


846 


846 


1000 


857 


April . . 


53-2 


747 


778 


870 


775 


711 


846 


752 


902 


797 


May . . . 


60-0 


718 


687 


574 


767 


798 


1000 


752 


651 


743 


June 


57-5 


721 


572 


574 


767 


798 


664 


707 


673 


684 


July . . . 


57-5 


721 


703 


662 


767 


798 


750 


684 


599 


710 


August . . 


64-8 


773 


836 


690 


767 


776 


724 


666 


826 


757 


September . 


566 


907 


1000 


723 


767 


813 


853 


761 


905 


841 


October 


56-6 


907 


1000 


1000 


904 


885 


862 


939 


905 


925 


November . 


56-6 


907 


1000 


1000 


1000 


980 


938 


940 


938 


962 


December . 


39-0 


971 


920 


1000 


1000 


980 


939 


986 


1000 


974 



N. 



724 in p. 325. — In order to make sure that the lowest extremity, or root, of the 
plant should be most pressed, as you very judiciously request, (technically, it is 
called in the nurseries fastened,) it is necessary that the point of the dibber should 
be so introduced into the ground, as that it will be nearer the plant at the root than 
at the surface, the line of its direction inclining at a slight angle towards the plant. 
When the line of direction of the dibber points from the plant, they are fastened 
only at the surface, and the roots are not at all fixed in the soil. This is a very 
material matter to attend to, where much dibbing is practised. It is easier for the 
operators to push the dibber from the plant, and they require to be watched. The 
ik z z 2 



704 



APPENDIX. 



plants dibbed in the wrong way may be easily detected by giving them a slight pull, 
when they will be found to draw up easily, while those properly fastened at the 
roots retain their hold. If dry weather succeed the operation, almost all of those 
fastened at the surface only will die. Trees planted with the dibber are best for 
plantmg out again, as the roots are found spread out equally on both sides, while 
those trench- planted with the spade are found to have the roots all on one side, 
from the manner they are laid in, and the ground being beat back with the spade 
in the act of cutting the trench ; they are generally also bent in the root, when the 
trench is sloped to make the plants lie, which facilitates the work but hurts the 
plant. 

730, in p. 326. — Sha)iing a tree up at the time of being planted, to settle the 
soil about the roots, is a very bad practice ; it draws the roots from their proper 
position, and, when the tree is again let down m its proper place, they are bent in 
an unnatural manner, and the throwing up of suckers is the consequence. — H. C. O. 

735, i7i p. 328. — In watering box edgings, &c., newly planted in dry weather, it 
is of great moment when the earth is trod firmly to the roots, and before levelling 
on the remainder of the earth, to saturate the soil completely, all round the roots, 
with water, with an unsparing hand, and then finish by spreading the dry soil 
above. When water is poured on the surface of the soil in dry weather, the deluge 
of water runs the surface of the soil into a paste, which again hardens by the sun 
into a cake, obstructing thus the free entrance of the atmosphere into the soil, 
without which no plant will thrive. When straw or moss, or any of the other 
articles you mention, is spread on the surface, it obviates this fault. Where this 
cannot be done, it is better to open holes in the soil, or pare up a portion of the 
surface, saturating the soil below, and then adding the dry soil when the moisture 
begins to subside. One such watering will be better than ten surface waterings, 
which often do more harm than good. Where none of these plans can be adopted, 
the direct beams of the sun should be kept from the surface, by a covering open at 
the ends for shade. 

740, in p. 330. — Such bare-rooted plants as white-broom, double-flowering whins, 
some pines and oaks, &c., which are very difficult to transplant and remove, are 
found to succeed better by being nursed in pots ; but the roots have acquu-ed such 
a tendency of matting together, and twining round one another, that it is a long 
time after planting before they shoot away freely again into the soil ; and till this 
is done the growth will not be vigoi'ous. The fibres may be parted again, but the 
roots have got a tendency to matting they do not recover for some time ; and part- 
ing the ball destroys in some measure the capability of being easily transplanted. 
It should only be resorted to with scarce and valuable plants or shrubs, not trees. 

752 in p. 336. — One of the specific principles of pruning is also the stimulus 
given to vitaUty. When the leading branch of a small tree, which, perhaps, has 
not been growing well, but has got the roots fully established, is cut back to one 
bud, not only is the rush of sap which should have supplied the whole buds diverted 
into the one, and the shoot made thus more vigorous, but the vitality of the tree 
has acquired an impetus that it did not formei'ly possess. Fi'om a lazy slow- 
growing plant it has been converted into one of a quick, healthy, vigorous growth, 
a stimulus is given to the roots also to increase, and the tree is entirely reno- 
vated. The benefit is lasting, not temporary, and will continue, if circumstances 
are favourable, and no check of bad soil or bad weather ensues to counteract its 
vigour. It is thus that the forester cuts back his oak plants in the forest, after 



APPENDIX. 



705 



being a few years planted, and trains a single shoot from the bottom, knowing well 
that the vigour of this one shoot will be lasting ; that the impetus given to the 
growth of the tree will continue ; and that, in a few years, the cut over tree will 
be many times larger than those allowed to stand uncut. It is thus that nursery- 
men increase the vigour of their young plants by pruning ; and that gardeners, 
when pruning for wood, cut farther back than when pruning for fruit. 

758 in p. 338 & 768 in p. 341. — If the tops of the shoots of forest trees are 
pinched off in time, and proper attention paid to the plantation from its commence- 
ment, the contending large arms being converted into small side shoots, there will 
be little need for pruning at all, and skill will be of more consequence than labour. 
It is shortening-iu, or fore-shortening, done in a much better and much easier way. 

761, in p. 339. — The laying-in of small shoots, in place of cutting back to naked 
branches and spurs, should be more encouraged. More distance than usual should 
be left between the leading branches, and plenty of young wood nailed in after the 
manner of peach trees. It diminishes the quantity of breast-wood, which is an 
evident practical anomaly, and serves no good purpose, being annually renewed and 
annually cut out. The growth should be much better spent in producing young 
wood and fruit, which will not require so much slashing of wood. 

767, in p. 341. — The thin layer of alburnum is the consequence of stunting rather 
than the cause. A tree may be renovated though not cut back to the collar, and 
part of the old stem with its thin alburnum left. The vigour of the new growth 
will give a thicker coating of alburnum ; though old hardened bark will not swell 
up so quickly as the new bai'k on a young shoot. 

769, in p. 342. — I have seen very fruitful trees covered every year with blossoms 
so thickly that the greater part had to be brushed off, and the trees very vigorous, 
where the outer bark had been renewed a few years before. The situations, how- 
erer were sheltered ; the practice has not been much adopted yet, and it is 
doubtful if it would suit exposed situations ; but for sheltered places it appears 
to be very effectual in renovating the vigour of old trees. It should be more 
often tried than it is. 

770, in p. 342. — It has been generally said that ringing of trees contributes to 
fruitfulness by accumulating sap ; but it is not explained how this is done. The 
wood being of more specific gravity above the ring is no proof of this, because it 
is denser from not having swelled out so much in bulk, rather than from accumula- 
tion of sap. The ring prevents, to a certain extent, the ascent as well as descent 
of the sap ; and it more probably acts by furnishing a smaller quantity of sap, v/hich 
is more easily brought into a highly elaborated or organised condition than the 
ordinary larger quantity would have been. The ring does not in the first instance 
prevent the ascent of the sap, the alburnum, its principal channel, not being 
interfered with. 

771, in p. 343.— Extent should be given to the wall-tree to exhaust itself by 
growth, and so bring on maturity. If the border is not too rich, this should be 
better than tearing off a great mass of breast-wood. More young shoots should be 
laid in, and they should be left longer at pruning-time in the strongest-growing 
sorts. In weak-growing sorts, apt to fruit, they should be encouraged with manure, 
or we may have dry mealy, in place of large succulent fruit. 

772, in p. 343. — It is not clear how disleafiug will assist a tree to throw off super- 
abundant sap. Disleafing should rather prevent elaboration of the sap, and keep 
the tree fuller of crude juices. It will, however, by lessening evaporation, stop the 



706 



APPENDIX. 



rapidity of ascent, and cause less food to be absorbed by the roots, not more to be 
thrown off by the tree. In luxuriant trees it may be apt to occasion disease, 
from too much crude sap. The safest plan, I should think, to overcome super- 
abundant growth, would be to give little food, by making the border poor and dry, 
giving plenty of room to extend, and leaving the young wood long. If all these 
will not do, the next best thing would be to curtail the roots, 

774, in p. 344. — The summer pruning of pear-trees has lately been the subject 
of discussion in Gard. Chron. between Mr. Ayres and others. I do not approve of 
the breaking-do^^^l system if it could be avoided, I have seen it practised more than 
twenty years ago ; but it is unsightly, and greatly tends to obstruct the light from 
benefiting the buds at the base of the shoot, and on spurs, &c. At the same time, 
I admit there is something in it which renders it not entirely objectionable ; for 
below the breakage, fruit-buds form more readily than if the shoots were at once 
cut off. Instead, therefore, of breaking down the summer shoots of pear-trees, and 
leaving them hanging in front during a great part of summer, it would certainly 
be better to nail them between the branches — at least, all that could be bent to that 
position ; one nail would be sufficient for each shoot. After being thus secured, 
where they will occasion least shade in regard to the more permanent portions, 
the shoots could be cut half-way through with a knife about two or three inches 
from their bases. Those shoots that cannot be so trained from their being right 
ill front may be treated agreeably to the principles (1363 in p. 613) and the ample 
directions for the management of the apple-tree in 1150, p, 537 to p. 543. N. 

776, in p. 345. — Root-pruning, by curtailing a few of the largest roots, lessens 
the quantity of spongioles for a few years, and so curtails the quantity of absorbed 
and ascending sap. This being more easily elaborated and brought into the highly 
organised condition required for fruitfulness, causes the production of blossoms 
and fruit. It is the tendency, however, of cutting roots to increase roots ; and in 
a few years the greater number of small roots and the increased quantity of spon- 
gioles should, especially if heavy dressings of rotted manure are added, as recom- 
mended by some, and which should make up for the want of extension of the roots 
in quest of food, aggravate in place of remedying the luxuriance of growth. 
Pruning back all the roots of a fruit-tree may brmg the plant to something of the 
natui-e of a paradise stock, which abounds in roots, yet these being matted close 
round the stem, and not extending in quest of food, die off, and stint the growth 
from the spongioles not falling in with nutriment. If the root-pruning is renewed 
at shoi't periods, it may render this state more permanent ; but if great doses of 
manure are given, it will lessen the effect ; and if the trees are neglected to be cut 
back periodically, they will ultimately get much more luxuriant than under the 
ordinary process of management. To keep the borders poor but healthy, sweet, and 
well pulverised, and dry, by draining and elevating the plants on hillocks where 
necessary, is best. A moderate degree of extension will suffice for the plants com- 
ing to a fruitful condition, and there will be less need to resort to root-pruning, 

794, in p. 334 and 1363 in p. 613 to p. 616.— "AH fruit-bearing plants (and 
indeed all others) grown in pots, ought to be potted in soil which has not been 
sifted, and which, if not sufficiently coarse to keep it so open as to receive water 
freely, should be mixed with fragments of wood, bones, and stones, for that pur- 
pose, for supplying manure, and for retaining moisture." (P. 616.) Since the 
above was printed and published, we have been in Devonshire, and seen at Bicton, 
the seat of Lady Rolle, coarse, rooty, unsifted soil, mixed with fragments of stone, 
pebbles, and also with fi'agments of charcoal, used in every description of pot cuL 



APPENDIX. 



707 



ture, by Mr. James Barnes, and with a degree of success which, if equalled, has 
never been surpassed. Mr. Barnes has been in tlie habit of using rough, rooty, 
unsifted soil for upwards of twenty years, and of introducing a portion of charcoal 
among such soil for more than twelve years. He was led to use charcoal from 
observing, in a wood where cliarcoal had been burned, the great luxuriance of the 
weeds around the margins of the places where the charcoal heaps had been, and 
where a thin sprinkling of charcoal dust had got amongst the weeds. He got a 
basketful of this dust, and tried it first among cucumber soil. He found it 
improved the plants in strength and colour, and then began trying it with other 
soft-growing plants ; and he has continued trying it ever since with thousands of 
plants under pot culture, and with most kitchen-garden crops. Mr. Barnes finds 
the following a good plan to make a rough sort of charcoal for use in the kitchea- 
garden : — When made, it must be kept dry ; and when seed is sown in the open 
garden, the charcoal must be put into the drills along with it, at the rate of three 
or four pints of powdered charcoal to a drill of 100 feet in length. Collect a 
quantity of rubbish together, such as trimmings of bushes, cabbage and broccoli 
stalks, old pine-apple stems, and such other parts of plants as will not readily rot ; 
put these together, laying some straw beneath them, and set the straw on fire. 
The straw must be so laid, as that the fire can run into the middle of the heap. 
When the heap is completed, cover it over with short, close, moist rubbish, such 
as short grass, weeds, and earth, from the rubbish-heap, in order to keep the flame 
from flaring through at any one place for any length of time. As soon as the fire 
breaks through in a blaze, throw on more short rubbish, so as to check the flames. 
It is necessary to thrust a stake or broom -handle into the heap in diffej;ent places, 
in order to encourage the fire to burn regularly through it ; but as soon as the 
flames burst through these holes, stop them up, and make others where you think 
the heap is not burning. When it is all burned, collect the whole of the charred 
rubbish, ashes, &c., sift it through difi"erent-sized sieves, and put the sizes separately 
into old casks or boxes, keeping these boxes constantly in a di-y place. In Mr. 
Barnes's potting-shed, we observed four different sizes of charcoal (considering 
charcoal dust as one size) sods of heath-soil ; different kinds of loam ; leaf-mould ; 
pots filled with four different sizes of pebbles, from the size of a grain of wheat to 
that of the palm of the hand ; four different sizes of broken freestone ; four differ- 
ent sorts of sand ; two sizes of bone — one of half-inch pieces, and the other of bone- 
dust ; four different sizes of broken pots for draining ; different sizes of shards for 
putting over the holes of pots, previously to laying on the drainage ; a basket of 
live moss, a box of soot, and one of rotten cow-dung. — See Mr. Barnes in Gard. 
Mag. for November, 1842. 

832, in p. 388 Much of the benefit of stirring ground depends on its being 

stirred in proper weather. Dry weather, when the soil is between the wet and 
dry, and this weather likely to continue a day or two, is the best time ; and the 
mechanical texture of the soil should be such as to allow it to break pretty freely 
into small pieces, and retain that form when dried, so as not to fall down too easily 
into a powdery mass. 

833, in p. 389. — Liquid manures and top-dressings should be applied in showery 
weather. It is a loss to have them on the surface, but they do most good, espe- 
cially the volatile kinds, to growing crops ; when they are applied before the crop 
is put in, they should be pointed in with the spade or rake, or harrowed in to the 
soil in the fields. 

859, in p. 402. — The eggs of insects which are deposited on seeds may be 



708 



APPENDIX. 



destroyed by exposing the seeds in thin layers in the open air during severe frosts ; 
a practice common among seedsmen with all seeds which are above a year old. 

863j in p. 405. — When it is wished to see the fruit of young seedlings, without 
waiting till the plant comes to maturity, it may be effected by inserting a bud 
near the extremity of one of the branches of a wall-tree of the same species, 
in full bearing, and clearing away most of the other blossoms around to give it a 
fair trial. 

868 in p. 407. — The common single daisy, when brought from the fields, and 
planted in a rich soil in the garden, becomes double. I have seen even the dimi- 
nutive Sagina procumbens become double by cultivation. The improvement on 
single dahlias from cultivation in rich soil is of recent date. When any of these 
is neglected, as when the double-daisy edging is allowed to stand long and exhaust 
the soil, it gets single ; and the want of cultivation causing double dahlias and 
other flowers to assume the single state may be seen every season. An old root 
of a dahlia allowed to stand on the same piece of ground, without manuring, and 
to accumulate a number of stems, seldom produces full flowers. Mr. ISlunro's is 
an instance in point ; but it is not two kinds of sap, but a more highly organised 
state, and a crude unelaborated state, of the same sap. When the quantity of sap 
is great, as in young and vigorous plants, flowers are seldom at all produced, till 
the process of growing, by extending the system of leaves and branches, has pro- 
duced the proper balance. The plant, which formerly had more sap than its 
chemical and vital powers could elaborate into the highly organised state required 
for producing fruit, having now acquired more strength, becomes fruitful ; and, 
exhausted by its fruit-bearing, generally continues fertile, unless deluged again with 
too much food, in the shape of manure. Such plants as fruit-trees in which the 
fruiting state, or state of maturity, is brought about with difficulty, at a lengthened 
period of years, are seldom found to produce double flowers. In those plants, 
however, in which the flowering state is produced annually, double flowers are 
more frequent. The different parts of the flower also differ as to the state of 
organisation in the food required to feed them. Calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils, 
are only more highly organised states of leaves, or what would have been leaves ; 
and each, in the order they are mentioned, continues to be more highly organised 
than the preceding. In the ordinary mature state of the plant, with a sufficiency 
of properly organised food, the germs of these parts of the flower will be produced 
in the normal manner ; but if an over-supply of food, or of water to carry the food 
to the absorbent vessels of the root, should ensue, the condition of the food may be 
altered ; from a highly organised condition it may be lowered nearer to the compa- 
ratively crude state requu-ed for leaves. In this state it is obvious that the germs 
which would have started in the form of pistils and stamens may be lowered, for 
want of proper food, to the inferior condition of petals, or even of leaves. When 
the branch is highly gorged with unelaborated sap, the pistil may even again 
assume the state of a terminal bud, and lead away a young shoot from the centre 
of the flower, as is often seen to be the case in roses and other flowers. The above 
appears to be the theory of double flowers most consonant to experience, it matters 
not whose it may be ; and it agrees with all observation, that a luxuriant supply of 
food is the cause of this monstrosity. It is also apparent, that, the farther we 
reduce the supply of food, it will be the more easy again to gorge the plant which 
has been starved, and produce monstrosity. If the seed has an extra vigour of 
itself, it may produce so large an absorbent system of roots as may enable it, hi a 
rich state of the soil, to gorge the flower and produce monstrosity, from an ordi- 



APPENDIX. 



709 



nary state of the plant. It will be found, however, more easy in practice to gorge 
a stinted plant than to luxui'iate the ordinary state of one ; and hence the most 
successful cultivators of double stocks are those who grow them first in a starved 
condition, and then luxuriate them in a very rich soil ; or stint the plant by keep- 
ing the seed for some years, provided it is only strong enough to grow. I have 
seen seed kept till it was thought to be too old for growing, produce almost every 
plant with double flowers ; while the very same seed, a few years before, had 
rarely a double floAver among the lot. This will be found a more easy method 
than to produce the same effect by extra- vigorous seeds, and is that most adopted 
in practice. 

869, in p. 408. — In beds of ranunculus flowers, it is easy to pick out the varie- 
ties recently raised from seed, from the older varieties, by the greater vigour of the 
plant. The older varieties of the dahlia, whether from neglect or decay, are not 
so vigorous as they were at coming out. It is the case with newly raised seedling 
carnations, and flowers in general. The Lancashire gooseberries are never found 
to maintain the weights they had originally, when a few years from seed and the 
plant at maturity. Seedling potatoes have the leaves much more pulpy and vigorous 
than the old varieties. It is evident that circumstances will affect these, and 
that sometimes, from better soil, shelter, manure, &c., the case may be changed, 
and the older varieties may sometimes be most vigorous ; but in general it will 
be found the rule holds good, that the newest raised seedlings possess most 
vigour. 

911, in p. 433. — Whatever mode of stirring the surface be adopted, every 
facility should be given to the admission of atmospheric air, heat, and moisture, 
and the bottom made as dry as possible by draining. The great quantities of 
manure given to border crops of vegetables furnish perhaps the most fruitful source 
of sponginess in the wood. 

914, in p. 434. — The land in gardens is generally too rich for potatoes to be well 
ripened and dry ; more tubers are produced of a large size, than the leaves and 
light are able to ripen and fill with starch. 

954, in p. 452. — I believe the assumption is correct that the vine when forced is 
not calculated to sustain uninjured a temperature much below 40**. I have had 
vines under my care greatly injured by being exposed to the rigours of winter, and 
I have known several instances of its happening to others. — H. C. O. 

958, in p. 454. — It is most vexatious to find a fruit tree has been planted untrue to 
name, but in the ease of the vine it is easily remedied, by grafting the sort re- 
quired upon it ; this will save several years, as a vine, if grafted on a good strong 
stock, should be in full bearing the third year H. C. O. 

959, in p. 454, and 1283, in p. 585. — I cannot subscribe to the practice of de- 
priving a vine of a portion of its leaves when the fruit is ripening ; if the roots are 
not at fault a deficiency of colour in the grape more frequently arises from a 
deficiency of air, or by the plant being too heavily cropped, than by being shaded. 
I have seen grapes attain the darkest colour densely shaded by leaves ; and, on 
the contrary, I have seen them attain only a grisly red colour when light and the 
sun's rays were admitted to the utmost extent possible. — H. C. O. 

990, in p. 473.— It is there said—" The roots should be well supplied with water 
before the fruit begins to ripen off." I think both the peach and cherry tree 
oftentimes lose their fruit by injudicious watering ; both at the time of the settmg 
and stoning of the fruit, water should be administered very sparingly ; this I con- 
sider a very material point to be attended to.—//. C. O. 



710 



APPENDIX. 



1032, in p. 486. — The principal point to be attended to, in order to keep the old 
branches furnished with young shoots, is, occasionally ringing or notching them ; 
and keeping the whole of the young shoots which the shoots so treated throw 
but stopped at every third or fourth joint throughout the summer. — H. C. O. 

1115, in p. 525. — In Russia and the North of Germany mushrooms are fre- 
quently grown in shelves in a cowhouse or stable, in which also other articles are 
forced.— (G. M. vol. vii, p. 653). 

♦ 

1153, inp. 544. — Canker in fruit trees, like the cancer in the human body, appears 
to be owing to a diseased state of the sap or blood, producing morbid concretions, 
of an inferior degree of organisation to the tissue by which they are surrounded, 
which they live on, and destroy, like parasites, till vitality is arrested. Plants 
being a congeries of separate distinct beings, which have each an independent exist- 
ence of themselves, may be more easily renovated by amputation and removal of 
the exciting causes ; but in these, also, the sap is affected, as it breaks out in 
ulcerous morbid sores often, when to all appearance removed. Willdenow 
characterises it as produced by an acrid corroding gum, caused by the acid fer- 
mentation of excess of sap from low-lying damp gardens. Others have thought it 
to be of a fungoid nature, propagating itself as above stated, and living on the 
healthy tissue, which it disorders and destroys. It is evidently aggravated, if 
not produced, by a bad climate, and removed by a good one ; as trees that are very 
apt to canker in the open gi'ound are generally free of it on good walls. It is also 
produced by a too rich damp state of the soil, as it is often removed by remedying 
this, and laying the ground dry and sweet about the roots. It is also constitutional ; 
as some sorts are liable to be hurt, while others, in the same circumstances, appear 
not susceptible. Climate, and food, and constitution will, therefore, all require to 
be attended to in guarding against this pernicious evil. Amputation, and cutting 
away all the diseased portion, should be resorted to on its first appearance ; a neg- 
lected wound may even bring on this morbid condition of the tissue. Vitality 
requires to be kept continually in action, especially during the active period of 
growth ; if a stagnation is brought about by cold weather, it may form a favourable 
state for the development and growth of the parasitical morbid cancerous state of 
the tissue. If food is in excess, or any particular portion of the food, it may thus 
become deleterious (most minerals found in the soil are needed in smaller or larger 
quantities, it is only excess that renders them deleterious), and the vitality of the 
tree may not be able to correct it, till, by accumulation, it forms a diseased can, 
cerous state of the tissue : the more weak and languid the constitution, the more 
apt it will be to succumb, and the more necessary will be the stimulus of heat to 
enable it to overcome. The exudation of gum in stone fruit is unattended, to the 
same extent, with the cancerous morbid state of parts exhibited by the apple and 
pear ; but the disease appears to exist also in the sap, and to be ramified through 
the branches, in the same way as canker, as may be often seen on cutting in to 
arrive at its source. The small unripened shoots appear most liable, as being most 
tender. The bark and alburnum appear first to be infected in these young shoots, 
especially in the peach ; the young wood of which, being delicate from want of 
ripening, appears unable to stand the severity of spring, gets discoloured in blotches, 
and gum begins to exude. It would appear here that the disease arises from im- 
perfectly-ripened tissue getting injured by severity of the weather, and affording a 
nidus for it. In other cases, however, the gum begins to exude from parts to all 
appearance sound and perfect, as if caused by a plethoric diseased state of the sap. 
It is probable that, as in the cancer in the human body, which may be brought on 



APPENDIX. 71 1 

from a wound neglected or a diseased state of the blood or constitution, so likewise, 
in plants, the same disease may be brought about by different causes ; as in the 
analogous fungoid disease of mildew on the leaves, which, it appears, may be brought 
on by excess of moisture or excess of drought, producing a diseased state of the 
stomata of the leaf, and a nidus for the fungus. 

1168, in p. 549. — If the system of training noticed in this section, or something 
like it, were more generally practised, there would be less need to complain of 
breast- wood. On standard trees there is no occasion to go through forms of pruning 
to produce spurs ; and, if the side branches were more encouraged in wall- trees, 
we should have shorter shoots and natural spurs, and the tree would be kept full 
of young wood to the centre, from the abundance of young shoots to renew any 
that were getting naked. There should be greater distance between the leading 
shoots, and abundance of side shoots laid in to fill the wall ; though they might not 
all be got mathematically arranged, the system of leaves and roots would be better 
balanced, the continual excitement to produce which causes the great abundance of 
breast-wood. If the greater part of this were nailed in, the tendency to produce 
fresh breast-wood next year would be checked, and the tree become fruitful on the 
small branches ; better fruit would be produced ; and the tree bemg full of young 
wood, any part of it could be renovated at pleasure. 

1214, in p. 561. — The Glenton Green, Manchester Red, Hedgehog, and Honey 
varieties, are worth adding to this section. 

1217, in p. 562. — Lancashire Lad is the best bearer and best flavoured here 

better with us than the most of them you name, and deserves a star. Shakspeare, 
Sir Francis Burdett, Triumphant, Foxhunter, Grand Turk, and Tarragon, among 
the reds ; Rattlesnake, Sally Gunner, Scorpion, Prince of Orange, China Orange, 
and Yellow Lion, among the yellows ; Favourite, Bang Europe, Lord Crewe, 
and Troubler, among the greens ; Lily of the Valley, Bonny Lass, White Lion, 
Sheba Queen, and Sally Miller, among the whites, and not in your lists, have 
been all proven here of great value both for bearing and eating. Some with 
higher pretensions, which have come out later, are not proven yet. 

1223, in p. 565. — Having been much troubled with caterpillars on our goose- 
berry stools in the nursery, we have tried lime, soda, potash, salt, soap-suds, and 
tobacco. The tobacco infusion will kill them, but is very apt to injure the foliage ; 
the salt has the same fault, but we could not perceive that it or any of the 
others had much effect ; when the lime was put on, however, they crowded away, 
twisted together like a cable-rope, down the stem, as fast as they could, and took 
the direction for the nearest bush, at an angle, as they were planted in the quin- 
cunx form, and as straight as if they had been guided by a line. The hellebore 
powder we found the most deadly of any, and it does no injury to the leaves. When 
it is long kept, or has got damp, it is apt to lose its pungency, and will do no good : 
but if in the pungent, acrid state of fresh-ground powder, which may be known 
by its effect on the nosti'ils, it will not fail to kill all the caterpillars it reaches. 
They are on the under side of the leaf, and the applications tell best when thrown 
upwards. We prefer to throw it upwards in the state of dry powder, by the finger 
and thumb : a small quantity, like a pinch of snuff, if dry, flies off like vapour 
from the fingers, and may thus be directed where any are seen, the shoots being 
held up to expose the back of the leaf ; there is least waste of powder in this way 
when the caterpillars are not very plenty. Others throw it up with a puff-bellows, 
the mouth round, like a dredge-box j and others dust it on from above with a 



712 



APPENDIX. 



dredge-box. This takes less trouble, though it requires more of the powder ; and 
the leaves should be damped, to retain what does not fall on the insects till they 
reach it. If some are in the state of eggs and others of lar^-ee, the application 
may require to be repeated ; but will not fail if the hellebore i^ fresh ground and 
pungent, and reaches the insects. The powder insinuates itself between the hairs 
of the insect, and reaches the tender skin more readily than water ; it should be 
well toastedj if damp weather, to allow of its di\-iding well. 

1234, in p. 569. — The raspberry is well adapted for forcing, and is worthy of 
more general cultivation in forcing-houses ; a few old stools taken up and planted 
against the back wall of a peach-house, at the time of commencing to force, Avill, 
with moderate care, furnish many dishes of fruit. — H. C. O. 

126", iji p. 5S1, and 1342 in p. 606 In the neighbourhood of New York the 

cherry tomato is cultivated and preserved as a sweetmeat. At fb.*st this sweet- 
meat was supposed to be made of the \\inter cheiTv, as stated in 1267 ; but it has 
since been found to be a small round tomato, 

1379, in p. 624. — Mr. Barnes informs us that there is a late variety of cauliflower 
in cultivation by some market-gardeners quite distinct from the eai'ly variety, 
though it is seldom to be met with in the seed-shops, ]\lr. Barnes was formerly 
in practice in some of the principal market-gardens about London ; an immense 
advantage with reference to the management of the kitchen -garden of a private 
gentleman. 

1462, in p. 659. — Some here are in the habit of planting Strasbui'gh and other 
common onions, early in spring, in the same way as they do potato onions. When 
any flower-stem appears, they pinch out the centre, and find the roots of the common 
onion, treated in this way, to offset and produce an aggregation of bulbs nearly, if 
not equally, as well as the potato variety, which resembles the globe, but appears 
to have acquu-ed the habit of not running to seed. 

1463, in p. 660. — In deep alluvial loam, the oniou plants grow most luxuriantly, 
but are more apt, especially in wet seasons, to produce what are called scullions ; 
the foliage being strong and thick at the neck, but the root made soft and ill- 
ripened, and will not keep. It has been found advantageous sometimes to roll or 
tread well such land ; but in the general run of seasons here, when the climate is 
moist, soil of a rather clayey nature is found to suit best, and to produce the foliage 
small at the neck, and the bulb round, protuberated, and well ripened. A thin 
crop also is more apt to produce most scullions, and it is safer to have the crop 
rather to the thick side, as they are found to increase less in foliage and more in 
root, and though the onions are not so large, the weight of the crop is more, and 
keeps better. Much of the tendency to produce thick necks flows, as in turnips, 
from not picking the roots well in saving the seed. The plants that have small 
foliage, and handsome well swelled-out roots, are most hkely to produce their like 
agam from seed, and much depends on the carefulness of the person who saves the 
seed. Here, where great breadths of onions are annually sown, the seed imported 
from Holland from careful agents there is allowed to give the best crops. Soil 
that can be broken small to a fine surface requh'es les'^ seed. Clayey ground in- 
tended for onions should be thro^^•n up rough in January or February to get the 
frost, which allows of its forming a fine covering for the seed, and thus ensures a 
better braird. On light di\v soils, near the coast, the practice of sowing in autumn 
is found to succeed best, as the onions fail in the drought of summer when spring- 
sown. The autumn-'oQwn ones did but live also last season, being too dry for small 



APPENDIX. 713 

crops. The broadcast is the most prevalent practice here, though some who have 
drilled them in light land approve most of that way. Nitrate of soda has been very 
beneficial to the onions here this dry season, partly, perhaps, from its deliquescent 
nature. We have often seen soot produce a powerful elfect on onion crops. 

1463, m p. 660.— Mr. Barnes (see note to par. 749) thins and hoes all his seed- 
ling crops with short-handed goose-necked hoes, with square-edged blades of 
different sizes, but chiefly of two inches in width. He uses two hoes at a time, 
one in each hand. He never has weeds pulled up among seedling crops, but 
always attacks them in the seed-leaf state with these hoes. 

1470, in p. 662. — The maggot has been more than usually destructive among 
onions this season. Perhaps the drought, producing a sickly state of the roots, 
attracts the fly to lay its eggs, as other maggots do on substances commencing to 
putrify. Their instinct is strong, and may lead them to detect this state of the 
root before perceptible above ground. Some carrots we observed this year, at 
the time they commenced to droop, we found that in those much hui't in the roots 
the maggots abounded ; in those less hurt, fewer maggots ; some of them sticking 
to the outside, and commencing to enter ; while in the roots, on which a few brown 
spots here and there were all the symptoms of disease, we find many destitute of 
maggots altogether, and in whole sound roots found none. The thinning of carrots 
very often induces maggots, if done in dry weather. We observed this season beds 
dressed with nitrate of soda, and growing healthy, alongside of others not dressed 
and unhealthy; and the fly, if not guided by instinct, might have spoiled the healthy 
as well as unhealthy roots, which it did not. That the fibres first fail in the onion, 
and that the maggot enters from the bottom of the onion at the fibres, and eats 
upwards, is the opinion of all here ; no trace of entering from the neck of the stem 
can be perceived, and its course upwards appears visible in the eaten-away decayed 
appearance of the root there. The maggots are perhaps more the eff'ect than the 
cause of bad growth. 

1481, in p. 665. — As corroborative of your ideas on asparagus, I have often seen 
it produced strongest where pieces of the garden were imperfectly drained, and 
rather marshy. Mr. Cuthill says, " I believe it has been proved that asparagus likes 
as much moisture as can well be given it. The best asparagus I have ever seen 
was at Mr. Bird's, a mai'ket-gardener at Ipswich, where the beds were under 
water nearly all the winter, and he always cut asparagus sooner than his neigh- 
bours." (G. M. vol. xii. p. 597.) 

1363, in p. 613. — If the theory that ten buds give rise to a hundred, and these last 
to one thousand, and so on as long as sap towards new formations is undiminished^ 
be taken in connexion with the sentence before, that the more a young tree grows 
the more it is capable of growing, it would seem to give the idea that the growth of 
trees, if properly fed, is unlimited, which, I think, is not intended. If a tree is 
disleafed and disbudded when young, it will undoubtedly disable and retard growth, 
and precocity may thus be induced, and perhaps disease also. If the young shoots 
are allowed to ripen, and are cut back, the tree will push again more strongly next 
season, the vital force being stimulated by the eff'ort of the tree to re-place ; an 
activity is communicated to growth, which continues for some time, which if annually 
renewed and properly fed at the roots is apt to produce immense quantities of young 
wood without fruit. The pruning of the young roots has a tendency to increase 
them also. The production of one hundred buds from ten, and of one hundi'ed from 
one thousand, will only continue, however, so long as the force of sap to neiv forma- 



714 



APPENDIX. 



tions is undiminished. There is a period in all trees when this force is so diminished, 
that small short shoots only are produced, and this is the period of maturity or 
fruitfulness. This period may no doubt be hastened by disbudding and disleafing, 
but is apt to engender disease ; it is like taking away a part of the stomach and 
lungs, to hinder the development of absorbent lacteals, and is dangerous. A safer 
way is to cramp the development of the whole, by limiting the food, by making 
the soil poor. The allowing the border to lie unstirred has partly the same effect. 
The action between the heat, moisture, and gases of the atmosphere on the roots is 
diminished, and in vigorous growing varieties, and rich borders, is beneficial by 
impoverishing. The best way of all, however, is to allow the tree to come to 
maturity, by laying in as much young wood, and giving as much extent as requisite ; 
and the period will arrive sooner or later, according to the inherent vigour of the 
variety, the richness of the soil, and warmth and light of the climate, when short 
shoots only will be produced, and these fruitful. That giving extent will moderate 
vigour cannot certainly be doubted, otherwise there would be no limit to the size 
of trees. Though, perhaps, not a mere evolution of parts already formed, which is 
an obscure subject, and one which will perhaps never be in our power to resolve, 
yet there is certainly a limit to expansive power. It may be, and undoubtedly is, 
greater in favourable than unfavourable situations, but has always yet been limited, 
as a certain extent can be named which trees have not yet been found to exceed ; 
whether from an inherent limit in the power itself, or the circumstances in which it 
is placed, is likely to be for ever incapable of determination. 

1384, in p. 630. — In di'y sandy poor soils, the cabbage-plants are found to club 
at the roots, fully as readily as in good loamy soils. Where there is not a suffi- 
ciency of plants without club at the roots, it has been found beneficial to cut out 
the protuberance, and destroy the insect. A sifting of soot and coal ashes on the 
surface has been generally found to aid in preventing the attacks of these insects, 
and also of the turnip beetle. 

1406, in p. 639. — In this quai'ter of the country great failures in the crop of 
potatoes have occurred, to guard against which the best method is to plant the 
ground as moist as possible, and use well-rotted manure and vigorous unripe sets ; 
drought in planting-time long continued in spring having been found most prejudi- 
cial. See R. Symburn, "On the Culture and Preservation of Potatoes," in 
Gard. Mag. vol. xvi. p. 20. 

1411, in p. 642. — The old everlasting potato (a small round sort) introduced by 
the Messrs. Falla, of Newcastle, and the later introduced small white kidney, 
called Fairy, have both the same properties as the above, of Messrs, Chapmans, 
producing great swarms of small thin-skinned waxy potatoes which, being covered 
with haulm, afford a dish of young potatoes through the whole winter. 

1415, in p. 644. — Potatoes that are greened possess more inherent vigour in the 
sets : the potato is a bud, or collection of buds, on an under-ground stem ; and a 
greened one has as much more vigour as the stem of an unblanched plant would 
possess over that of a blanched one. The young shoot will rise stronger, and the 
greened skin will not be so easily affected by weather. 



A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. 



The paragraphs are referred to ; not the pages. 

The nature of this work precludes the necessity of giving a very copious calen- 
dar of operations ; still it would be incomplete without one : we shall therefore 
briefly state what should be done in each month, and in most cases refer to the 
paragraphs in the body of the work for the practical details. 

JANUARY. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMEMT. 

Artichokes : secure from frost, if not yet done (1495). Asparagus : plant on a 
hotbed twice in the month, to keep up a succession (1096). Carrot : sow on a 
slight hotbed (1106). Cauliflower : sow in a box, and place in a forcing-house, if 
the autumn-sowing failed (1379). Celery : protect during severe weather (1518). 
Cucumbers : prepare a seed-bed for sowing next month ; renew the linings of the 
fruiting-beds ; keep them made up above the surface of the soil in the frame 
(1061). French Beans : sow in pots for forcing (1104). Mint SLiidi other herbs : 
take up and plant in pots or boxes, and place in a forcing-house (1110). Potatoes: 
plant on a slight hotbed (1100). Radishes: sow on a slight hotbed, or in the same 
frame with potatoes (1108). Rhubarb: take up old roots, and plant in boxes or 
pots ; place them in a forcing or mushroom house (1098). 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT. 

Pinery : maintain a temperature in the fruiting-house of from 75° to 85° by day, 
and from 68° to 72° by night (946) ; succession-house, from 5° to 8° lower; nursing 
pits about 60o. Vinery: commence forcing for fruit in June; begin with a 
temperature of 50^ (969) ; gradually increase it the first month to 60" min, (971). 
Peach-house : commence forcing for fruit in May ; begin with a temperature of 
50° (998). Cherry-house : commence forcing with a temperature of 45" min. by 
night (1021). Figs : plants in pots may now be placed in a vinery (1034). Straw- 
berries : take plants in pots into a forcing-house or pit twice in the month (1090). 
Prune the Apple (1149), Pear (1168), Plum (1207), Cherry (1192), Gooseberry 
(1220), Currant (1228), and Raspberry (1232), if the weather is not severe. Nail 
and tie wall and espalier trees (786). 

FEBRUARY. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

Beans : plant in boxes for turning out next month, also sow in the open ground 
(1392). Cabbage : sow on a warm border (1372). Carrots : sow on a warm 
border (1429). Cauliflowers : prick out those sown in boxes last month on a 
slight hotbed (1379) ; sow on a sheltered border (1379). Celery : sow in boxes, 
and place in a forcing-house for first crop (1515). Cucumbers: plant from the 
seed-bed, and afterwards keep the heat by night 70° to 75°, and by day 75° to 85°. 
French Beans: earth up former sowings, and sow again (1104). Lettuce: sow 
on a warm border (1505). Mushrooms: make beds and spawn at 80° (1114). 
Onions : sow in boxes, and place in a forcing-house, for planting out in April 
Peas: sow in boxes, and in the open ground (1388). Potatoes: plant on a slight 



716 



A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. 



hotbed and ou a warm border (1408). Radishes : sow ou a warm border (U44). 
Sea-kale: cover up (1097). Spinach: sow 1450. Turnips: sow (1420). 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT, 

Pinery (946) : give air in mild weather, slightly sprinkle the plants on fine 
mornings. Vinery (971) : increase the heat as there stated for the preceding 
month. Peach-house : cease syringing when the trees are in flower (998). Cherry- 
house (1021): give air at every favourable opportunity. Fig-house: commence 
forcing where the trees are planted in the borders (1033). Melons : sow seed for 
early crop (1037). Strawberries : take into the forcing-house for succession 
(1092). Fruit-trees of all sorts may be planted if the weather is open (1363). 
Prune and nail fruit-trees (786). Dig fruit quarters (928). 

MARCH. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

Artichokes : make new plantations (1495). Asparagus : make new beds (1481) ; 
top-dress the latter end of the month (1482). Basil : sow (1574.) Beans : plant 
twice m the month (1392.) Beet : sow (1435). Cabbage : fill up vacancies in the 
autumn plantations. Capsicums : sow seed (1345). Carrots : sow the main crop 
(1429). Herbs: make new beds. Horse Radish : make new plantations (1547). 
Jerusalem Artichokes: plant early in the month (1418). Sow Leek (1473), 
Lettuce : prick out on a slight hotbed those sown last month in boxes. Mush- 
rooms : make beds for summer use (1114). Oyiions : sow the main crops (1463). 
Parsley: sow, if neglected last month (1534). Parsneps : sow the main crop 
(1434). Peas : sow twice ; earth up early crops. Potatoes : plant main crop 
(1408). Radishes: sow twice (1444). Sow ^'a/^i/y (1438). Savoys: sow begin- 
ning and end (1376), Scorzonera : sow (1437). Shallots and Garlic : plant the 
beginning of the month (1474, 1475). Sow Spinach (1450). Turnips: sow on a 
sheltered border (1420). 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT. 

Pinery : pot succession plants (944) ; top-dress fruiting plants. Vinery : see 
Diary (971). Peach-house: remove all foreright shoots from the trees (995); 
when the fruit is set, syringe them (1011). Cherry-house : increase the heat after 
the bloom is set and stoned (1024). Fig-house : water freely, both at the root and 
over-head (1033). Melons: plant out from last month's sowing (1042). Straw- 
berries: give air freely while in flower (1092). Prune and nail Peaches and 
Nectarines, and afterwards protect them with nets or other covering (1307). 
Finish planting fruit-trees. Graft fruit-trees (650). 

APRIL. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

Beans : plant twice, and earth up the early crop (1392). Sow Borecole (1378). 
Broccoli: sow the winter varieties (1380). Brussels Sprouts: sow, beginning 
of the month (1377). Cabbage : prick out the February sowing (1372). Cardoons: 
sow for early crop (1499.). Cauliflowers : plant out those wintered in frames 
(1379). Celery: prick out the early-so\Mi on a slight hotbed (1515). Cucumbers: 
sow to plant out on ridges (1082). French Beans : sow, the beginning of the 
month (1397). Lettuce: fill up the autumn plantations (1505), Onions: trans- 
plant the autumn sowing (1465) ; and also those sown in boxes in February. 
Peas : sow twice in the month ; earth up and stick early crops (1390). Radishes ; 
sow twice in the month. Sow Spinach first and third week. Turnips : thin, and 
sow the latter end (1421). Vegetable Marrow: sow, the middle of the month (1341). 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT. 

Pinery : add fresh tan between the pots of fruiting plants, and sprinkle them 



A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. 7^7 
over-head frequeutly (946) ; pot suckers that have been wintered in dung beds (933). 
Vinery : when the grapes are set, keep a very moist atmosphere (971), and com- 
mence thinning them immediately (1283). Peach-house: partially thin the fruit 
before stoning, afterwards thin to the quantity required to ripen off (996) ; syringe 
the trees daily in fine weather, and smoke them occasionally, to keep down 
insects (999). Cherry-house : after the fruit is stoned, give the trees a good 
root- watering (1024), which will probably be sufficient till the fruit is gathered ; 
watch narrowly for insects (1023). Fig-house : when the shoots have made three 
or four joints, stop them to cause them to produce fruit in the autumn (1032), 
Melons : allow several of the main shoots to reach the sides of the frame before 
being stopped (1037). Prmie and nail figs (1232). Disbud peaches and necta- 
rines (1301). 

MAY. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

Basil: plant on a rich sheltered border (1574). Beans: top the early crops 
(1394) ; plant twice in the month. Beet : thin to 15 inches apart. Borecole : 
prick out of the seed-bed. Broccoli : prick out those sown last month, and make 
another sowing of the winter kinds ; also Gape and Granges the last week (1380). 
Cabbage : plant out the February sowing (1372). Cauliflower : earth up and 
water with liquid manure ; take off the hand-glasses (1379). Cucumbers : prepare 
ridges for out-door crops (1082). French Beans : make sowings the first and 
last weeks (1397)- Transplant Leeks (1473). Lettuce : transplant early sowings ; 
sow twice in the month (1505). Onions : thin them to niiie inches apart (1463). 
Peas : make two so%vings. Potatoes : earth up the early crops (1412). Radishes : 
make two sowings. Spinach / sow, the middle of the month (1450) ; thin former 
sowings. Scarlet Runner : sow, beginning and middle of the month (1398). Tur- 
nips : make a so'wdng, if not done the end of last month (1421). 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT. 

Pinery : Give the plants manure- water occasionally, if fruit of a large size is 
required (952) ; keep up a high temperature during the day (945). Vinery .• 
keep the laterals stopped to one joint (961) ; take away all useless shoots. Peach- 
house : When the fruit begins to ripen, withhold water both at the roots 
and over-head (1015) ; at the same time admit air freely (1011). Cherry-house : 
raise the temperature to 70° when the fruit is swelling oflf (1024), Fig-house : 
as the first crop approaches maturity, only sufficient water should be given to 
prevent the second crop of fruit falling off. Melons : regulate the Vines at an 
early stage of their growth ; after the fruit is set, put pieces of slate beneath 
it (1037). Continue to disbud waU-trees (1301) ; remove their coverings when 
danger from frost is over (1307) ; and wash the trees with soap-suds when the 
fruit is set (1311). Thin the fruit of the Apricot. 

JUNE. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

Asparagus : discontinue cutting (1483). Beans, put in the last crop (1392); top 
and earth up former crops (1394). Broccoli: sow Cape and Granges (1380). 
Cabbage: sow seed for Coleworts (1374). Capsicums: plant out on a warm border 
(1345). Carrots: thin to two inches apart (1429). Celery: transplant into trenches 
for an early crop (1516). Cucumbers : plant under hand-glasses (1082). Endive: 
sow for an early crop (1508). French Beans : make a sowing the middle of the 
month (1397). Transplant Leeks (1473). Transplant Lettuce. Peas : complete 
the S0A\dng of the marrow varieties (1390). Potatoes : earth up (1412), Radishes : 
sow as in last month. Savoys : transplant for an early crop (1376). Scarlet Run- 

3 A 



718 



A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. 



ners : make the last sowing (1398). Spinach: soav twice. Tomaios : turn out 
against walls (1342). Vegetable Marrow : plant under hand-glasses (1341). 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT. 

Pinery : pot the succession plants and suckers (949) : plunge in a brisk bottom 
heat, and shade (941). Vinery: as the fruit approaches maturity keep a dry 
atmosphere (971) ; a few leaves may be taken off or tied on one side where they 
shade the fruit (959). Peach-house : suspend nets or mats beneath the trees, and 
place in them some soft material to catch the falling fruit (998). Chej-ry-house : 
when the fruit is gathered, give the trees several good washings to destroy insects ; 
the house should also be smoked (1023). Figs : in pots must be duly supplied 
with water (1034). Melons : ridge out late crops, give air freely to ripening fruit 
(1037). Summer prune Vines against walls (984). Finally thin Apricots. Set 
traps for Wasps (357). Net Cherry-trees (1195). 

JULY. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

Borecole: transplant (1378). Transplant (1380). Transplant ^Srw^se/s 

Sprouts {IZn). Cauliflower: transplant fi'om the April sowing (1378). Cabbage: 
sow in the last week for a crop to come in in May (1372). Celery : transplant into 
trenches (1516). £7ic?iye ; make a second sowing (1508). French Beans : eavth 
up, and make the last sowing the latter end of the month (1397) Lettuce : make 
a sowing the first and last week (1505). Peas: make two last sowings of early 
sorts (1390). Radishes : sow on a cool border (1444). 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT. 

Pinery : discontinue watering those plants which are ripening their fruit (946) 
keep a moist atmosphere m the succession house. Vinery : carefully avoid raising 
a dust when the fruit is ripe (971) ; give air freely. Peach-house : when the 
fruit is all gathered, give the trees several good washings over-head ; give abun- 
dance of air till the leaves begin to decay, when the lights may be removed (1008). 
Cherry-trees in pots should now be placed in a shady situation (1025). Fig- 
house : when the first crop is gathered, water the trees liberally to bring forward 
the second crop. Melons : pay proper attention to the plants in the open air 
(1045). Finally thin wall-fruit (1303). Prune and tie espalier trees (1150). 
Bud fruit trees (676). Pot Strawberry runners for forcing (1091). Mat Currants 
and Gooseberries to preserve them (1222). Stop the shoots of Vi?ies against walls 
two joints above the fruit. 

AUGUST. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

American Cress : sow to stand the winter (1528). Transplant the main crops of 
Borecole (1378) ; and Broccoli (1380). Cabbage : sow for main spring crop (1372); 
transplant for Coleworts (1374). Carrots : sow to stand the winter (1429). Cauli- 
flowers : transplant to come in during the autumn (1379); sow for the main spring 
crop (1379). Celery : transplant into trenches (1516) ; and earth up for blanching 
(1517). Endive : make the last sowing (1508); and transplant from former sow- 
ings. Lettuce : sow for standing through the winter (1505) ; transplant from 
former sowings. Onions : sow for standing through the winter (1464). Radishes : 
sow the winter varieties (1444). Savoys : transplant the main crop (1376). Scarlet 
Runners : earth up and stick (1398). Spinach : sow the main winter crop (1450). 
Turnip : sow the winter crop (1421). 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT. 

Pinery : pot the succession plants hito their fruiting-pots (945) ; plunge into a 
good heat, and shade till they begin to grow again (941}. Vinery: syringe the 



A 3I0NTIILY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. 



119 



Vines, and give them a root- watei'ing after the fruit is cut, to prevent the leaves decay- 
ing prematurely (971). Peach-house : the light may be taken off the early house, 
and used for the purpose of forwarding Grapes against walls. Fig-house : syringe 
the trees frequently to keep down insects (1033). Make new plantations of Straw- 
berries (1244). Cut down the old canes of Raspberries when the fruit is gathered 
(1232). Keep the shoots of wall-trees nailed in; displace all laterals. Stop the 
laterals of Vines to one joint. Continue to hudi fruit-trees as in last month, 

SEPTEMBER. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

Cabbage: prick out from last month's sowing (1372). Celery: earth up for 
blanching (1517). Chervil: sow for winter use (1536). Curled Cress: sow for 
winter use (1527). Endive: transplant (1508) ; and tie up for blanching (1509). 
Mushrooms: Make beds for winter use (1114). Onions: pull up and house them 
when dry (1471). Parsley: cut down a portion of the spring sowing (1534). Potatoes: 
take up the early sorts (1416). Purslane: sow for winter use (1543). Shallots 
(1474) and Garlic (1475) should now be taken up. Dig up vacant ground (531 ). 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT, 

Pinery : pot suckers that have been taken off fruiting-plants ; disroot and repot 
the old stumps (944) ; prepare the fruiting-house for the fruiting-plants. Vinery : 
the lights of the early forced-house should now be left open night and day (971) ; 
or they may be taken off if repairs are required. Peach -house : if any vacancies 
are to be filled up, take out the old soil and replace it with fresh (1001) ready for 
planting next month. Protect out-door Grapes from wasps by bagging the bunches. 
Gather fruit as it ripens (930). Expose wall-fruit to the sun and air to give it 
flavour and colour. Continue to make new Strawberry plantations as in last month. 

OCTOBER. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

Artichokes : tie up the leaves for producing the chai'd (1496). Asparagus : cut 
down and winter-dress (1482). Beet : dig up and lay in sand (1435). Cabbage : 
plant out for the main crop (1372). Cardoons : tie up the leaves for blanching 
(1499). Carrots: take up the main crop (1430). Cauliflower r prick out under 
hand-glasses, and into frames (1379). Cucumbers : make beds, and sow seed for 
early crops (1054). Lettuce: plant out for the main spring crop (1505). Pars- 
neps : take up and preserve in sand (1434). Potatoes: take up the main crops 
(1416). Tomatoes : gather the unripe fruit and lay in a forcing-house. Dig and 
trench ground during dry weather, 533, 534. 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT. 

Pinery : the plants intended for fruiting next season should now be got into the 
fruiting-house, if they were not put in when potted ; only partially plug the pots at 
first (946) ; plant all the remaining suckers in spent tan or a dung-bed (941). 
Vinery : As soon as the leaves have fallen from the Vines, prune them (962, 963) ; 
take off the loose rough bark, and wash them (971). Peach-house : fill vacancies 
with trees from the walls in the open garden (1003) ; take up and plant carefully 
(737). Pot cherry-trees for forcing (1020). Withhold water from fig-trees when 
the fruit is gathered. Melons : keep up the heat of the beds, to forward the 
ripening of the late fruit. Gather any remaining fruit (931). Plant fruit-trees 
of all sorts (737, 893). Prune Currants (1228) and Gooseberries (1220). 

NOVEMBER. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

Artichokes: cover the roots with litter (1495). Beans: sow first crop (1392). 
Cauliflowers : protect those which have formed heads from frost (1379). Celery: 

8 A 2 



720 



A MONTHLY CALENDAR OP OPERATIONS. 



take every favourable opportunity to earth it up (1517). Cucumbers : ridge out 
the plants in the fruiting-beds (1057). Endive : preserve from fi'ost (1510). 
Horse Radish : dig up for winter use (1547). Jerusalem ArlichoJces : take up for 
winter use (1418) Peas : sow for an early crop (1388). Salsify : dig up for winter 
use (1438). Scorzonera : dig up for winter use (1437). Sea-kale : clear away the 
decayed stems and leaves (1490). Preserve culinary vegetables from frost (857). 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT. 

Pinery : water the plant cautiously at this season ; those planted on a dung-bed 
will require none : admit air at every favourable opportunity (943). Vinery ; 
protect the border where the Vines of the early forcing-house are growing out- 
side (956). Peach-house : prune (994) and dress the trees (1010) as soon as the 
leaves have fallen. Cherry-house : if the lights have been taken off, they should 
now be replaced, but left open night and day, unless the weather is severe. The 
trees should now be pruned. Pot Fig-trees for forcing (1034). Continue to plant 
all sorts of fruit-trees, as in last month. Protect Fig-trees (1323). Prune the 
Apple (1149), Pear (1168), Plum (1207), Cherry (1192), Filbert (1260), and 
Gooseberry and Currant, as in last month ; also nail and tie those against walls and 
espaliers. Look over the fruit in the fruit-room (931). Mulch newly-planted 
fruit-trees, to protect them from, frost. 

DECEMBER. 

VEGETABLE DEPARTMENT. 

Asparagus : take up roots for forcing (1096). Celery: protect during severe 
frosts (1517). Cucumbers: attend to the linings of the beds (1061), French 
Beans: plant in pots for forcing (1 104). Mushrooms: keep a moist and steady 
temperature in the house (1111). Radishes : sow on a hotbedfor early use (1108). 
Rhubarb: take up roots, and pot for forcing (1098). Sea-kale: take uproots 
carefully, for forcing (1097). Small Salad : keep a succession, by sowing once a 
week (1107). Prepare materials for hotbeds (842). 

FRUTT DEPARTMENT. 

Pinery : Slightly increase the temperature of the fruiting-house (946) ; if there 
is a great declination of bottom-heat, add a little fresh tan between the pots. 
Vinery : Put on the lights, if they have been removed, so as to protect the Vines 
from severe frost (969). Peach-house : after the trees are tied to the trellis, take 
away a little of the loose, dry top-soil ; slightly dig the border (1010), so as not to 
injure the roots, and add some fresh soil (997). Cherry-house : Fix the trees to 
the trellis, and make preparations for forcing next month. Fig-house : the frost 
should be kept out (1035); and if the trees need any pruning, it should now be 
done. Continue to prune and nail in mild weather. Partially unnail the shoots of 
Peach and Nectarine trees. Protect Strawberries in pots (1091), and all fruit- 
trees intended for forcing. Dig fruit quarters where pruning is completed (928). 

NOVEMBER, DECEMBER, AND JANUARY. 
The young gardener will have leisure during the long evenings of these three 
months to improve himself by reading, to which he should add writing and drawing, 
including of course arithmetic and mensuration. In these days, when the em- 
ployers of gardeners are readers of gardening books, and often possess a consider- 
able knowledge of vegetable physiology, the young man who does not occupy every 
moment of his spare time in improving himself, has no chance whatever of getting 
a good situation as head gardener. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



*;^* The pages are referred to ; not the paragraphs. 

AcETARiACEous esculcDts, Substitutes for, 683 
Acrogens, orders belonging to, 16. 

Air and ventilation necessary to plants in a growing state, 88 ; mode of heating and 

ventilating on Mr. Penn's principle, 85 
Alisanders, culture of, 680 
Alliaceous plants, substitutes for, 665 
Almond, its use, &c., 595 
Amphibious animals, their uses in gardens, 114 
Angelica, its use and culture, 688 
Annular budding, how performed, 308 

Apple, history of, 528 ; uses of and properties of a good one, 529 ; number of 
varieties of, and a selection of early and late dessert sorts, 530 ; a selection of 
early and late kitchen sorts, 532 ; list of dessert and kitchen, for espaliers, dwarfs, 
or trained standards, 428 ; a select list for an orchard, 431 ; selection of sorts for 
making cider, and valuable sort for cottage gardens, 533 ; principles to be observed 
in selecting varieties, 534 ; modes of propagation, 535 ; soil and situation best 
adapted for, and mode of bearing, pruning, and training, 536 ; summer and winter 
pruning of dwarfs, espaliers, and those against walls for the first ten years of their 
growth exemplified, 537 ; gathering and keeping, 543 ; diseases, insects, &c. to 
which the trees are liable, with modes of eradication, 544 

Apricot, a selection of the best sorts, and the propagation of the trees, 596 ; planting, 
pruning, and general management of, 597 ; a few remarks on forcing the, 487 

Artichoke, culture of, 670; culture of, for producing the chard, 671 

AVum maculatum, a native plant, the roots of which are sometimes used as a sub- 
stitute for arrow-root, 656 

Asparagus, soil suitable for, and mode of sowing or planting, 665 ; general culture 
of, 666 ; particulars of the mode of forcing, 516 ; thrives best in wet-bottomed 
soil, 713 

Asparagaceous esculents, substitutes for, 672 

Asphalte roofing, its use in affording protection to glass roofs, 161 

Atmosphere considered with reference to the culture of plants, 67 ; its constituent 

parts, 67 ; agitation of, promotes the vigour of plants, 83 
Atmospheric moisture, much not necessary in greenhouses, 87 ; moisture always 

present, 76 ; to measure the degree of, 76 ; necessary to plants, 77 ; at perfect 

command in hothouses, 79 ; condensation of, on the glass of hothouses, 80 ; 

moisture necessary in plant structures, 215 ; method of procuring, 216. See 

Table in p. 703. 

Balm, its use, &c., 694 

Banana, history of, 512 ; construction of a house for, and mode of cultivation, 513 ; 

list of varieties of, 601 
Basil, culture of, 691 

Baskets, method of making, 148 ; uses of, 151 
Bean, a selection of varieties and their culture, 634 

Beet, the Red, selection of varieties and their culture, 651 ; culture of the Spinach 

and Chard, 658 
Bell glasses, 152 

Bellows, fumigating, 156; powdering, 157 
Berberry, use of, and mode of cultivation, 580 



722 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Birds, their nature, and the orders to which they belong, 115 ; modes of deterring, 

119 ; to destroy, 120 
Blanching, vegetables which require it, and means by which it is effected, 389 
Blight, by what produced, 126 
Boiler, size of, for heating by hot water, 207 
Borage, its use and culture, 686 
Borecole, culture of, 624 
Botanic stoves described, and their uses, 223 
Boxes foi plants, 145 

Broccoli, varieties of, and their culture, 626 
Brussels Sprouts, culture of, 624 

Budding, uses and principles of, 300 ; mode of performing, 302 ; shield, 303 ; flute, 

307 ; annular, 308 ; bud^grafting, 702 
Buds, the developement of, explained, 22 
Bulbs, described, 30 
Burnet, use of, 681 

Cabbage, varieties of, and mode of culture, 622 ; culture of the Chinese, 627 ; tribe, 

general culture and management of, 627, and 714 ; Substitutes for the, 630 
Calyciflorse, orders belonging to, 12 

Canker, 123 ; its preventive and cure, 124. See note in p. 710. 
Cap to prevent worms from entering pots, 96 
Caper, culture of the, 689 

Caps, mode of making oiled paper, for protecting flowers, 162 

Capsicum, use and culture of, 607 

Cardoon, use, culture, and cookery of, 671 

Carnations, mode of layering, 276 

Carrot, selection of varieties, and their culture, 649 

Caterpillars on gooseberry bushes, to destroy, 711 

Cauliflower, culture of, 624 ; a late variety quite distinct form the early variety, 713 
Celeriac, culture of, 680 

Celery, selection of varieties, and culture of, 677 
Chamomile, its native locality, &c., 693 
Chapman's new spring potatoes, 642 

Charcoal, its use in striking cuttings, 263 ; in the culture of plants generally, more 
especially in pot-culture as practised by Mr. Barnes, 702, 706 

Cherry, history and general treatment of, in a forcing-house, 480 ; construction of 
a house for forcing, 480 ; kinds best adapted for forcing, and time of commencing 
to force, 481 ; insects to which the trees are subject, with the means of eradicating 
or destroying them, 481 ; treatment of plants in pots, 482 ; forcing by a tempo- 
rary structure, and the German practice of forcing, 483 ; use of, and a selection 
of the best sort for dessert, arranged in the order of their ripening, 553 ; sorts for 
preserving ; a selection of sorts for a small garden, and for the north of Scotland, 
o54 ; mode of propagating, and general management of, 554 j a Dutch Cherry 
garden described and figured, 556 

Cherries, for espaliers, dwarfs, or standards, 428 ; for an orchard, 433 

Chervil, culture of, 684 

Chesnut, use of, and management of the trees, 578 

Chiccory, mode of forcing, 518 

Chive, culture of, 664 

Citron, see Orange 

Cleft-grafting, how performed, 291 

Climbing plants, wire frame-work for, 355 

Clipping, its object, and mode of performance, 236 

Cold, in buildings with a northern exposure, 701 

Coniferse, propagation by cuttings of the order, 261 

Conservatory described, and its use, 223 

Coriander, culture of, 685 

Corn salad, culture of, 681 

Coroliiflorse, orders belonging to, 14 

Cranberry, culture of, 576 

Cress, selection of varieties, and culture of, 681 

Cucumber, history of, mode of culture in British gardens, and a list of the best j 



GENERAL INDEX. 



723 



early varieties, 494 ; particulars of their culture on a dung-bed, 496 ; management 
of the linings of dung-beds, 500 ; particulars of their culture in pits heated by 
linings, flues, or hot Tivater, with the mode of constructing a pit to he heated by 
flues, 503; construction of Corbett's pit, to be heated by hot water, 505 ; culture 
in pots in forcing-houses, 506 ; construction of Ayres's cucumber-house, 507 ; 
treatment of the plant in Ayres's house, 509 ; treatment necessary for the pro- 
duction of fine fruit for prize exhibitions, 510; particulars of their culture in the 
open air, 510 ; a selection of the best varieties of, 603 

Currant, a selection of sorts of red and white, and their culture, 566 ; uses of and 
culture of the black, 567 ; select list of, 430 

Cutting plants, mode of performance, 235 

Cuttings, principles of propagation by, 249 ; the plant and shoot to be selected 
for, 250 ; time of taking off, 252 ; preparation of, 253 ; the number of leaves to 
be left on, 253 ; manner of taking off, 254 ; treatment of till they are planted ; 
255 ; the best soil for, and depth to plant, 256 ; distance to plant, 257 ; after- 
treatment of, 258 ; glasses for covering, 258 ; watering, 258 ; temperature most 
suitable for, 259 ; striking in water, 263 ; striking in powdered charcoal, 263 ; 
different modes of forming plants from, 270; to induce plants to produce shoots 
for, 271. See the Notes in p. 701. 

Digging, how to be performed, 229 
Dill, use and culture, 685 

Disbudding and disleafing. See Pruning, and the note in p. 713. 
Division, propagation by, 280 
Draining, alters the condition of soils, 51 

Earthworm, natural history of the, 94 ; natural uses of, 95 ; injury done by the, 96 ; 

to destroy, 96 ; cap to prevent their entrance into pots, 96 
Egg-plant, use and culture of, 606 
Elderberry, its use, &c., 581 
Elecampane, culture of, 689 
Endive, culture of, 675 

Endogens, orders belonging to, 15 ; described, 21 

Engines, Read's patent, 154 

Esculents, substitutes for leguminaceous, 638 

Espalier rails described, 184; rail of cast iron, 426 ; strained wire, 427 
Evergreens, best season for transplanting, 320 ; mode of transplanting, and con- 
ditions to be observed, 322 ; machines and implements necessary for transplanting 
large ones, 323 ; mode of packing, 324 
Exogens, grand divisions of, 10 ; described, 21 

Fennel, its use and culture, 685 

Fermenting materials for supplying heat to pits and frames, 196 
Fig, history, and general particulars of culture under glass, 485 ; varieties best 
adapted for forcing, and practice of forcing in pots, 486 ; winter treatment 
under glass, 487 ; a selection of sorts, 598 ; propagation and culture, 599 
Filberts, selection of sorts, and management of the trees, 579 

Flowers, parts of described, 34 ; to cause plants to produce them, 34 ; fertilization 

of, 35 ; the supposed cause of double, 408. See Note in p. 708. 
Fined walls, mode of constructing, 182 
Flues, various modes of heating plant structures by, 197 
Flute-budding, different modes of, and how performed, 307 
Forcing-houses, their uses, 224 
Fox-glove, a substitute for tobacco, 696 
Frame, a description of the common hot-bed, 176 

Frames, mode of making oiled-paper, 1 61 ; mode of fastening mats or other covering 
on, 394 

Frozen plants are recovered by early watering, 75 

Fruit, its excellence depends chiefly on the developement of the leaves, and their 
exposure to light, 35 ; gathering and preserving, 401, 440 ; packing, 403 ; exotics 
which may be cultivated for their fruit, 612 ; trees, &c,, which may be cultivated 
j for their fruit, 581 

' Fruit-trees, distribution of, in a kitchen -gar den, 420 ; select list of, for walls, 422 ; 
the distance from each other at which they should be planted against walls, 423 ; 



724 



GENERAL INDEX. 



mode of planting, 424 ; selection of, for espaliers und dwarfs, 424; construction 
of a coramon espalier-rail for, 425 ; cast and wrought iron espalier-rails for, 426 ; 
the object of training, 357 ; different modes of training in the open garden and 
agair.st walls, 358 — 375 ; beneficial effect of pruning, 337 ; method of causing 
them to produce blossom-buds, 345 ; distance from plant to plant at which espa- 
liers and dwarfs are to be planted, 329; select list of, for an orchard, 431 
Fruit tree borders, management of, 439 

Fruit-trees, and fruit-bearing plants, general remarks on their culture, 613 
Fruit-room, its construction, 225 ; management of, 441 

Fruits cultivated in British gardens, and their classification according to the natural 

system of Botany, 526; arranged according to the climate they inhabit, 527 
Furnace, best mode of constructing, for heating by hot water, 207 

Gardeners, house described, 224 ; wages of different grades of, 414 
Garden pots, sizes of, 142 ; ornamental, 143 

Gardens, order and keeping of, in what it consists, 409 ; rules to be observed in, 

410 ; general m.anagement of, 412 
Garlic, culture of^ 664 
Guava, culture of, 611 
Ginger, culture of, 689 

Glass, law of the reflexion of light from, 192 
Giazing, best modes of, 219 

Gooseberries, select list of, and distance they are to be planted from each other, 429; 
uses of, and a selection of the best sorts, 561 ; propagation and general manage- 
ment, 562 ; insects and diseases to which the trees are liable, with modes of 
eradication, 565 and 711 ; additional sorts enumerated, 711- 

Gourd, use and culture of, 604 

Granadilla, culture of, 612 

Grafting, various modes of, 287. See Notes in p. 702. 

Grapes, a selection of sorts, arranged according to the form and colour of the berries, 
582 ; selection of sorts of various flavours, 583 ; a selection of sorts for various 
purposes 584 ; general management of the Vines, 584 ; on growing them in pots, 
585 ; on growing them for making wine, 586 ; to produce two or three crops 
in one house in a season, 463 

Grape-vine, history of, and general particulars relating to the culture of, under 
glass, 452 ; form of house for the culture of, 454 ; propagation of, 454 ; mode 
of pruning and training against walls, 455, 468 ; mode of culture under glass at Oak- 
hill Gardens, 457 ; a diary of the course of culture at Oakhill Gardens, 459; mode of 
culture on walls and against cottages, 464; pruning and training of, on Mr. 
Hoare's system, 468 ; kinds most suitable for open walls, or for cottages, 472 ; 
insects and diseases of, with modes of prevention and cure, 472. 

Greenhouse described, and its use, 222; plants, propagation by cuttings of, 261 

Gum in fruit-trees, its causes, 125 

Hand-glasses, 152; description of a substitute for, 172 

Heat, conduction of, 67 ; radiation of, 68 ; soil a bad radiator and conductor of, 
70 ; means of counteracting the radiation of, 71 ; on retaining it by coverings, 215 
Hellebore, white, its use and culture, 696 
Henbane, its probable use in the destruction of insects, 696 
Herbaceous grafting, how performed, 293, 296 

Herbaceous plants, distinguishing character of, 18 : propagation by cuttings of hardy 

and half-hardy, 261 
Herbs, mode of forcing, 523 

Hoeing, its object, and mode of performance, 232 ; with a hoe in each hand, 713 
Honey-dew, its supposed causes, 126 
Horehound, its use, &c., 694 
Horse Radish, culture of, 686 

Hotbeds, materials used for, 391; preparation of materials for, 392; M'Phail's 
principle for, and formation of common, 393 ; management of, 394 

Hothouses, their use and situation, 187; most perfect form of, 188; form of for 
winter forcing, 189; advantages and disadvantages of curvilinear roofs to, 189; 
advantages of ridge and furrow roofs to, 190; materials used for, 192; contrac- 
tion and expansion of iron roofs, 193 ; modes of supplying heat to, 195 ; mode 
of heating them on Mr. Penn's principle, 85 ; uniform degree of moisture pro- 
duced by it, 86 ; difference of the heat of the glass internally and externally, 82 ; 



GENERAL INDEX. 



725 



advantages of maintaining a high temperature in hothouses during the day, and a 
low one during the night, 397; mode of fixing canvas shades to, 175; on sup- 
plying vrater to plants in, 220. 

Hot water, various modes of heating plant structures by, 201 ; on the size and best form 
of pipes, 204 ; the situation the pipes should be placed in, 205 ; size of boiler, 
207 ; rain-water should be used forheating by, 213 ; open gutters for circulating, 214 

Hybrid plants, the number of useful and beautiful ones in cultivation, 7 

Hyssop, its use, &c., 694 

Implements of horticulture, 127; the principles on which they are constructed, 128 
Inarching, uses and principles of, 297 ; mode of performing side and terminal, 298 
Indian Fig, culture of, 612 

Insects, their nature and classification, 99 ; transformation of, 101 ; food of, 102; 

distribution and habits of, 104 ; uses of, 105; means contrived by nature to limit 

the multiplication of, 105; enemies of, 106; means of destroying them, 108; 

articles required for destroying, 170 
Instruments used in horticulture — knives, 137 ; asparagus knife, hedge bills, 138 ; 

saws, pruning chisels, shears, 139 ; axe, verge and grass shears, scythes, 140 ; 

various others, 141 

Irouj in the form of an hydrate, injurious to vegetation, 48 ; roofs, contraction 
and expansion of, 193 

Jerusalem Artichoke, culture of, 646 

Kidney-bean, selection of varieties of the dwarf species, and their culture, 636 ; 
culture of the twining sorts, 636 ; particulars of the mode of forcing, 520 

Kitchen-garden, its situation, arrangement, extent, and soil, 416; should be well 
drained, trenched, and levelled, 417 ; accompaniments to a, 418 ; plans of two, 
419, 421 ; systems of cropping the, 435 ; general proportion of crops for one, 
434 ; general management of, 434 ; seed required for a garden of 1^ acres, 435 

Ladder, description of a folding one for hothouses, 168 
Lamb's Lettuce, see Corn Salad 
Lavender, culture of, 693 

Layering, operation of, 272 ; soil necessary for, 277 

Layers, the principles of propagation by, 272 ; the time they require to produce 
roots, 277 

Leaves, the developement of explained, 22 ; of endogenous plants should be preserved 
uninjured during their period of growth, 10 ; necessary to the existence of the 
plant, 32 ; principles of propagation by, 266 ; conditions required for the rooting 
of, 267 ; plants usually raised by, 268 ; propagation of bulbs by, 268 ; of plants 
rooted in charcoal, 269 

Leek, culture of, 663 

Lemon, see Orange 

Lettuce, mode of obtaining full-grown Cabbage Lettuce throughout the winter, 522 ; 

selection of vai'ieties, and culture of, 674 
Level, its use, 169 

Light, influence of, on the distribution of plants, 41 ; the effect of its absence on 
plants, 89 ; follows the same laws as heat, 90 ; radiation and transmission of, 90 ; 
refraction of, 91 ; the importance to plants of perpendicular, 91 ; means of in- 
creasing the efficiency of, 92; heat should be in proportion to, 92; absence of, 
occasionally necessary to some plants, 93 ; light and motion, 699, 700 

Lime, its constituent parts and uses, 48 ; action of on vegetable substances, 62 ; 
uses of, 63 ; compost, 63 

Lime, see the Orange family, 608 

Liquorice, its use, &c., 694 

Loam, varieties of, 49 

Lodge for under-gardeners described, 225 

Loquat, culture of, 612 

Love-apple, see Tomato 

Machines used in horticulture : — wheelbarrow, 153 ; garden syringe, pneumatic 
hand-engine, 154 ; barrow-engine, 155 ; fucnigatiug bellows, iron fumigating pot, 
156 ; powdering bellows, mowing-machine, and various others used in gardens, 157 



726 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Manures : — organic, or animal and vegetable, 56 ; leaf-mould, 56 ; green crops, sea- 
weed, malt-dust, rape-cake, haulm, rotten tan, peat soil, 57 ; urine, 58 ; hair, 
wool, feathers, leather, horn, rags, dead animals, night-soil, sugar-bakers' scum, 
bones, dung of animals, 59 ; saving and collecting of, 60 ; liquid, 389 and 707 

— inorganic, or mineral, 60 ; quicklime, mild lime, chalk, 61 ; marl, gypsum, sea- 
shells, 62 ; saltpetre, salt, 63 

Manures, mixed : — coal-ashes, vegetable ashes, 64; soot, street-sweepings, liquiil, 
65 ; application of, 66 

Marjoram, culture of the, 691 

Marigold, culture of the, 686 

Mats, mode of making straw, and their usefulness, 159 
Medlar, general particulars of its culture and management, 552 
Melon, history of, 487 ; summary of culture for the Cantaloup Melon, 488 ; practice 
of Melon culture in British gardens, 490 ; culture in the open air, 492 ; insects 
and diseases which the plants are subject to, with the mode of treatment to 
be adopted for their eradication, 493 ; a selection of the best varieties of, 602 
Mice, mode of catching them, 121 
Mildew, its causes and cure, 125 
Mint, culture of, 690 

Moisture, its influence on the distribution of plants, 41 ; the capacity of air for, 80 
Monochlamydese, orders belonging to, 14 
Morel, its locaUty, 692 

Mowing, its object and mode of performance, 238 
Mulberry, use of, and management of the trees, 577 

Mushroom, general particulars of its culture, 523 ; form of house for, and mode of 
culture, 524 ; mode of culture in a cellar, 525 ; mode of growing it in lawns and 
pastures, 692; in cow-houses and stables, 710 

Nasturtium, culture of, 686 
Nectarine, see Peach 

Offsets, propagation by, 279 

Onion, selection of varieties, 659 ; culture of, 660 ; culture of the Potato, and bulb- 
bearing sorts, 661. See Notes in p. 712 and 713 

Operations :— digging, 229 ; trenching, 230 ; hoeing, 232 ; raking, 233 ; rolling, 234 ; 
sawing, 235 ; clipping, 236 ; sowing, 243 ; layering, 272 ; grafting, 280 ; inarching, 
298 ; budding, 302 ; transplanting and planting, 309 ; potting, 329 ; pruning, 335 ; 
thinning, 349 ; training, 351 ; weeding, 378 ; watering, 382 ; blanching, 389 

Orache, culture of, 657 

Orange, the use and varieties of, 608 ; propagation and culture of the Orange family, 
610 

Orangery described, and its use, 223 

Organic matter in soils, necessary to fertility, 49 

Orchard, its formation and its situation, 430 ; select list of fruit-trees for, and the 
distance apart at which they are to be planted, 431 ; culture of the soil in 
the, 433. 

Oxalis Deppei, culture of, 654 

crenata, culture of, 655 

Parsley, culture of, 684 ; use and culture of the Hamburgh, 653 
Parsnep, culture of, 651 

Peach and Nectarine, history of, and general particulars relating to the management 
of, under glass, 472 ; construction of the house for, and kinds best adapted for 
forcing, 474 ; mode of training and pruning, 475 ; general treatment of from the 
commencing of forcing, 476 ; insects and diseases to which the trees are liable, 
with modes of prevention and cure, 476 ; on their culture in pots, 477 ; course 
of culture for two years at Stow Hall Gardens, 477 ; use of, and select list of 
Peaches arranged in the order of their ripening, 587 ; select list of Nectarines 
arranged in the order of their ripening, 588 ; propagation of, and culture of the young 
trees, 588 ; soil and situation best adapted for the trees, 589 ; mode of pruning 
and training, 590 ; management of the borders in which the trees are growing, 
592 ; modes of protecting the trees during winter and spring, 593 ; diseases and 
insects to which the ti-ees are liable, with modes of eradication, 594 ; essential 
points of Peach culture, 595 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Peach-trees, mode of protecting by canvas coverings, 173 

Pears, uses of, and properties of a good one, 545 ; number of varieties of, and a 
selection of dessert sorts, arranged in the order of their ripening and keeping, 
546 ; a selection of kitchen sorts arranged in the order of their ripening and 
keeping, 547 ; a selection of sorts for perry, and a selection of the best sorts for 
small gardens, 548 ; mode of propagation, soil and situation best adapted for, and 
method of pruning and training the trees, 549 ; select list of, for espaliers, 
dwarfs, or thinned standards, 428 ; select list of for an orchard, 432 ; beneficial 
effects of thinning the blossom-buds, 550 ; gathering and keeping the fruit, 
551 

Peas, a selection of varieties, and their culture, 631 ; mode of protecting early crops, 
633; meansofdestroyingverminby which theyareattacked, 634 ; modeof forcing, 521 
Pennyroyal, culture of, 690 
Peppermint, its use and culture, 693 
Peruvian Cherry, culture of, 600 

Pine-apple, history of, and general particulars of its culture, 443 ; mode of cul- 
ture at Oakhill Gardens, 444 ; construction of pits for the culture of, 445 — 448 ; 
sizes of pots used at Oakhill Gardens, 448 ; their growth in beds of soil, 450 ; 
to cause them to grow to a large size, 451 ; insects which sometimes infest the 
plants, and modes of destroying them, 452 ; selection of best sorts, 600 ; sum- 
mary of culture, 601 

Pine-stove described, 223 

Pine and Fir tribe, mode of grafting the, 294 

Piping, in what manner performed, 26 ? 

Pits, their construction and use, 220 ; their usefulness for plant structures, 224 
Plant structures, modes of ventilating, and the necessity of it, 217 
Plantations, object of thinning ornamental, 350 

Planting with the trowel, and in drills, 325 ; temporary mode of, 325 ; different 
modes of, 326, 327 ; general rules for, 329. See Notes in p. 703 and 704 

Plants, food of, must be reduced into a pulpy mass before being absorbed by them, 3 ; 
injured by being cut close to the ground in a young state, 3 ; leaves necessary to 
the growth of, 4 ; require rest, 5 ; means by v^hich they are multiplied, 6 ; light 
necessary to the growth of, 6 ; classification of, 8 ; the grand classes of the Natural 
System explained, 9 ; number of genera, species, and varieties of, 10 ; distinguished 
as evergreen, sub-evergreen, persistent-leaved, deciduous-leaved, ligneous, suffruti- 
cose,17 ; nomenclature of, 19 ; structure of, 20 ; sexes of, 23 ; fruit of, 24 ; functions 
of, 24 ; growthof described, 26 ; motion of sap in, 31 ; absorb and liberate gases, 33; 
the vigour of seedlings depends on the age of the seed, 37 ; geographical distri- 
bution of, 37; the important influence of temperature on the distribution of, 38 ; 
the influence of light on the distribution of, 41 ; the influence of moisture on the 
distribution of, 41 ; influence of soil on the distribution of, 43 ; stations of, 43 ; 
habitations of, 45 ; exhalation from the leaves of, 81 ; diseases of, 123 ; props for 
climbing, 163 ; wicker-work protector for, 171 ; garden labours with, 235 ; leaves 
of; rooted in powdered charcoal, 269 ; watering, mulching, and staking newly- 
planted, 328 ; object of growing them in pots, 330 ; drainage necessary to those 
in pots, 332 ; care of newly-shifted, 333 ; management of hair-rooted kinds, 334; 
modes resorted to for the annual resting of, 399 ; the advantages of resting of, 400 ; 
packing and transporting, 402 ; the process of cross-breeding for raising new 
varieties from seed, 406 ; precautions to be observed to prevent the promiscuous 
fecundation of, 406 ; modes of perpetuating, 407 ; duration of, 408 

Plants and animals, analogy between, 2 

Plum, its use, and a selection of dessert sorts arranged in the order of their ripen- 
ing, 558 ; selection of sorts for a small garden, and the general management of 
the trees, 559 ; gathering, keeping, and packing the fruit, 560 ; select list of for 
espaliers, dwarfs, or trained standards, 428 ; select list of for an orchard, 433 ; 
a few remarks on forcing the, 487 

Pomegranate, culture of, 599 

Potato, selection of varieties, and their culture, 639 ; Lancashire practice of plant- 
ing, 642 ; modes of obtaining young ones during the winter, 643 ; taking up and 
preserving the crop, 645 ; particulars of the mode of forcing, 5 19. See Notes in p. 714 

Potting, its object and mode of performance, 330, 331 ; time and season for, 334 ; 
importance of using rough turfy soil mixed with stones, &c, 616 and 706 

Propagation, principles of, 239 ; by seed, 240 ; by cuttings, 249 ; by joints and 



728 



GENERAL INDEX. 



nodules, 264 ; by bulbs, tubers, and tubercles, 266 ; by bulb-bearing leaves, 266 ; 

by leaves, 266 ; by cuttings, 270 ; by layers, 272 ; by suckers, 277 ; by slips, 278 ; 

by runners, 279 ; by offsets, 279 ; by division of tbe root, 280 ; by grafting, 280 ; 

by inarching, 297 ; by budding, 300 
Props for climbing-plants, 163 ; to increase the durability of wooden, 164 
Protection, articles for, 158 ; materials used for, 390 

Pruning, principles and use of, 336 ; close pruning explained, 338 ; shortening-in, 
fore-shortening, spurring-in, 339 ; heading-in, close-lopping, lopping, snag- 
lopping, lopping-in, 340 ; cutting down, stopping the shoots, 341 ; disbarking, 
ringing, 342 ; disbudding, disleafin?, 343 ; clipping, root-pruning, 345 ; seasons 
for, 348. See Notes in p. 704—706. 

Pumpkin, or Pompion. use and varieties of, 604 ; culture of, 605 

Purslane, culture of, 685 

Quadrupeds, a notice of the smaller, injurious to gardens, 120 ; means of destroying 

and deterring them, 121 
Quince, general particulars of its culture and management, 551 

Radish, selection of varieties and their culture, 653 ; mode of forcing, 522 
Raking, its object and mode of performance, 233 
Rampion, culture of, 672 
Raspberries, select list of, 430 

Raspberry, uses of, and a select list of sorts, 567 ; propagation and culture of, 568 
Reed walls, mode of constructing, 183 

Rhubarb, propagation and culture of, and a selection of the best varieties, 688 ; 

particulars of the mode of forcing, 518 ; medicinal, mode of preparing, 693 
Ringing, its effects on fruit-trees, 342 
Rocambole, culture of, 664 

Rogers's conical boiler and hot-water apparatus described, 208 ; best fuel for, 211 ; 

subsequent improvements in, 700 
Rolling, its object, 234 

Roots, propagation by cuttings of, 262 ; root-grafting, how performed, 293 — 295 ; 

pruning, its beneficial effects iu checking luxuriant growth, 345 
Roots, substitutes for esculent, 655 
Rosemary, culture of, 693 

Rubus, various species which may be cultivated for their fruit, 569 
Rue, its use, &c., 694 
Runners, propagation by, 279 

Sage, culture of, 690 

Salads, mode of forcing, 521 

Salsifjs culture of, 652 

Samphire, its use and culture, 689 

Sap, motion of in plants, 31 

Savory, culture of, 691 

Savoy, culture of, 623 

Sawing, mode of performance of, 235 

Scorzonera, culture of, 652 

Sea-kale, particulars of the mode of forcing, 517 ; its propagation and culture, 668 
Seedling plants, time and method of transplanting, 310 

Seed, what is necessary to the germination of, 25 ; process of germination in, 240 ; 
to cause them to germinate quickly, 241 ; the period necessary for the germina- 
tion of various sorts of, 242 ; the quantity of moisture most favourable to the 
germination of, 242 ; depth to which it should be buried to cause it to germi- 
nate, 243 ; degree of heat most favourable to the germination of, 243 ; atmo- 
spheric air necessary to the germination of, 244 ; to accelerate the gerniination 
of, 244 ; vitality of, 246 , season for sowing, 247 ; process of sowing, 248 ; quan- 
tity required for a kitchen-garden of one and a quarter acre, 435 

Seeds, what they consist of, and their vitality, 36 ; packing and transporting, 402 

Seed-room, its construction, 225 

Service, its culture and management, 552 

Shaddock, see Orange 

Shading, the object of, and materials used for, 390 



GENERAL INDEX. 



729 



Shallot, culture of, 664 

Sheds, their use for various purposes, 226 

Shelter, the means to produce, 84 

Shield-budding, different modes of, and how performed, 303 
Shrubs, distinguishing character of, 18 
Side-grafting, how performed, 292 
Skirret, use and culture of, 652 
Slips, propagation by, 278 

Slugs and snails, natural history of, 96 ; to destroy them, 98 
Small salads, plants used for, 682 

Soil, the influence of, on the distribution of plants, 42 ; peat, 49, 57 ; object of 
labours on the, 227 ; necessity of pulverizing, during dry weather, 228 ; the 
advantage of frequently stirring it, 388. See Notes in p. 707 and 709. 

Soils, considered with reference to horticulture, 45 ; origin and kinds of, 46 ; 
sandy, 46 ; gravelly, clay, 47 ; on the inclination of the surface of, 50 ; varieties 
of, indicated by the plants which grow on them, 50; improvement of, 51 ; altering 
the texture and composition of, 51 ; burning of, as a means of improving, 53 ; 
pulverizing of, necessary to their improvement, 54 

Sorrel, culture of, 658 

Spinach, culture of the common, 656 ; culture of the New Zealand and perennial, 

657 ; culture of the Patience, 658 
Splice or whip-grafting, how performed, 288 

Strawberry, history of, and the practice of forcing it, with a list of the sorts 
best adapted for the purpose, 514 ; time of beginning to force, and treatment of 
the plants after forcing, 515 ; culture of the Alpine, 516; use of, and a selection 
of the best sorts, 570 ; a selection of sorts in the order of their ripening, and 
one for a small garden, with their propagation and culture, 572 ; culture of parti- 
cular kinds, 575 ; methods of accelerating a crop of fruit in the open garden, 576 

Structures, portable, 171 

Subsoils, importance of good, 50 

Succory, culture of, 676 

Suckers, propagation by, 277 

Syringe, Read's garden, 154 

Scythes and sharp-edged implements, to keep from rusting, 1 29 

Tallies and labels, different forms of, 164 ; best method of painting and lettering, 167 

Tansy, culture of, 691 

Tarragon, its use and culture, 685 

Temperature, its important influence on the distribution of plants, 38 
Thalamifl5rse, orders belonging to, 1 1 
Thermometers, their uses explained, 169 
Thyme, culture of, 690 

Timber-trees, girdling and felling, 347 ; machine for girdling, 347 

Toads, their usefulness in destroying insects injurious to gardens, 94 

Tobacco, its propagation and culture, 694; mode of curing for garden purposes, 695 

Tomato, use and culture of, 606 

Tools used in horticulture, 129 ; common lever, crowbar, perforators, 130 ; dibbers, 
picks, draw-hoes, 131; Spanish hoes, lawn-scraper, thrust-hoes, spades, 132; 
turf-spades, verge-cutters, trowels, and spud, 134; daisy-weeder, transplanters, 
dung and tan forks, digging-forks, 135 ; rakes, besoms, beetles, and rammers, 
136; mallet, hammer, garden pincers, 137;' and instruments, chests of, where 
procured, 141 

Tool-house described, 226 

Training, the principles and operation of, 352 ; instruments required for, 376 ; 
comparative view of the different modes of, 376. See note in p. 71 1 

Transplanting, uses and theory of, 309 ; mode of preparing trees for, 312. Seep. 702. 

Trees, injured by being planted deeply, 4 ; distinguishing character of, 17 

and shrubs, propagation by cuttings of deciduous, 260 ; propagation by 

cuttings of evergreen, 260 ; mode of layering, 27*3 ; the time to transplant deci- 
duous, 311 ; different modes of transplanting, 312 ; on transporting and replant- 
ing, 314 ; on the treatment of, after transplanting, 317 ; on supporting and 
protecting newly-planted, 318 

Trellises and latice-work for fruit-trees and climbers, 186 

Trenching, its object and mode of performance, 230 



730 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Tropse^olum tuberosum, culture of, 655 
Truffle, where to be found, and by what means, 692 
Turnip, selection of varieties, and their culture, 647 
Cabbage, culture of, 627 

Utensils used in horticulture: garden-pots, 142; blanching-pot, 143; water- 
saucers, 144; plant-boxes, 145; watering-pot, 146; sieves, 147: pot-carriers, 
baskets, 148; bell-glasses, hand-glasses, 152; powdering-boxes, 153; various 
others, 153. 

Varieties, duration of, 408 ; new varieties of herbaceous plants, 409. See Notes in 
p. 709 

Vegetable culture, what necessary in, 5 

Vegetables, improvement of by cultivation, 404 

'' culinary : — systematically arranged according to their natural orders, 

616; number of genera of, which may be cultivated in British gardens, 619; 
horticulturally arranged, 619 ; propagation, and seed, saving of, 620 ; general re- 
marks on their culture, and soils best adapted for, 621 ; times of sowing and 
planting culinary, 438 ; gathering and preserving, 401 

Vegetable marrow, see Gourd 

Vegetation, stimulants to, 245 ; modes of accelerating, 391 ; modes of re- 
tarding, 395 

Vermin, necessity of destroying those injurious to gardens, 93 

Vines, propagation of by joints, 265 ; objections to depriving a vine of h portion of 
its leaves when the fruit is ripening, 709 ; causes of a deficiency of colour in the 
fruit, 709 ; the vine when forced not calculated to sustain uninjured a temperature 
below 40°, 709 

Walls, their use in gardens, 176 ; direction and best materials for, 177 ; height of, 
178 ; copings of, mode of fixing temporary rafters to, 179 ; construction of, 180 ; 
trellised, colouring the surface of, flued, 181 ; conservatory, 183 ; reed as a sub- 
stitute for brick, 183 

Wall-trees, to protect, 74 ; articles required for training, 167 

Walnut, use of, and management of the trees, 578 ; leaves, useful for destroying 

worms, 696 
V7asp and fiy traps. 111 

Water, the presence of, increases the tendency to spring and autumn frosts, 75 ; 

its importance in cultivation, 382 ; comparative effects of spring and pond, 383 ; 

application of to plants, 385. See Notes in p. 703, 704 
Watering-barrow for strawberries, 384 

— pots, 146 
Water-cress, culture of, 682 
Wedge-grafting, how performed, 292 
Weeding, and implements for, 238, 381 
Wicker-work hurdles for sheltering plants, 163 
Wormwood, its use, &c., 694 

Young gardeners, advice with reference to their improvement by reading, writing, 
drawing, &c., during the long winter evenings, 720. 



THE END. 



LONDON : 

BRADBlfRY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHrTEFRIARS. 



The following Errata occur in only a Part of the Impression. 



1, line 17, from the top, for " The two last," read " The last two." 



14, 




25, for 


' Bignonicese," read " Bignoniaceas," and /or "Cobaeacese," rearf " Coboeacese.' 


15, 




33, for 


" uniform," read " ensiform." 


15, 




45, for 


" seldom if ever branched," read " very seldom branched." 


16, 




5, for 


" Alisimaceae," read " Alismaceae." 


16, 




44, for 


" plants, read " plant." 


16, 




45, for 


" species or orders," read " species, or orders." 


55, 




42, for 


' Pulverizing," read " Pulverising." 


61, 




13, for 


" (200)," read "(201)." 


66, 




20, for 


' ovcr-croppiugs," read " over-cropping." 


67, 




9, for 


" the latter two," read " the two latter." 


76, 




13,/or 


' those clouds," read " clouds formed." 


77, 




8, for 


' between then ; it is," read " between them. It is." 


98, 




22, for 


" weazel being their natural enemies," read " weazels, being their natuval 
enemies." 


107 




18 for 


" great flocks," read " large flocks." 


128, heading, /or 


" construction and use," read " construction and uses." 


145, 


line 3,/or 


'fey a common saucer," read " for a common saucer," 


165, 




41, for 


" paint," read " part." 


167, 




4, for 


• boiling," read " boiled." 


169, 




18, for 


" plants," read " planks." 


174, 




19, for 


" hoops," read " hooks." 


178, 




31, for 


" south and north," read " east and west." 


179, 




20, for 


' or row," read " a row." 


192, 




14, for 


' vol. XX.," read vol. XV." 


193, 




24, for 


' greater," read " heavier." 


221, 




12, for 


•may be served," read " may be preserved. ' 


224, 




47, for 


" be forced," read " are forced." 


225, 




41, for 


" beach," read " beech." 


234, 




l,for 


'whence," read "which." 


235, 




40, for 


' the operation," read " this result." 


241, 




33, for 


• caryopsi," read " caryopses." 


255, 




21, for 


«' (D. dioica, form6sa and umbellata)," read " (D. diolca, formosa, and iim 

bellata)." 


289, 




34, for 


' 6," read " a." 


289, 




35, for 


' c," read " 6," 


293, 




28, for 


' peas," read " pears." 


327, 




48, for 


'requiring," read "acquiring." 


353, 




16, for 


" backs," read " bricks." 


369, 




21, for 


" proved," read " approved." 


369, 




47, for 


"left-hand," read "right-hand." 


369, 




50, for 


"right-hand," read "left-hand." 


395, 




33, for 


" are preserved," read " is prolonged." 


396, 




4, for 


" coal-cellar," read " cold cellar." 


396, 




26, for 


"lower," read " low." 



732 



ERRATA. 



PagedOl, — 4, for " its re&ch,"read " his reach." 

— 405, — 3, for " were placed," read " was placed." 

— 413, — 1 8, /or " are wanted," read "is wanted." 

— 422, — 35, first column, /or " Beurr^ Ranee," read " Beurr^ de Ranz." 

— 423, — 3, — — /or " Grisley Frontignac," reaa! Grizzly Frontignan." 

— 432, — 47, — — /or " Alfriston," read " Alfreston." 

— 432, — 30, second column, for " Beurre Ranee," read " Beurre de Eanz." 

— 433, — 5, — — /or " Jack worih Imperatrice," rea(i " Ickworth Imp6ratrice." 

— 433, — 10, — — ^or " Drap^e Rouge," reaci " Diapree Rouge." 

— 443, — 27, for "lowest," read "coldest." 

— 446, — 2, /or " three," read " twenty." 

— 460, — 45, for " Cease," read " Ceased " 

— 463, — 41, for " Grisley Frontignan," read " Grizzly Frontignan." 

— 470, — 46, for " shoot," read " arm." 

— 486, — 48, for " curb," read " kerb." 

— 487, — 41, for " Cucumis," read " Cucumis," 

— 512, — 36, /or " paradisiaoa," rearf " sapientum." 

— 512, — 41, /or " Mfisa p. Cavendishii," r<?arf " Miisa s. Cavendishii." 

— 512, — 42, for " M. p. ddcca," read " M. s. dacca." 

— 513, — 1, /or " Musap. ddcca," read " Musa s. ddoca." 

— 513, — 6, for "M. p. Cavendishii," read " M. s. Cavendishii." 

— 527, — 2, /or '« Cuciimis," rea-ii " Cucumis." 

— 557, — 10, /or " diances," read "distances." 

— 582, — 5, for " fruit," read " tomato." 

— 585, — 20, for "(0000)" read " (956)." 

— 589, — 35, for " mirabolan," read " myrobalau." 

— 626, — 41, /or "Tartarian, approaches," read "Tartarian, which approaches." 

— G56, — 3, for " rush nut, and some others," read " rush nut, 'Arum maculatum, and some 

others." 

— 684, — 38, for " parsley," read " parsnep." 



268 in p. 85. " Why motion of heated air should, when uniformly heated with the body, give 
relief, is not so plain." p. 85. Evaporation goes on more rapidly when the air is in brisk motion 
than is the case when it is still ; and evaporation produces cold : hence, although a still, and a brisk 
air may be of the same temperature, yet they produce a very different effect, as indicated by the 
sensations ; a brisk motion causing rapid evaporation, and occasioning a proportionably greater 
degree of cold on the surface, than is the case when evaporation goes on slowly in a still atmo- 
sphere— N. 

859 in p. 402. The eggs of insects, and seeds of weeds, in soil which is to be used for potting 
plants, are effectually destroyed by kiln-drying ; which is more especially necessary when the sur- 
face of pasture or meadow land is used. Turf from a loamy soil, kiln-dried, chopped up and mixed 
with thoroughly rotted dung, with the addition of a few stones, smaller or larger according to the 
size of the pots to be used, will grow well almost every kind of plant, except some of the more 
delicate of the hair-rooted kinds. — R. 



The following Notes ought to have appeared in p. 699 and 706. 




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